“I took action for my race”: Right-Wing Extremism as a Transnational Social Movement by Sadaf Mirzahi A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Sociology University of Alberta © Sadaf Mirzahi, 2020 ii Abstract Right-wing extremism is on the rise globally, but despite the growing threat from right-wing terrorists, there is inadequate contemporary scholarship to analyze their ideology, actions, and motivations. This study uses social movement theory to investigate the phenomenon of right-wing extremism. The study interrogates the personal motivations and/or larger political, ideological, and religious goals of right-wing terrorists in order to improve understanding of the right-wing extremist movement and its framing strategies. This study conducts framing analysis of seven right-wing terrorists’ writings and explores their ideation, repertoires of action, and capacity for transnational networking. Applying social movement theory, the study finds that the right-wing extremist movement’s diagnostic, prognostic, and motivational frames work together to mobilize adherents of the movement. The diagnostic framings of the movement focus on issues of race, religion, gender norms, and government corruption. The prognostic framings propose political violence and ‘separate development’. The motivational framings encourage movement adherents to take action by invoking concepts of honour, family and kinship, racial solidarity, and the collective good. Framing analysis of the terrorists’ writings demonstrate that these seemingly disparate individuals and their acts of violence are constitutive of an identifiable transnational social movement: right- wing extremism. Right-wing extremists use the Internet to gain supporters by framing their grievances, demands, goals, and tactics in a way that resonates with domestic and international potential supporters and proves valuable to new recruits. In turn, gaining international support demonstrates to existing members that they are not alone and encourages domestic mobilization. Moreover, the rhetoric, actions, and policies of populist and RWE leaders like Donald Trump are crucial when it comes to the success and growth of the RWE movement. Although significant iii attention is devoted to radical Islamist terrorist movements post-9/11, this paper concludes by arguing for a greater focus on the right-wing extremist movement in the age of Trumpism. iv Acknowledgement I thank Dr. Temitope B. Oriola, my supervisor, for his continuous support and guidance throughout the entire process. Dr. Oriola has been an excellent supervisor and mentor. I am deeply grateful for all his help and guidance throughout the years. I am grateful to my committee members, Drs. Kevin Haggerty and Yasmeen Abu-Laban, for their guidance and feedback. I am also grateful to the University of Alberta’s Sociology Department for funding my MA education. Many thanks to all the faculty members, supporting staff, and students who assisted me in one way or another. Finally, special thanks to my family for their support and encouragement throughout the years. v Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................................... iv Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background to Study................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Significance of Study ................................................................................................................ 3 1.4 Scope and Limitations............................................................................................................... 5 1.5 Definition of Key Terms ........................................................................................................... 7 1.6 Organization of Study ............................................................................................................... 8 Chapter 2: Literature Review .......................................................................................................... 9 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Right-wing Extremism as Terrorism ...................................................................................... 12 2.3 Statistics on Right-wing Extremism ....................................................................................... 15 2.4 Right-wing Extremism in US.................................................................................................. 17 2.5 Right-wing Extremism in Europe ........................................................................................... 21 2.6 Right-wing Extremism in Canada ........................................................................................... 24 Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................... 28 3.1 Social Movement Theory ........................................................................................................ 28 3.2 Framing ................................................................................................................................... 32 vi 3.3 Racial Formation Theory ........................................................................................................ 35 3.4 Christian Identity .................................................................................................................... 40 3.5 Whiteness Theories ................................................................................................................. 47 3.6 Right-wing extremism as a Social Movement ........................................................................ 50 Chapter 4: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 53 4.1 Data and Methods ................................................................................................................... 53 4.1.1 Obtaining Secondary Sources .............................................................................................. 54 Table 4.1. Relevant demographic characteristics of RWTs in this study ..................................... 55 4.2 Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 56 4.3 Validity of the Study ............................................................................................................... 58 Chapter 5: Diagnostic, Prognostic, and Motivational Frames ...................................................... 60 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 60 5.2 Diagnostic Framings ............................................................................................................... 60 5.2.1 Race Framing....................................................................................................................... 60 5.2.2 Religious Framing ............................................................................................................... 69 5.2.3 Gender Essentialism Framing ............................................................................................. 73 5.2.4 Anti-government Framing .................................................................................................... 82 5.3 Prognostic Framings ............................................................................................................... 85 5.3.1 Terroristic Violence Against the Other ................................................................................ 86 vii 5.3.2 Terroristic Violence Against Women ................................................................................... 88 5.3.3 Terroristic Violence Against the Government ..................................................................... 91 5.3.4 Separate Development ......................................................................................................... 93 5.4 Motivational Framings ............................................................................................................ 95 5.5 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 103 Chapter 6: Right-wing Extremism as a Transnational Social Movement ................................... 105 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 105 6.2 Transnational Nature of the Movement ................................................................................ 105 6.3 Forming Connections in the Age of the Internet .................................................................. 109 6.4 Right-wing Extremism and Political Process Theory