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Nanolaser Arrays Nanophotonics 2021; 10(1): 149–169 Review Suruj S. Deka*, Sizhu Jiang, Si Hui Pan and Yeshaiahu Fainman Nanolaser arrays: toward application-driven dense integration https://doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2020-0372 1 Introduction Received July 4, 2020; accepted September 8, 2020; published online September 29, 2020 In the quest for attaining Moore’s law-type scaling for Abstract: The past two decades have seen widespread photonics, miniaturization of components for dense efforts being directed toward the development of nano- integration is imperative [1]. One of these essential scale lasers. A plethora of studies on single such emitters nanophotonic components for future photonic inte- have helped demonstrate their advantageous character- grated circuits (PICs) is a chip-scale light source. To istics such as ultrasmall footprints, low power consump- this end, the better part of the past two decades has tion, and room-temperature operation. Leveraging seen the development of nanoscale lasers that offer knowledge about single nanolasers, the next phase of salient advantages for dense integration such as ultra- nanolaser technology will be geared toward scaling up compact footprints, low thresholds, and room- design to form arrays for important applications. In this temperature operation [2–4]. These nanolasers have review, we discuss recent progress on the development of been demonstrated based on a myriad of cavity designs such array architectures of nanolasers. We focus on and physical mechanisms some of which include pho- valuable attributes and phenomena realized due to tonic crystal nanolasers [5–8], metallo-dielectric nano- unique array designs that may help enable real-world, lasers [9–15], coaxial-metal nanolasers [16, 17], and practical applications. Arrays consisting of exactly two plasmonic lasers or spasers [18–22]. The applications of nanolasers are first introduced since they can serve as a such ultrasmall lasers are not just limited to on-chip building block toward comprehending the behavior of communications as their unique characteristics allow larger lattices. These larger-sized lattices can be distin- them to be used for biological sensing [7, 23, 24], super- guished depending on whether or not their constituent resolutionimaging[25,26],aswellasopticalin- elements are coupled to one another in some form. While terconnects [27]. uncoupled arrays are suitable for applications such as In most practical applications, however, a single imaging, biosensing, and even cryptography, coupling in nanolaser would never operate in isolation but rather in arrays allows control over many aspects of the emission tandem with multiple such devices. Doing so can enable behavior such as beam directionality, mode switching, novel applications that would otherwise be infeasible to and orbital angular momentum. We conclude by discus- achieve using an isolated laser. Therefore, the next logical sing some important future directions involving nano- step in the evolution of nanolaser technology is to realize laser arrays. large-scale, dense arrays of nanolasers by leveraging the Keywords: applications; arrays; coupling; dynamics; knowledge gained so far from the plethora of studies on integration; nanolasers. single such emitters. In this review, we focus on the progress made to- ward realizing nanolaser arrays. In Section 2, we elab- orate on the interaction between only two nanolaser devices. Such a dual nanolaser system can be consid- ered as a unit cell that can assist in understanding *Corresponding author: Suruj S. Deka, Department of Electrical and larger scale arrays. Section 3 discusses the distinct Computer Engineering, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, types of arrays demonstrated thus far and the unique CA, 92093-0407, USA, E-mail: [email protected] applications they can help enable. Finally, we conclude Sizhu Jiang, Si Hui Pan and Yeshaiahu Fainman, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California at San and present possible research directions yet to be Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0407, USA explored on this front in Section 4. Open Access. © 2020 Suruj S. Deka et al., published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 150 S.S. Deka et al.: Toward application-driven dense integration 2 Interaction between two resonators, represented by d in the schematic, is varied, while the modes supported by the system are recorded. The nanolasers authors first consider two extreme cases of when the cav- ities are spaced far apart (d = 90 nm) and when their Perusing the recent literature on array architectures of dielectric shields are in contact (d = 0 nm). For each case, nanolasers reveals that based on array size, most studies the electric field intensity is calculated, as portrayed in a can be segmented into two categories. If N is used to denote two-dimensional side and top cross section in Figure 1B. the number of individual elements (or nanolasers) in the When designed far apart, the TE011 modes supported by the array, the categories correspond to the cases of N = 2 and two equally sized nanocavities are independent and iden- N > 2. Prior to reviewing what occurs in larger arrays, it is tical (Figure 1B, left). This results from the metal between helpful to first consider an array of only two resonant the resonators damping any evanescent fields arising from nanocavities (i.e., N = 2). The primary reason for this is that the cavities, thus inhibiting coupling [35]. If d = 0 nm, a dual nanolaser system can be regarded as a type of unit however, the increased evanescent coupling between the cell or building block that can help explain the behaviors cavities leads to the formation of two new modes – the observed in larger lattices. Since lasers are inherently antibonding supermode (Figure 1B, middle) and the nonlinear systems, the interactions between them can bonding supermode (Figure 1B, right). The former exhibits produce rich and complex dynamics. The linewidth strong confinement of the electromagnetic field to the in- enhancement factor for semiconductor materials used in dividual gain media while the latter demonstrates an most gain media further complicates the physics involved electric field maximum in the central region between the [28]. In this scenario, limiting the number of nanolasers to two gains due to constructive interference. two simplifies the associated rate equations and can be a Furthermore, by varying d in discrete steps and stepping-stone toward understanding array behaviors. calculating the eigenmode wavelength (λ) and quality This section reviews a few aspects of the interesting physics factor (Q) of the cavity modes for each distance, the authors that can result from the interaction of two nanolasers. report a split in the two parameters as d is reduced (Figure 1C, top and middle). Since the cavities are purposed for lasing, the gain threshold, gth, of each mode is also 2.1 Creation of supermodes calculated (Figure 1C, bottom). Owing to a larger overlap with the dissipative metal, the bonding supermode expe- The coupling between two lasers can be introduced in riences a higher loss and is therefore less likely to lase as various near-field and far-field manners including evidenced by its higher threshold [35]. The creation of these evanescent coupling [29–37], leaky wave coupling [38], dissimilar supermodes due to evanescent coupling has and mutual injection [39]. Among them, evanescent also been reported in other material systems such as pho- coupling induced between two resonant cavities in close tonic crystals. Figure 1D depicts a schematic of two coupled proximity is the most common and feasible way to build photonic crystal nanolasers taken from the work of Hamel densely integrated nanolaser arrays and has already been et al. [36]. When pumped equally, their system supports extensively investigated in microscale cavities [29–34]. bonding and antibonding supermodes with the latter This type of coupling occurs when increased interaction becoming the dominant lasing mode at higher pump between the evanescent electromagnetic fields of the two powers (Figure 1E). Therefore, the formation of bonding individual resonators gives rise to a characteristic splitting and antibonding supermodes is one of the most basic of the observed modes in both frequency and loss [29, 32– phenomena to occur due to increased evanescent coupling 34]. The bifurcation is the consequence of the creation of between nanolasers. bonding and antibonding supermodes which are dissimi- It is important to note, however, that besides bonding lar in both their optical losses and frequency. and antibonding modes, various other types of superm- With advances in fabrication technology, the corre- odes can also be observed in coupled nanolaser systems. sponding higher precision has facilitated moving from the Parto et al. [40] demonstrate that depending on the size of microscale to the nanoscale. Consequentially, similar the metallic nanodisks used in their study, either ferro- coupling behavior has now been reported in coupled magnetic (FM) or antiferromagnetic (AF) coupling is nanolaser cavities. Deka et al. demonstrate such coupling exhibited between the constituent elements of the lattice. in a dual nanolaser system comprising two metallo- These FM and AF couplings arise due to the interaction dielectric nanocavities shown in the schematic in between the vectorial electromagnetic modes supported by Figure 1A [35]. In their design, the distance between
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