DOCSLIB.ORG

Design and Emergence in the Making of American Grand Strategy By

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Design and Emergence in the Making of American Grand Strategy By Design and Emergence in the Making of American Grand Strategy by Ionut C. Popescu Department of Political Science Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Peter Feaver, Supervisor ___________________________ Bruce Jentleson ___________________________ David Rohde ___________________________ Alex Roland Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Political Science in the Graduate School of Duke University 2013 ABSTRACT Design and Emergence in the Making of American Grand Strategy by Ionut C. Popescu Department of Political Science Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Peter Feaver, Supervisor ___________________________ Bruce Jentleson ___________________________ David Rohde ___________________________ Alex Roland An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Political Science in the Graduate School of Duke University 2013 Copyright by Ionut C. Popescu 2013 Abstract The main research question of this thesis is how do grand strategies form. Grand strategy is defined as a state’s coherent and consistent pattern of behavior over a long period of time in search of an overarching goal. The political science literature usually explains the formation of grand strategies by using a planning (or design) model. In this dissertation, I use primary sources, interviews with former government officials, and historical scholarship to show that the formation of grand strategy is better understood using a model of emergent learning imported from the business world. My two case studies examine the formation of American grand strategy during the Cold War and the post-Cold War eras. The dissertation concludes that in both these strategic eras the dominating grand strategies were formed primarily by emergent learning rather than flowing from advanced designs. iv Contents Abstract .........................................................................................................................................................................iv List of Tables ...............................................................................................................................................................vi Chapter 1: How Does Grand Strategy Get Made? .........................................................................................1 Defining Grand Strategy..................................................................................................................................3 The Making of American Grand Strategy: Design vs. Emergence ..............................................14 Research Design and Methodology .........................................................................................................30 Chapter 2: Design and Emergence in the Making of Containment ....................................................40 Kennan and Nitze as the Architects of Containment .......................................................................43 The Truman Doctrine....................................................................................................................................66 Marshall Plan and NATO ..............................................................................................................................76 NSC-68 and the Korean War.......................................................................................................................86 Eisenhower and Project Solarium ...........................................................................................................98 Rethinking Containment: Kissinger’s Grand Strategy of Détente........................................... 113 Ronald Reagan and the Culmination of Containment .................................................................. 123 Chapter 3: The Formation of a New American Grand Strategy – 1991-2008............................ 136 George H. W. Bush and the Origins of the AGL Grand Strategy................................................ 146 Bill Clinton and AGL in the 1990s ......................................................................................................... 174 AGL after 9/11: George W. Bush and the War on Terror........................................................... 204 Chapter 4: Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 230 The Interplay of Design and Emergence in American Grand Strategy ................................. 231 The Question of Success: Tentative Conclusions and Implications........................................ 238 References............................................................................................................................................................... 253 v List of Tables Table 1: Summary of Cold War....................................................................................................................... 234 Table 2: Summary of Post-Cold War Era.................................................................................................... 237 vi Chapter 1: How Does Grand Strategy Get Made? This is a thesis about the theory and practice of grand strategy in general, and American grand strategy in particular. Since the end of the Cold War, debates on American grand strategy have increased in prominence in both the scholarly and the policy-making communities. A general sense that a successor needs to be found for the Containment grand strategy that dominated America’s foreign policy in the Cold War led many scholars and commentators to propose new frameworks and master plans for guiding Washington’s actions on the world scene. Despite a significant literature on American grand strategy in both the scholarly and the policy worlds, however, most political scientists and policy analysts debate the merits of particular grand strategic plans and options without paying much attention to the process of formulating grand strategy. There is instead a fairly widespread implicit assumption that coherent grand strategies should be the product of strategic planning and design.1 This idea that grand strategies must be planned is based mainly on the Cold War experience, an era when the United States was generally regarded as following a Containment design laid out in the late 1940s. But what if this argument does not hold 1 There is a large body of literature on American Grand Strategy in the past two decades, mostly dedicated to debates about the merits of competing choices for the United States. Most scholars generally assume that strategies are planned in advance, and therefore they focus on determining what the right plans or frameworks should be. Some of the most influential works over the past twenty years include: Joffe, “Bismark or Britain”; Posen and Ross, “Competing Visions”; Gaddis, “ Grand Strategy of Transformation”; Art, Grand Strategy for America; Biddle "Grand Strategy after 9/11"; Layne, Peace of Illusions; Dueck, Reluctant Crusaders; Kupchan and Trubowitz, ”Dead Center”; Zakaria, “Future of American Power”; Drezner, “Obama Grand Strategy?”; Flournoy and Brimley, Finding our Way and America’s Path. A separate category includes policymakers and scholars who doubt the existence of American grand strategy, and believe such explanations are provided after the fact to assign more coherence to what was generally ad-hoc behavior. For example, see McDougall, “Grand Strategy?”; Gray, Irregular Enemies, and Betts, “Is Strategy an Illusion?” 1 under more careful scrutiny? What if the principles of the actual Containment grand strategy, as more and more historians now hold, were different from the planned designs of George Kennan and strategic thinkers who followed him? Conversely, after the Cold War, the lack of a widely accepted Kennan-esque master plan led many commentators to believe that US leaders have not had a grand strategy that was coherent and consistent. But what if the post-Cold War American foreign policy, despite lacking a grand design, nevertheless followed a number of key principles in much the same way as Containment did? In order to explain such outcomes, this dissertation argues that a different theoretical model of grand strategy formation would be required to replace—or at least complement—the design and bureaucratic politics paradigms that dominate the political science literature. I import and adapt such a model from the business world. The emergent strategy model, as described in the business-theory literature primarily by Henry Mintzberg, offers an alternative view of how grand strategies can form. This thesis argues that grand strategies are actually best understood as being formed by the interplay of design and emergence, rather than being either fully deliberate plans or ex-post-facto rationalizations of ad-hoc, non-strategic behavior. The dissertation will examine the two broad strategic eras in modern US foreign policy: the Cold War period (1945-1989), and the post-Cold War era (1990-2008), including the so-called “War on Terror.” In each of the case studies, the project will analyze the formation of the grand strategies that eventually came to shape American foreign policy in order to test the relative explanatory power of the emergence model compared to a planning model and an ad-hoc model. 2 Defining
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Seattle Foundation Annual Report Donors & Contributors 3
    2008 The Seattle Foundation Annual Report Donors & Contributors 3 Grantees 13 Fiscal Sponsorships 28 Financial Highlights 30 Trustees and Staff 33 Committees 34 www.seattlefoundation.org | (206) 622-2294 While the 2008 financial crisis created greater needs in our community, it also gave us reason for hope. 2008 Foundation donors have risen to the challenges that face King County today by generously supporting the organizations effectively working to improve the well-being of our community. The Seattle Foundation’s commitment to building a healthy community for all King County residents remains as strong as ever. In 2008, with our donors, we granted more than $63 million to over 2000 organizations and promising initiatives in King County and beyond. Though our assets declined like most investments nationwide, The Seattle Foundation’s portfolio performed well when benchmarked against comparable endowments. In the longer term, The Seattle Foundation has outperformed portfolios comprised of traditional stocks and bonds due to prudent and responsible stewardship of charitable funds that has been the basis of our investment strategy for decades. The Seattle Foundation is also leading efforts to respond to increasing need in our community. Late last year The Seattle Foundation joined forces with the United Way of King County and other local funders to create the Building Resilience Fund—a three-year, $6 million effort to help local people who have been hardest hit by the economic downturn. Through this fund, we are bolstering the capacity of selected nonprofits to meet increasing basic needs and providing a network of services to put people on the road on self-reliance.
    [Show full text]
  • Nuclear Deterrence in the Information Age?
    SUMMER 2012 Vol. 6, No. 2 Commentary Our Brick Moon William H. Gerstenmaier Chasing Its Tail: Nuclear Deterrence in the Information Age? Stephen J. Cimbala Fiscal Fetters: The Economic Imperatives of National Security in a Time of Austerity Mark Duckenfield Summer 2012 Summer US Extended Deterrence: How Much Strategic Force Is Too Little? David J. Trachtenberg The Common Sense of Small Nuclear Arsenals James Wood Forsyth Jr. Forging an Indian Partnership Capt Craig H. Neuman II, USAF Chief of Staff, US Air Force Gen Norton A. Schwartz Mission Statement Commander, Air Education and Training Command Strategic Studies Quarterly (SSQ) is the senior United States Air Force– Gen Edward A. Rice Jr. sponsored journal fostering intellectual enrichment for national and Commander and President, Air University international security professionals. SSQ provides a forum for critically Lt Gen David S. Fadok examining, informing, and debating national and international security Director, Air Force Research Institute matters. Contributions to SSQ will explore strategic issues of current and Gen John A. Shaud, PhD, USAF, Retired continuing interest to the US Air Force, the larger defense community, and our international partners. Editorial Staff Col W. Michael Guillot, USAF, Retired, Editor CAPT Jerry L. Gantt, USNR, Retired, Content Editor Disclaimer Nedra O. Looney, Prepress Production Manager Betty R. Littlejohn, Editorial Assistant The views and opinions expressed or implied in the SSQ are those of the Sherry C. Terrell, Editorial Assistant authors and should not be construed as carrying the official sanction of Daniel M. Armstrong, Illustrator the United States Air Force, the Department of Defense, Air Education Editorial Advisors and Training Command, Air University, or other agencies or depart- Gen John A.
    [Show full text]
  • Panama Treaty 8 77 2
    Collection: Office of the Chief of Staff Files Series: Hamilton Jordan's Confidential Files Folder: Panama Canal Treaty 8/77 [2] Container: 36 Folder Citation: Office of the Chief of Staff Files, Hamilton Jordan's Confidential Files, Panama Canal Treaty 8/77 [2], Container 36 THE WHITE HOUSE WASHINGTON August 30, 1977 TO: PRESIDENT CARTER FROM: HA1.'1ILTON JORDAN I-IY RE: MEETING FOR KEY PEOPLE AND INSTITUTIONAL LEADERS As you know, we are proceeding stimultaneously along several tracks in our Panama Canal Treaty strategy. We are bringing groups in fro~ target states, you are calling and meeting with individual Senators, and we are working through private groups and multinationals to reach specific Senators. I~ Tne~e still remains a large number of key people and groups who need a briefing and some exposure to you before they will get active. Our recommendation is for a meeting next week with a select group of these people. Through this effort, I I I Ir we should be able to generate both organizational support and key personal endorsements. Because of the nature of this group, it would probably require more than 15-20 minutes of your time. It would probably take a full hour. However, after this briefing, I believe that we could move rapidly on a lot of fronts simultaneously as opposed to approaching many of these same people one by one. Although there might be some persons in this group who would really have to be convinced by this meeting, by a~d large they will be kindly disposed toward support­ ing the treaty.
    [Show full text]
  • How Should the United States Confront Soviet Communist Expansionism? DWIGHT D
    Advise the President: DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER How Should the United States Confront Soviet Communist Expansionism? DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER Advise the President: DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER Place: The Oval Office, the White House Time: May 1953 The President is in the early months of his first term and he recognizes Soviet military aggression and the How Should the subsequent spread of Communism as the greatest threat to the security of the nation. However, the current costs United States of fighting Communism are skyrocketing, presenting a Confront Soviet significant threat to the nation’s economic well-being. President Eisenhower is concerned that the costs are not Communist sustainable over the long term but he believes that the spread of Communism must be stopped. Expansionism? On May 8, 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower has called a meeting in the Solarium of the White House with Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Treasury Secretary George M. Humphrey. The President believes that the best way to craft a national policy in a democracy is to bring people together to assess the options. In this meeting the President makes a proposal based on his personal decision-making process—one that is grounded in exhaustive fact gathering, an open airing of the full range of viewpoints, and his faith in the clarifying qualities of energetic debate. Why not, he suggests, bring together teams of “bright young fellows,” charged with the mission to fully vet all viable policy alternatives? He envisions a culminating presentation in which each team will vigorously advocate for a particular option before the National Security Council.
    [Show full text]
  • U.S.-China Relations: the Search for a New Equilibrium Ryan Hass
    U.S.-CHINA RELATIONS: THE SEARCH FOR A NEW EQUILIBRIUM RYAN HASS FEBRUARY 2020 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY it did not actively seek to change the existing order on a magnitude corresponding to China’s ambitions For over 40 years following President Richard Nixon’s today, nor did it have the capabilities to do so.) Third, first tentative steps in China in 1972, the relationship China’s rise from a low-wage manufacturing hub to between the United States and the People’s Republic a technology power has introduced friction into the of China (PRC) navigated many ups and downs, but economic relationship, as both economies increasingly generally developed along a trajectory of deepening move from being complementary to competitive with social, economic, people-to-people, and diplomatic one another. And fourth, unresolved questions about ties. In recent years, that trajectory has been broken. the nature of ideological or systems competition are Now, the relationship has reached what respected fueling tensions. China scholar David M. Lampton describes as a “tipping point.”1 This paper will explore how the relationship Looking ahead, the paper argues that Washington and reached its current moment, why the relationship has Beijing each will need to take steps to allow conditions been nose-diving, and what steps the United States to emerge over time that would make possible the could take to protect its interests in its relationship emergence of a new equilibrium for the relationship. with China going forward. Such an outcome would bolster each side’s confidence in their ability to protect their own vital interests, This paper argues that neither the United States prevent a mutually harmful deterioration in relations, nor China own a monopoly of responsibility for the and enable both sides to focus more on improving downturn in relations.
    [Show full text]
  • The Evolution of the U.S. Navy's Maritime Strategy
    U.S. Naval War College U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons Newport Papers Special Collections 2004 The Evolution of the U.S. Navy's Maritime Strategy John B. Hattendorf Follow this and additional works at: https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/usnwc-newport-papers Recommended Citation Hattendorf, John B., "The Evolution of the U.S. Navy's Maritime Strategy" (2004). Newport Papers. 20. https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/usnwc-newport-papers/20 This Book is brought to you for free and open access by the Special Collections at U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Newport Papers by an authorized administrator of U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. NAVAL WAR COLLEGE NEWPORT PAPERS 19 N A The Evolution of the U.S. Navy’s V AL Maritime Strategy, 1977–1986 W AR COLLEGE NE WPOR T P AP ERS N ES AV T A A L T W S A D R E C T I O N L L U E E G H E T R I VI IBU OR A S CT MARI VI 1 9 John B. Hattendorf, D. Phil. Cover This perspective aerial view of Newport, Rhode Island, drawn and published by Galt & Hoy of New York, circa 1878, is found in the American Memory Online Map Collections: 1500–2003, of the Library of Congress Geography and Map Division, Washington, D.C. The map may be viewed at http://hdl.loc.gov/ loc.gmd/g3774n.pm008790 The Evolution of the U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Remembering George Kennan Does Not Mean Idolizing Him
    UNITED STATES InsTITUTE OF PEACE www.usip.org SPECIAL REPORT 1200 17th Street NW • Washington, DC 20036 • 202.457.1700 • fax 202.429.6063 ABOUT THE REPORT Melvyn P. Leffler This report originated while Melvyn P. Leffler was a Jennings Randolph Fellow at the United States Institute of Peace. He was writing his book on what appeared to be the most intractable and ominous conflict of the post–World War II era—the Cold War. He was addressing the questions of why the Cold War lasted as long as it did and why it ended when Remembering it did. As part of the ongoing dialogue at the United States Institute of Peace, he was repeatedly asked about the lessons of the Cold War for our contemporary problems. George Kennan His attention was drawn to the career of George F. Kennan, the father of containment. Kennan was a rather obscure and frustrated foreign service officer at the U.S. embassy in Lessons for Today? Moscow when his “Long Telegram” of February 1946 gained the attention of policymakers in Washington and transformed his career. Leffler reviews Kennan’s legacy and ponders the implications of his thinking for the contemporary era. Is it Summary possible, Leffler wonders, to reconcile Kennan’s legacy with the newfound emphasis on a “democratic peace”? • Kennan’s thinking and policy prescriptions evolved quickly from the time he wrote the Melvyn P. Leffler, a former senior fellow at the United States “Long Telegram” in February 1946 until the time he delivered the Walgreen Lectures Institute of Peace, won the Bancroft Prize for his book at the University of Chicago in 1950.
    [Show full text]
  • World Bank Document
    Globalization and Potential As prepared for delivery Robert B. Zoellick President of the World Bank Group Public Disclosure Authorized at the 2008 Commencement of The Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies of the Johns Hopkins University “Good afternoon, President Brody, Dean Einhorn, students, alumni, and parents. It’s a great honor to be here to share this special occasion, and to congratulate all of you – students and teachers, family and friends, for the many achievements that today’s celebrations commemorate. This is an important milestone. It took considerable effort, and I expect sacrifice, to be sitting where you are now. You should be proud of what you have achieved. Congratulations. A Step Back: to 1908 Public Disclosure Authorized Most of you are probably thinking about what comes next. Even if you have a job lined up already, you’re wondering whether it’s going to make the most of the knowledge and skills that you’ve gained, and give you the opportunities you’re looking for to make your own contributions in various international fields. But sometimes it’s helpful to take a step back before plunging forward. So let’s turn the clock back…say, 100 hundred years. In 1908, there were fewer people around—the global population was less than 2 billion. Only about 90 million people, of whom 90 percent were white, lived in the United States, and more than half lived in rural areas. Parts of the southwest United States were still unsettled, and southern Florida was a wilderness of mangrove swamps. Here in Washington, DC, there was no SAIS yet.
    [Show full text]
  • The Ascendancy of the Secretary of Defense : Robert S. Mcnamara
    The Ascendancy of the Secretary ofJULY Defense 2013 The Ascendancy of the Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara 1961-1963 Special Study 4 Historical Office Office of the Secretary of Defense Cold War Foreign Policy Series • Special Study 4 The Ascendancy of the Secretary of Defense The Ascendancy of the Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara 1961-1963 Cover Photo: Secretary Robert S. McNamara, Gen. Maxwell D. Taylor, and President John F. Kennedy at the White House, January 1963 Source: Robert Knudson/John F. Kennedy Library, used with permission. Cover Design: OSD Graphics, Pentagon. Cold War Foreign Policy Series • Special Study 4 The Ascendancy of the Secretary of Defense The Ascendancy of the Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara 1961-1963 Special Study 4 Series Editors Erin R. Mahan, Ph.D. Chief Historian, Office of the Secretary of Defense Jeffrey A. Larsen, Ph.D. President, Larsen Consulting Group Historical Office Office of the Secretary of Defense July 2013 ii iii Cold War Foreign Policy Series • Special Study 4 The Ascendancy of the Secretary of Defense Contents This study was reviewed for declassification by the appropriate U.S. Government departments and agencies and cleared for release. The study is an official publication of the Office of the Secretary of Defense, Foreword..........................................vii but inasmuch as the text has not been considered by the Office of the Secretary of Defense, it must be construed as descriptive only and does Executive Summary...................................ix not constitute the official position of OSD on any subject. Restructuring the National Security Council ................2 Portions of this work may be quoted or reprinted without permission, provided that a standard source credit line in included.
    [Show full text]
  • Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Failed Rhetoric of Liberation
    Tu“Reenactdda ing the Story of Tantalus” “Reenacting the Story of Tantalus” Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Failed Rhetoric of Liberation ✣ Chris Tudda This article explores the relationship between public rhetoric and conªdential foreign policy decision-making during the Eisenhower adminis- tration. President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his Secretary of State, John Fos- ter Dulles, pursued two contradictory diplomatic strategies. On the one hand, they wanted to establish a globalist foreign policy.1 A key component of this strategy was “liberation policy”; that is, freeing the peoples of Eastern Europe from Soviet control. They believed they could best preserve globalism by “ed- ucating” the U.S. public and North American Treaty Organization (NATO) allies about the danger posed by the Soviet Union and the need for liberation. Eisenhower and Dulles consciously chose to use what I have called rhetorical diplomacy in order to achieve this goal.2 Rhetorical diplomacy involved the use of belligerent rhetoric in private meetings with allied and Soviet ofªcials and in public speeches, addresses, and press conferences. Publicly, the Eisen- hower administration embraced liberation policy while appealing to an audi- 1. I have used John Fousek’s deªnition of “American nationalist globalism,” or the belief that the United States, by virtue of its “national greatness,” possessed a unique responsibility “to check Com- munist expansion around the world.” See John Fousek, To Lead the Free World: American Nationalism and the Cultural Roots of the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), pp. 2, 7–8. Conversely, like Michael W. Miles and David W. Reinhard, I have described as “unilateralists” (rather than “isolationists”) those who wanted to stay out of world affairs and to avoid forming alli- ances.
    [Show full text]
  • Intelligence Analysis and Decision-Making Behind the Overthrow of Guatemalan Democracy
    Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports 2017 In Darker Shadows: Intelligence Analysis and Decision-Making behind the Overthrow of Guatemalan Democracy William R. Weber Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Recommended Citation Weber, William R., "In Darker Shadows: Intelligence Analysis and Decision-Making behind the Overthrow of Guatemalan Democracy" (2017). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 6928. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/6928 This Thesis is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Thesis in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Thesis has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. In Darker Shadows: Intelligence Analysis and Decision-making Behind the Overthrow of Guatemalan Democracy William R. Weber Thesis submitted to the Eberly College of Arts and Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History James F. Siekmeier, Ph.D., Chair Michelle M. Stephens, Ph.D. David M. Hauser, Ph.D. Department of History Morgantown, West Virginia 2017 Keywords: CIA; Guatemala; Analyst; Intelligence Community; Cold War; Eisenhower; Árbenz; Covert Action, Decision-making Copyright 2017 William R.
    [Show full text]
  • 156. to Geneva (11/16/1985 – 11/21/1985) File 2 (3) Box: RAC Box 10
    Ronald Reagan Presidential Library Digital Library Collections This is a PDF of a folder from our textual collections. Collection: Coordination Office, NSC: Records, 1983-1989 Folder Title: 156. To Geneva (11/16/1985 – 11/21/1985) File 2 (3) Box: RAC Box 10 To see more digitized collections visit: https://reaganlibrary.gov/archives/digital-library To see all Ronald Reagan Presidential Library inventories visit: https://reaganlibrary.gov/document-collection Contact a reference archivist at: [email protected] Citation Guidelines: https://reaganlibrary.gov/citing National Archives Catalogue: https://catalog.archives.gov/ WITHDRAWAL SHEET Ronald Reagan Library DOCUMENT NO. AND TYPE SUBJECT/TITLE DATE RESTRICTION 1. cable (63138) From State re: Modalities of President Reagan's November 21 11/12/85 Pl Visit to NATO. (2 pp.) ~- memo (9147) From Jack Matlock, et al. to Robert McFarlane re: Access to 11/13/85 Pl Presidential area in Geneva. (1 pp.) B. memo From Executive Secretary, DOS to Robert Mcfarlane re: Post- 11/12/85 Pl Geneva briefings: Geneva Participation of Senior USG Officials. (1 p.) 4. memo (8927) From Peter Sommer to William Martin re: Participants for Geneva 11/13/85 Pl Events. (1 p.) 5. memo (8927) From William Martin to William Henkel re: Parti cipation in n.d. Pl Geneva Events. (1 p.) ~ 6. memo (8927) copy of doc. 4. (1 p.) 11/13/85 Pl r7 . memo (8927) From William Martin to William Henkel re: Participation in n.d. Pl Geneva Events. (1 p.) 8. cable (63088) From State re: Geneva Participation of Senior USG Officials . 11/12/85 Pl 2 pp.) COLLECTION: Coordination Office, NSC: Records, 1981-88 rs FILE FOLDER: 156 To Geneva (11/16-21/85) File 2 (3) 11/3/95 RESTRICTION CODES l'l'Hldentlal Re<:orm Act - 144 U.S .C.
    [Show full text]