The Role of Knowledge and Environmental Values on Consumer Beliefs, Attitude, and Purchase Intention Toward Leather Products

Home , Leather carving, Rawhide (material)

AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF

Elizabeth S. Becker for the degree of Master of Science in Design and Human Environment presented on June 11, 2014 Title: The Role of Knowledge and Environmental Values on Consumer Beliefs, Attitude, and Purchase Intention Toward Leather Products

Abstract approved:

Hsiou-Lien Chen Brigitte Cluver

Globally, it is estimated that over 2,518,200 tons of hides and skins were exported in the year 2011 alone, with an estimated world production yield of 23 billion square feet of finished leather (FA0, 2011; Mwinyihija, 2011). While some manufacturers have adopted eco-friendly production methods, most tanneries still practice the old-fashioned techniques, which can create negative impacts on the environment and the health of industry employees due to the generation of solid (e.g., chromium salts) and liquid (e.g., untreated water) waste full of toxic chemicals (Iyer,

& Mastorakis, 2009). While consumer behaviors and their purchase intentions related to their beliefs have been widely studied, researchers have not investigated consumer beliefs and attitude regarding leather production and whether their environmental values and knowledge impact their beliefs about leather products, attitudes towards purchasing leather products, and intentions to purchase leather products.

To fill in a gap in the current research on consumer behavior and using the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein, 1967), Dickson’s (2000) extension of the theory and

Dunlap’s (2008) New Ecological Paradigm as a guide, the purpose of this study was to investigate whether exposure to information regarding the environmental and health impact of leather production would ultimately change consumers’ beliefs, attitudes and intentions to purchase leather products.

A survey questionnaire was used to examine changes in consumers’ beliefs, attitudes and intentions to purchase leather products using a modified classical experimental design with a pre-test and post-test format. Two Oregon State University undergraduate classes in the Department of Design and Human Environment were recruited to participate in the study. One class received an informational treatment lecture on leather production, while the other did not.

A total of 72 Oregon State University undergraduate students participated in the study. The findings supported the previous works of the Theory of Reasoned Action and its extension, arguing that consumer knowledge and beliefs regarding specific products impact consumer attitudes, specifically consumer attitude toward leather production’s health impact. It was also found that within the experimental group relative to their New Ecological Paradigm score, students with a higher New

Ecological Paradigm score were found to have more significant changes when comparing pre-test and post-test results at an individual level.

These findings provide evidence to support the importance of understanding how knowledge impacts consumer beliefs, attitudes and purchase

intentions. Participants in the experimental group demonstrated a change in beliefs toward leather production and its health impact on tannery workers after exposure to the treatment lecture. While beliefs and attitudes toward leather production were not impacted by the treatment lecture, this study still provides information to those hoping to have an impact on consumers via knowledge delivery. Having an understanding of how beliefs, attitudes and purchase intention are impacted by information provides retailers with valuable insight of how to effectively deliver their information to consumers that will reach them on a deeper level. This will help them to better reach their target market, give their messages more impact and influence consumers’ beliefs and future buying decisions. Future research in this field will add to the growing research area regarding knowledge and its impact on consumers.

The Role of Knowledge and Environmental Values on Consumer Beliefs, Attitude, and Purchase Intention Toward Leather Products

by Elizabeth S. Becker

A THESIS

Submitted to

Oregon State University

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of

Master of Science

Presented June 11, 2014 Commencement June 2015

Master of Science thesis of Elizabeth S. Becker presented on June 11, 2014

APPROVED:

Co-Major Professor, representing Design and Human Environment

Associate Dean of the School of Design and Human Environment

______Dean of the Graduate School

I understand that my thesis will become part of the permanent collection of Oregon State University libraries. My signature below authorizes release of my thesis to any reader upon request.

Elizabeth S. Becker, Author

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I must thank my Co-Major Professors Dr. Hsiou-Lien

Chen and Dr. Brigitte Cluver. Without your constant support, encouragement, patience and understanding I would have been lost. I cannot thank you enough for teaching me, inspiring me, sharing your wealth of knowledge with me and for most of all, believing in me. I am so privileged to have had the opportunity to work with you both.

I would also like to thank Dr. Leslie Burns and Dr. Larry Roeper for being members of my graduate committee. Your insight and suggestions really helped to make my thesis something I can be proud of.

To Sarah Song, even while working on your Doctorate you were willing to aid me and answer my many questions without pause. I am so grateful for your generosity, intelligence and kindness.

To Randy Miller, your sincere willingness to help and positive attitude made all the difference in completing this. You were able to turn something so overwhelming into an amazing accomplishment waiting to happen. You truly have a gift for bettering the lives of others and mine is no exception

To my friends/”family” new and old, I could not have finished this project without you. The joy you bring to my life is truly immeasurable.

To Curt, I cannot thank you enough. Your genuine and never-ending support means the world. I cannot explain how beyond blessed I am to know you.

Last of all, I want to thank my parents, John and Sue. You are so intelligent, funny, supportive and loving. You always made me feel like I could do whatever I set my mind to and I owe my thirst for knowledge to you. I wish that everyone could be as fortunate as I am to have you as role models and parents. Everything of value I have ever done is not only because of you but to try and make you proud.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………………… 1

1.1 Leather Overview.………………………………………………………………..... 1

1.2 Problem Statement and Purpose of the Study……………………..…… 2

1.3 Objectives……………………………………………………………………..………… 3

1.4 Hypotheses ………………………………………………………………..….……….. 4

1.5 Definition of Terms…………………………………………………..……………… 5

1.6 Theoretical Framework………………………………………..…………………… 7

REVIEW OF LITERATURE………………………………………………..……………………… 9

2.1 General Properties……………………………………...…………………………… 9

2.2 Leather Production………………………………...………………………………… 10

2.3 Traditional Production Method………….…………………………………… 12

2.3.1 Pre-tanning/Beamhouse Operations…………..………… 12 A. Curing……………………………………………..……………… 13 B. Soaking………………………………………...………………… 14 C. Liming……………………………………..……………………… 14 D. Dehairing……………………………..…………………………… 15 E. Fleshing……………………...…..………………………………… 16 F. Deliming……………………..…………………………………… 16 G. Bating……………………..………………………………………… 16 H. Pickling………………..…………………………………………… 17 I. Degreasing………..……………………………………………… 17 J. Depickling……..………………………………………………… 17

2.3.2 Tanning Process…………………………………...………………… 18

2.3.3 Post-Tanning……………………………………..…………………… 19 A. Splitting………………………………………..…………………... 20

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page B. Reliming………………………………….…………………...… 20 C. Retanning…………………………….…………………………… 20 D. Dyeing……………………………..……………………………… 20 E. Fatliquoring…………………..………………………………… 21 F. Finishing…………………………………………………………….. 21

2.4 Regulations……………………………………………………………………….…… 21

2.4.1 Testing Methods……………………………………………………….. 25

2.5 Environmental Impact…………………………………………………………..... 26

2.6 Health Impact……………………………………………………………..………… 31

2.7 Alternatives to Traditional Leather Production Methods……….. 32

2.7.1 Alternatives to Traditional Beamhouse Operations……… 34 A. Enzymes…………………………………………………………….. 34 B. Salt Free Pickling…………………………………………….….. 37 C. Oxidatives Unhairing Process……………………….……... 38 D. Vegetable Tannins…………………………………..……………. 38

2.7.2 Alternatives to Traditional Tanning Agents…………………. 38 A. Vegetable Tanning……………………………………………... 38 B. Fruit Tanning……………………………………………………. 40 C. Isocyanate Tanning…………………………………………….. 41 D. Eco-Benign Tanning……………………………………….….. 41 E. Iron Tanning……………………………………………..………. 42

2.7.3 Alternatives to Traditional Tanning Process………………… 43

2.7.4 Alternatives to Traditional Retanning Methods…………….. 44

2.8 Future of Chrome-Tanned Leather Production…………………………. 44

2.9 Theoretical Framework Overview.……………………………………………… 46

2.10 Theory of Reasoned Action……………………………………………………... 46

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

2.10.1 Extensions of the Theory of Reasoned Action…………… 58

2.11 Behavioral Intention and its Related Concepts………………………. 49

2.11.1 Attitude………………………………………………………………….. 50 A. Attitudes and Evaluative Criteria………………………... 51 B. Attitude Toward a Behavior and Behavioral Intention... 53

2.11.2 Values…………………………………………………………………...... 54

2.11.3 Beliefs and Knowledge……………………………………………. 58

2.12 Research on Concepts Related to Behavioral Intention and the Environment……………………...... 59

2.12.1 Environmental Values and Behavioral Intention……….. 59

2.12.2 Environmental Beliefs and Behavioral Intention………... 60

2.12.3 Environmental Knowledge and Behavioral Intention...... 61

2.12.4 Environmental Attitude and Behavioral Intention……… 61

METHODS……………………………………………………………………………………………… 63

3.1 Overview……………………………………………………………………………… 63

3.2 Research Design………………………………………………………………………... 63

3.3 Subjects……………………………………………………………………………………. 64

3.4 Lecture Development……………………………………………………………... 66

3.5 Instrument Development………………………………………………………… 67

3.6 Data Collection………………………………………………………………………… 71

3.7 Variables…………………………………………………………………………………. 72

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

3.8 Statistical Analysis……………………………………………………………………. 73

RESULTS & DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………...... 74

4.1 Demographic Characteristics…………………………………………………….. 75

4.2 Preliminary Analysis………………………………………………………………... 81

4.3 Hypothesis Testing……………………………………………………………………. 82

CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………………………… 101

5.1 Summary of Purpose and Method…………………………………………… 101

5.2 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...... 102

5.3 Limitations of the Study ………………………………………………………... 105

5.4 Implications for Future Study……………………………………………...... 107

References……………………………………………………………………………………………... 108

LIST OF APPENDICES

Page

Appendices……………………………………………………………………………………….. 113

Appendix A IRB Approval Page………………………………………………… 114

Appendix B Recruitment Guide…………………………………………………. 116

Appendix C Phase 1 Survey Questionnaire……………………………….... 118

Appendix D Phase 2 Survey Questionnaire……………………………….. 121

Appendix E Phase 3 Survey Questionnaire…………………………………. 124

Appendix F Treatment Lecture Outline………………………………………. 128

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview

Globally, it is estimated that over 2,518,200 tons of hides and skins were exported in the year 2011 alone, with an estimated world production yield of 23 billion square feet of finished leather (FA0, 2011; Mwinyihija, 2011). Leather is created by removing of hair and through the process of tanning putrescible animal skin and rawhide (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). Leather production is regarded as one of the oldest manufacturing industries in the world (Hamer et al., 1966; Ola, & Iman,

2008). Humans use of leather for clothing can be dated back as early as in the

Paleolithic period (the Stone Age) ("What is leather?," 2007). Leather tanning, a process whereby raw skins are converted into useful leather, was the first manufacturing process of human beings (Hamer et al., 1996). Because of its versatility and durability, leather is suitable for various end uses and sold as items such as apparel, shoes, bags, furniture and automotive interiors (Joseph et al., 2009).

To convert rawhides into useful products, various leather production methods are utilized worldwide, some being very progressive and environmentally sustainable, while others are extremely old-fashioned, continuing their use of chromium salts and putting out tons of residual waste into the environment (Gowd, & Govil, 2008; Joseph,

& Nithya, 2009). While some manufacturers have adopted eco-friendly production methods, most tanneries still practice the old-fashioned techniques, which can create negative impacts on the environment and the health of industry employees due to the

generation of solid (e.g., chromium salts) and liquid (e.g., untreated water) waste full of toxic chemicals (Iyer, & Mastorakis, 2009). In addition, if that waste is released into the environment untreated, the tanning chemicals become a potentially hazardous pollutant in the soil, water and air (Bini et al., 2007). In a research study done throughout tanneries in Tuscany, Italy, it was found that there was an increased mortality rate among tannery employees due to cancer, tumors, blood diseases and neurological disorders (Iaia et al., 2006).

1.2 Problem Statement and Purpose of the Study

The United States only produced approximately 4% of the world’s leather in 2011 and its production yield is decreasing annually (FAO, 2011; Mwinyihija, 2012; "Trade information brief," 2005; "World statistical compendium," 2010). However, it is one of the top exporters of raw hides and skins to be tanned, accounting for approximately

32% of raw hides and skins exported world wide in 2007 ("World statistical compendium," 2010). In recent years, sustainability is becoming a major concern in all industries worldwide and the leather production industry is no exception due to the adverse environmental and health impacts of traditional tanning methods. Regardless of traditional leather production’s negative environmental and health impact, consumer demand for a wide variety of leather products persists. Could educating consumers about these negative consequences curb such demand? Consumer behaviors and their purchase intentions related to their beliefs have been widely studied by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), in which they suggested that the more positive the attitude toward a particular behavior, the greater the likelihood of intention to

perform the behavior. Dickson (2000) further found a relationship between personal values, beliefs, and knowledge toward attitude and therefore behavioral intention.

However, researchers have not investigated consumer beliefs and attitude regarding leather production and whether their environmental values and knowledge impact their beliefs about leather products, attitudes towards purchasing leather products, and intentions to purchase leather products. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate whether exposure to information regarding the environmental and health impact of leather production would ultimately change consumers’ beliefs, attitudes and intentions to purchase leather products.

1.3 Objectives

According to the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein, 1967), consumer knowledge and beliefs regarding specific products, as well as consumer values in general, impact consumer attitudes surrounding the purchase of the product which, in turn, impacts consumer product-purchase intention. Using the Theory of Reasoned

Action as a guide, two objectives were developed to address the purpose of this research. The first objective is to investigate whether consumers’ beliefs about leather product attributes, environmental/health impact and attitudes towards purchasing leather can be changed by exposing consumers to lecture-delivered information about the environmental and health impact of leather production, as well as to confirm that consumers’ attitudes towards purchasing leather products is related to consumers’ leather-purchase intention. The second objective is to investigate whether consumers whose values include a proenvironmental orientation will exhibit a greater change in

beliefs about leather product attributes and environmental/health impact and attitudes towards purchasing leather after they are exposed to the lecture-delivered information about the environmental and health impact of leather production.

1.4 Hypotheses

H1- 4 look at all subjects collectively, regardless of their New Ecological Paradigm score.

H1: Subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ attributes before exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture designed for this research project will differ from subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ attributes after exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture.

H2: Subjects’ attitudes towards purchasing leather products before exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture designed for this research project will differ from subjects’ attitudes towards purchasing leather products after exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture.

H3: Subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ health impact before exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture designed for this research project will differ from subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ environmental and health impact after exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture.

H4: Subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ environmental impact before exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture designed for this research project will differ from

subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ environmental and health impact after exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture.

H5 - 8 compare subjects’ New Ecological Paradigm scores and changes in their beliefs, attitudes and purchase intention after exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture.

H5: The level of subjects’ proenvironmental orientation is positively related to the subjects’ change in beliefs about leather products’ attributes.

H6: The level of subjects’ proenvironmental orientation is positively related to the subjects’ change in attitude toward purchasing leather products.

H7: The level of subjects’ proenvironmental orientation is positively related to the subjects’ change in beliefs about leather production’s health impact.

H8: The level of subjects’ proenvironmental orientation is positively related to the subjects’ change in beliefs about leather production’s environmental impact.

1.5 Definition of Terms

The following terms are those that will be used throughout the course of the study:

Anthropocentrism: the individual belief that nature has no innate value and that it primarily exists for human use (Dunlap et al., 2000).

Attitude: simply defined as a general evaluation, “an enduring organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual, and cognitive processes with respect to some aspects of the individual’s world” (Bennett, & Kassarjian, 1972, p. 77; Krech, &

Crutchfield, 1948).

Beamhouse Operations: the pre-tanning stage designed to eradicate non-leather making components from the skins/hides in order to prepare them for the tanning process.

Behavioral Intention: the purposeful aim to perform a specific action.

Beliefs: an opinion an individual holds to be factual about aspects of their environment from their point of view (Bennett, & Kassarjian, 1972).

Chromium: a heavy metal used in traditional leather production that in certain states becomes hazardous to human health and the environment.

Environmental Concern: an evaluation or attitude of value orientation towards factual information, personal behavior, or others’ behavior with environmental consequences in mind (Fransson, & Garling, 1999).

Evaluative Criteria: the specifications and standards consumers use in comparing different brands and products by considering few or multiple factors (Engel et al.,

1995, p. 51; Dickson, & Littrell, 1997; Huddleston et al., 1993).

Hides: for the purpose of this study, refers to skin of bovine origin (Leach, & Wilson,

2009).

Knowledge: “the information stored within memory. The subset of total information relevant to consumers functioning in the marketplace is called consumer knowledge”

(Engel et al., 1995).

Leather: material that is both flexible and durable, created through the process of tanning putrescible animal skin and rawhide (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010).

Post-tanning: a process that treats the tanned hides to give them desired properties, such as color and finishes.

Proenvironmental orientation: the level to which an individual sees the world from an environmental/conservational standpoint, and is more likely to see environmental issues as serious (Dunlap, 2000).

Skin: for the purpose of this study, refers to pelts of sheep and goat origin (Leach, &

Wilson, 2009).

Tannery: the location where skins and hides have traditionally been processed in order to become leather.

Tanning: the most important process in converting hides and skins into stable leather with suitable strength and biological agent resistance.

Values: defined as abstract principles that influence both attitude and behavior in differing situation. They are central to the self-concept of an individual and resist change (Dickson, 2000; Fransson, & Garling, 1999; Munson, 1984; Rokeach, 1979;

Smith, 1982).

1.6 Theoretical framework

A modified version of Fishbein’s (1975) Theory of Reasoned Action, Dickson’s

(2000) extension of the theory and Dunlap’s (2008) New Ecological Paradigm were used to interpret data collected. Dunlap’s (2008) New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) is a scale that was developed in the 1970’s and was recently revised to measure the level to which an individual’s values include a proenvironmental orientation. Using these

values as what they believe to be inherent moral guides, individuals can form positive or negative attitudes toward the outcomes of their potential behaviors.

The Theory of Reasoned Action (TSA) explains what influences behavioral intention. The theory suggests that personal beliefs impact attitude and subjective norm, and in turn, attitude and subjective norm influence behavior. While both constructs were originally used to determine a person’s behavior, only attitude will be observed for the purpose of this study. Dickson’s (2000) modified and extended version of the TSA suggests that beliefs, values, and knowledge may affect attitude, and as a result attitude affects behavior.

Together, the combined theories use three constructs to explain how attitude towards purchasing leather products may be influenced: environmental values, beliefs about leather products, and knowledge about the environmental and health impact of leather processing. Behavioral intention can in turn be influenced by attitudes regarding a potential behavior (Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980; Dickson, 2000).

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Leather 2.1 General Properties

Leather is defined as “a durable and flexible material created via the tanning of putrescible animal rawhide and skin, primarily cattlehide” (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010, p. 51). Leather is used in a wide range of products, such as apparel, athletic gear, upholstery/wall coverings, bags, and luggage and for accessories like wallets (Kadolph, 2010). Many finishes made available by manufacturers add to the appeal of leather (Kadolph, 2010).

Leather is described as being a durable product (Kadolph, 2010). The quality and properties of leather vary greatly from animal to animal, from area to area within one animal, and from process to process (Hamer et al.,1966; Kadolph, 2010). Leather can be hard or soft, stiff or flexible and stretchy or tight depending on the methods and chemicals used to process it (Hamer, et al., 1966). It is because of the properties and versatility of leather that make it competitive among other textiles (Hamer, et al.,

1966).

However, because leather easily picks up grease and oils, special cleaning care is required to avoid solvent use that could increase stiffness (Kadolph, 2010). Leather products can be long lasting. This is due to the fact that in old, used leather, oil can be easily replaced and products can be redyed. However, surface irregularities and damage can appear over time (Kadolph, 2010).

2.2 Leather Production

Leather hides and skins are the by-products of meat industry slaughterhouses

(Joseph, & Nithya, 2009; Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). Leather production is generally accepted as being humankind’s earliest manufacturing process (Hamer et al.,

1966). Leather can be produced at different industry levels, ranging from something as small-scale as do-it-yourself projects or family run businesses to something as large as corporate mass production. Through various manufacturing processes, leather can be sold in many different forms such as furniture, shoes, clothing, car interiors and bags

(Joseph et al., 2009; Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). Globally, there were estimated to be “5.5 million tons of rawhides on a wet salted basis that were processed to yield about 460,000 tons of heavy leather and about 940 million square meters of light leather” in 2008 alone (Joseph et al., 2009, p. 676).

Leather making is a craft/trade with records of existence dating back to the

Sumerians in 2500 BC, 5000 BC in the Mediterranean regions (Kanth et al., 2008) and

7000 BC in Asia (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). Archaeologists have uncovered evidence of leather use dating back to prehistoric times (Mukherjee et al.,

2005). The leather industry itself is one of the oldest industries all over the world (Ola,

& Iman, 2008). The first leathers produced were thought to be tanned using components of brain, animal fat, or smoke (Hamer et al., 1966). Leather was used by ancient civilization as bags, boots/sandals, harnesses, waterskins, quivers, scabbards, armor, shelter and boats (Hamer et al., 1966; Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010).

Beginning in ancient history and continuing through modern day, skins and hides that

were processed to become leather have traditionally been produced in a tannery. In ancient times, the tanning process involved the treatment of animal feces, urine and decaying flesh, causing the tanneries to smell so horrendous that they were forced to the outskirts of town surrounding the homes of the poor (Leathermaking: skin, leather,

2010).

India is one of very few countries that remain an old-fashioned leather industry. Due to the enforcement of strict environmental regulations and desire for cheaper labor, the leather industry’s presence in developed countries is shrinking and

India has become one of the biggest leather producers (third highest) in both export earnings and employment figures worldwide (Gowd, & Govil, 2008; Joseph, &

Nithya, 2009). Leather has yielded India two billion US dollars a year, 80% of that being value added products requiring minimal cost to add something extra that is beyond standard expectation (Joseph et al., 2009). There are an estimated 3000 tanneries in India, with a processing capacity of 700,000 tons of hides/skins, equating to 2 billion square feet per year (Joseph et al., 2009; Mwinyihija, 2014). The Indian leather footwear sector is the world’s second largest footwear producer: production capacity of 776 million pairs of footwear and 112 million shoe uppers (Joseph et al.,

2009). Brands currently sourcing leather goods such as footwear and handbags from

India include Nike, Reebok, Cole Haan, Wal Mart, Adidas, Ecco and many more

(Joseph et al., 2009).

2.3 Traditional Production Method

There are three parts to the primary leather manufacturing process, including beam house operations, tanning and post-tanning (Fig. 1) (Coudhary et al., 2004;

Kanth et al., 2008; Midha, & Dey, 2008).

Figure 2.1: Leather Production Process

2.3.1 Pre-tanning/Beamhouse Operations

The pre-tanning stage known as the beamhouse is a series of operations designed to eliminate non-leather making components of the hides/skins, such as fat cells, hair, non-fibrous flesh and proteins (Hamer et al., 1966). The operations also aim to convert the collagen fibers into a state that is both physically and chemically

suitable for tanning (Hamer et al., 1966). The beamhouse stage includes the following operations, although not all may be performed: curing, soaking, liming, dehairing, fleshing, splitting, reliming, deliming, bating, degreasing, frizzing, bleaching, pickling and depickling (Fig. 1) (Coudhary et al., 2004; Kanth et al., 2008; Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010; Midha et al., 2008; Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). The conventional leather process works in an almost do-undo manner, e.g. the liming process being followed by the deliming process (Saravanbhavan et al., 2003).

A. Curing

Curing preserves the hides from spoiling and ceases bacterial decay, or putrefaction, by removal of excess water from the hides/skins (Hamer et al., 1966;

Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). This is typically done right after slaughter and before processing. Without this step hides will putrefy in 2-3 days (Coudhary et al.,

2004; Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). Hides may either be placed in a brine bath or wet-salted (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). In the brine bath curing process the hides are first soaked, sun dried and then salt is added to the flesh side (Coudhary et al., 2004). If wet-salted, the hides are salted heavily before being pressed into tight packs for around 30 days (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). Curing is best done in an airy, dry and clean environment at a controlled temperature, pH, and moisture content and with the use of toxic materials such as curing salts (Coudhary et al., 2004).

The hide will not degrade over time if properly cured (Coudhary et al., 2004).

B. Soaking

After curing, the soaking process uses diluted alkali solutions of anti-microbial compounds and wetting agents, or surfactants, to treat hides and skins. Soaking is done in order to remove excess salt and dirt and to rehydrate the hides and return them to the state they were in following slaughter (Coudhary et al., 2004; Hamer et al.,

1966; Midha, & Dey, 2008). Superior leather results from better rehydration

(Coudhary et al., 2004). The hides are rehydrated to raise the salt-cured hide to a moisture content of at least 52% from an initial 45% (Coudhary et al., 2004). Bacterial threats are greater in leather with a moisture content that is higher than 52%

(Coudhary et al., 2004).

C. Liming

The liming process is done in order for the desired swelling of the collagen structures to occur, to split the collagen fiber bundle, to remove soluble interfibrillary and keratin proteins within fibers and to remove nails, hairs, hooves and other keratinous matters (Coudhary et al., 2004; Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010; Midha,

& Dey, 2008). Leather quality is highly dependent on this process (Coudhary et al.,

2004). In the liming process, the hides/skins are soaked in an alkali solution by a pit based or paddle/drum operation and given a treatment with milk of lime (Coudhary et al., 2004; Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). This alkali solution of calcium hydroxide typically contains sharpening agents to aid in dehairing, such as sodium hydrosulphide, sodium sulphide, or dimethylamine (Hamer et al., 1966). The operation of liming cowhides typically takes around 18 hours (Saravanbhavan et al., 2003;

Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). The presence of the alkalis, mainly sodium sulfide, allows for the interfibrillary proteins to be denatured and rendered soluble in order to facilitate their removal (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). Removal of proteins are done mechanically during liming but even more so in the following process of deliming (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). If these proteins aren’t properly removed, hard, brittle and inflexible leather might be the result

(Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010).

D. Dehairing

Dehairing alone is the largest process in leather manufacturing, requiring the most energy and water (Coudhary et al., 2004). This is the non-damaging process of removing furs and hair from the hides through chemically burning the root of the hair or chemically degrading the shaft of the hair (Coudhary et al., 2004; Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). For shorter haired animals such as cattle, a process vessel can be used for hair removal. The hide is placed inside a drum and exposed to lime or soda ash in addition to sharpening agents most commonly composed of sodium sulfide

(Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). This process depends largely on keratin protein breakdown by using lime liquor and sodium sulphide at the root of the hair shaft

(Coudhary et al., 2004; Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). With the use of these chemicals at particular strengths, the hairs can be completely depilated or removed intact in a short amount of time (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010).

E. Fleshing

The fleshing process focuses on the removal of subcutaneous material and fatty tissue. Fleshing does not require a specific chemical or need to be carried out at any specific point during the production process but is best completed when the grain is wet (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010; Midha, & Dey, 2008). Any pieces of loose meat or fat on the hide’s underside are cut off either manually or by machine (Hamer, et al., 1966).

F. Deliming

The deliming process is to remove the alkali from the pelt and to reduce some of the swelling created by the liming process (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010;

Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). It also lowers the pH of the skins from a starting value of about 11.5 to the desired value around 8.5 (Hamer et al., 1966; Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). This is done using buffer salts or weak acids such as sodium bisulphate, ammonium chloride, ammonium sulphate, lactic acid and boric acid (Hamer et al.,

1966). Operations typically last around 2 hours (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010).

G. Bating

Bating is done to loosen and peptize the skin that is non-collagenous through removing interfibrillary protein, epidermis and scud residue (Coudhary, Jana, & Jha,

2004). Bating is performed by quickly and harshly beating the leather with metal rods or wooden logs, which leaves the hides soft, supple and ready for tanning (Coudhary et al., 2004). The hides are treated with enzymes to help make them flexible and resemble a finished product (Hamer, Pratt, & Such, 1966). Slight bating would be used

for something less pliable like shoe soles, whereas strong bating would be necessary to achieve very pliable and soft leather used for something like handbags (Coudhary et al., 2004). Bating is useful in the removal of lime, swelling and plumbing and in producing a silky grain (Coudhary et al., 2004). Without bating, the leather would be very firm and inflexible once dried (Coudhary et al., 2004).

H. Pickling

The pickling process renders the hides more acidic by using hydrochloric or sulphuric acid to lower the pH level to between 2.0 and 2.5, while also denaturing the proteins (Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). Pickling salts such as sodium sulphate or sodium chloride are mixed into the pickle liquor in order to suppress acid swelling until the hides are basified. The pickling process generally takes around 2 hours

(Saravanbhavan et al., 2003).

I. Degreasing

In degreasing, the goal is to remove residual grease that the liming process could not (Coudhary et al., 2004; Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). The hides are placed in a drum with an inexpensive organic solvent like paraffin that contains minimal amounts of surfactants. Once the solvents are removed, the hides are washed repeatedly in different enzyme and salt-water solution changes and wrung out (Hamer, et al.,1966).

J. Depickling

Depickling may follow in order to basify the chemical composition of the hide and increase the pH to a stable level (Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). This process

consists of using a standard chromic sulfate solution alongside the pickled skin in a drum until the pH increases. This renders the skins more astringent, which will in turn accelerate the reaction with the tanning salts (Hamer et al., 1966).

2.3.2 Tanning Process

Tanning is the most important stage performed in converting unstable rawhide into leather with adequate strength and resistance to attacking biological agents

(Coudhary et al., 2004; Kanth et al., 2008; Mukherjee et al., 2005; Ola, & Iman,

2008). The tanned leather is stable against putrefaction and suitable for use in a variety of applications (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). Using a rotating drum, chrome tanning introduces the hide to an alkaline aqueous tanning agent, which contains chromium salts. This process also introduces the collagen in the hide to additional cross-links, which bind to the functional proteins with the active tanning agent group

(Coudhary et al., 2004; Mukherjee et al., 2005). The skin’s principal protein, collagen, enables the tanning agent to be fixed to the reactive sites, which will then cease the putrefaction process (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010; Mukherjee et al.,

2005). After tanning, the tanned leather must be stored for multiple days in order to allow the collagen/chromium bonds to consolidate (Mukherjee et al., 2005).

For over a century, chromium tanning has been the primary method used in the manufacturing of consumer leather products such as gloves, footwear, clothing, automobile upholstery, and furniture (Mukherjee et al., 2005). Currently, over 90% of leathers tanned globally are produced using this basic method (Kanth et al. 2008;

Madhan et al., 2005; Mukherjee et al., 2005). Although vegetable tannins have been

used for many thousands of years, they were replaced in 1858 AD with the invention of chrome tanning (Kanth et al., 2008, Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). Chromium tanning was developed using chromium salts, most commonly using the trivalent chromium variety (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). Chrome tanning is used to obtain light leather with good resistance to bacteria (Coudhary et al., 2004). It is preferred as a leather tanning process because it is simple, fast and inexpensive

(Mukherjee et al., 2005). Also, the material yielded has a high thermal and mechanical resistance and a better dyeing capacity (Mukherjee et al., 2005). The bond between collagen and chromium is known to be the strongest amongst all the alternative options, including synthetic and vegetable tannins (Mukherjee et al., 2005). Some researchers believe there is no tanning agent alternative that can compare to the level of satisfaction achieved through chrome tanning (Mukherjee et al., 2005). However, the disposal of discharge and waste from the prime leather production stages gives rise to concerns regarding environmental and health issues (Coudhary et al., 2004; Floqi et al., 2007; Gowd, & Govil, 2008; Kanth et al., 2008; Mukherjee et al., 2005).

2.3.3. Post-Tanning

The post-tanning stage involves various processes, which treat the hides and give them the necessary properties such as appearance and color (Hamer et al., 1966).

The processes covered in this study include: splitting, reliming, retanning, dyeing, fatliquoring, and finishing. However, the processes covered do not necessarily occur in this sequence or at all, depending on the leather’s desired end use.

A. Splitting

During the splitting process, hides/skins are cut into at least two horizontal layers (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). It is split into flesh and grain layers and shaved to reach a desired thickness (Hamer et al.,1966; Midha et al., 2008; Mukherjee et al., 2005).

B. Reliming

After splitting, the hides have the option to be relimed in order to remove more protein or open additional fiber bundles (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). It involves the repetition of the same process and chemicals used as in the initial liming process.

C. Retanning

In the re-tanning stage, the hides are superficially exposed to tanning agents in low quantities (Mukherjee et al., 2005). The purpose of re-applying tanning agents to the material is to achieve certain desired physical strength and properties that are required for specific end products (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010, p. 99). In addition, retanning allows hides to have the necessary handle and dyeing characteristics (Hamer et al.,1966).

D. Dyeing

The hides can next be dyed using coloring agents before the fatliquoring stage

(Mukherjee et al., 2005). The dyeing is done using direct dyestuff and selected acid in a drum (Hamer et al., 1966). A varying range of synthetic tannins, surfactants and

agents are used to achieve the even depth of shade that is required (Hamer et al.,

1966).

E. Fatliquoring

Fatliquoring is the process of introducing natural or synthetic fats/oils into the skin before the leather is dried to replace natural oils lost in the beam house and tan yard processes and to render the product flexible (Midha et al., 2008; Mukherjee et al.,

2005). The oils penetrate the hides, keeping the fibers from sticking to one another and generating a rigid, brittle material once dried (Hamer et al., 1966). The hides must then be dried in a controlled environment (Hamer et al., 1966).

F. Finishing

Following drying, the finishing processes are carried out in order to make the product into something that is commercially viable (Midha, & Dey, 2008; Mukherjee, et al., 2005). Finishing, the last stage of production, is needed to finish the surface or apply a finishing material, such as resin surface coating, without the use of additional chemicals if desired (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). Lastly, after the leather is dried, it is enhanced with a pigment film on the exterior in order to attain the desired appearance and protection needed for its final use (Hamer et al., 1966; Mukherjee et al., 2005).

2.4 Regulations

Because of the use of toxic chemicals in leather processing and tanning, regulations have focused on chromium and its hazards (Cory, 2000). Hazardous wastes are characterized based on their ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity

(Cory, 2000). There are varying hazard standards for these wastes including chromium, but because they aren’t consistent across all industries, chromium waste from leather production is not kept at a limit it should be (Cory, 2000). Some tanneries producing leather operate in illegal ways, such as dumping untreated waste or not adhering to health codes (Floqi et al., 2007). Since leather production negatively impacts the environment and the safety of workers, production is regulated by what chemical agents are used and how leather production waste is disposed of (Alexander et al., 1992). In 1995, the United States Supreme Court was forced to close all tanneries in India that were producing for American corporations due to rapid growth in the industry and resulting pollution (Joseph, & Nithya, 2009). However, most reopened 9 months later after creating effluence treatment plants (Joseph et al., 2009).

In the United States, it is approximated that each publicly-owned liquid waste treatment plant receives 95% of its waste from tanneries because of its heavy use of water in the beamhouse operation stage (Mukherjee et al., 2005).

Because hexavalent chromium is 500 times more toxic than trivalent chromium, they should be regulated separately (Hafez, & El-Manharawy, 2004). A permissible exposure level for hexavalent chromium was developed and implemented in 1996 to ensure that chromium contact is kept at an acceptable level (Cory, 2000).

However, in reality, they are often grouped together and looked at using the same regulation (Cory, 2000).

Researchers have noted that “The leather industry is under pressure from environmental authorities to comply with pollution and discharge legislation”

(Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). Most importantly, waste disposal control needs to be put in place in order to prevent irreversible damage to land and waterways (Bini et al.,

2007). Chromium waste has always been transferred to sludge in the past, but sludge disposal is now regulated (Alexander et al., 1992). However, while sludge disposal is heavily regulated, leather waste has been exempt, saving the industry crippling waste disposal costs, an oversight that needs to be looked at immediately (Cory, 2000). In

Europe, solid trivalent chromium waste is “not listed as hazardous waste and in the

USA they are specifically exempt from Federal hazardous waste regulations”

(Mukherjee et al., 2005). The EPA applied a limit to how much hexavalent chromium is permissible in sewage sludge (Cory, 2000; Midha, & Dey, 2008). EPA regulations state that wastewater cannot be emitted with traces of chromium and sulfide (Midha et al., 2008).

Currently, there are no Worker’s Compensation Laws in Indian industries as well as others and they need to be enacted (Iyer, & Mastorakis, 2009). Workers injured or disabled in the industry would then receive compensation and payment for medical treatment (Iyer et al., 2009). Eighty percent of industrial disasters have been reported as preventable (Iyer et al., 2009). In Tanil Madu, India, people in the area are severely affected by the pollution, especially those working in the tanneries (Gowd, &

Govil, 2008). They suffer from diseases such as chromium ulcers, neurological complications, respiratory diseases, nausea, anemia, cardiovascular disease, renal problems, hypertension, skin diseases and asthma (Gowd et al., 2008). Many countries

have initiated chromium pollution regulatory measures, however India has not (Iyer et al., 2009).

While the leather industry has invested time and money into reducing pollution from tanneries, unreasonable environmental legislation has forced many out of business due to non-productive costs (Alexander et al., 1992). The processes themselves can become uneconomical due to restrictions placed on dissolved solid levels in plant effluents by the EPA, as is the case with the dehairing process and brine-cured hides (Coudhary et al., 2004). In reaction to this, the US exports hides internationally to countries where there are less stringent regulations and imports finished leather (Coudhary et al., 2004). Most hides/skins from Indian slaughterhouses are low grade by the time they reach the tanneries, so hides/skins are imported without any government restrictions (Joseph, & Nithya, 2009).

Hazardous Air Pollution (HAP) is regulated using MACT (maximum achievable control technology) (Cory, 2000). Any industry source with the potential to emit ten or more tons of any individual HAP or twenty-five tons of any combination is considered a major pollutant source (Cory, 2000). This data is expressed by how many pounds of hazardous air pollution are present per thousand square feet of leather produced (Cory, 2000).

Environmental auditing is a practice currently performed in the UK (Alexander et al., 1992). New tanneries must prepare an environmental impact statement before their planning application will be considered in order to ensure that environmental performance targets are met (Alexander et al., 1992). Companies must not only control

emissions released into the atmosphere to ensure workers’ safety but also to limit environmental harm (Alexander et al., 1992). In Albania, measured pollutants in samples far exceeded what is acceptable by European standards and these tanneries are still in production (Floqi et al., 2007). In California, Proposition 65: California’s

Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act - was put into place to ensure that hazardous chemicals aren’t discharged into the drinking water sources (Cory, 2000).

Companies such as Nike, Adidas, Ford, GM and Volvo have all adopted product certification schemes as mandatory requirements (Cory, 2000). It is difficult to make progress in the regulatory world when new information regarding environmental science is continually developed and regulatory authorities must constantly review existing standards and policies because of this (Cory, 2000).

2.4.1 Testing Methods

A Recent study was done to examine whether the chromium in the liquid effluent emitted from the tanning process can be recovered and re-used (Ola, & Iman,

2008). Using a jar-test method, polymers were applied to the wastewater at a varying pH to remove the chromium from the water. Tests have revealed that hides tanned using the recovered chromium were unaffected in their general properties and allowed for a reduction in waste (Ola et al., 2008).

One of the approaches used to compare the effectiveness of leather tanning to its wastage factor is by comparing their COD (chemical oxygen demand) to BOD

(biological oxygen demand) ratios (Alexander et al., 1992). Both COD and BOD are arbitrary measures of oxygen demand, however COD is a stringent chemical test that

completely breaks down the majority of organic compounds and BOD is a biological test relying on the effectiveness of bacterial species (Alexander et al., 1992). Ratio of

COD to BOD can be used as an indicator of an effluent/chemical species’

“biodegradability” (Alexander et al., 1992). If the ratio of COD to BOD indicates an effluent to be naturally biodegradable, unnecessary expenditures can be avoided and some cases will allow for the river systems to complete final purification of tanning waste water (Alexander et al., 1992).

2.5 Environmental Impact

Since leather pollution from chromium tanning creates significant adverse impacts on the environment and human health, it is imperative that “A clean and green approach demands that the discharge from any process should be minimized and valuable materials recovered” (Saravanbhavan et al., 2003, p. 707). In their research,

Chronska and Przepiorkowska (2007) estimate that “world production of chrome tanned leather causes formation of 805,657 tons/year of solid tanned wastes” (p. 348).

In the production of chrome tanned bovine leather, it is estimated that for every 1 ton of wet salted hides 200 kg of leather that is yielded, there is more than 600 kg of solid waste (Alexander et al., 1992). Leather begins as a by-product of the slaughterhouses

(Joseph, & Nithya, 2009). However in India, one of the world’s largest leather producers, most Indian slaughterhouses do not possess waste management facilities

(Joseph et al., 2009). In the Indian leather footwear sector alone, 2.25 million tons of chemicals are used and most are released into the environment (Joseph et al., 2009).

Previous research suggests, “Substitution is implied to be the ideal approach to

reducing environmental impact of leather production in terms of the waste and by- products arising (Alexander et al., 1992, p. 21).

Until recently, chromium has received little attention as a polluting heavy metal (Bini et al. 2007). Chromium in its natural state was originally believed to be an immobile “local source” contaminant, not thought to cause widespread environmental issues (Bini et al., 2007). Tannery waste was even used as an organic fertilizer in the past (Bini et al., 2007). However, although chromium can occur naturally in soil, chromium tanning waste can have hazardous effects on groundwater, soil and plants

(Bini et al., 2007). While most plants generally have a limited capacity for chromium uptake, hyperaccumulator plants are able to take in high amounts of chromium (Bini et al., 2007). These plants show these toxic effects through degenerative effects on cells, altered reproduction capacity of cells and high stress symptoms (Bini et al., 2007).

However, due to legislative demands, chrome polluted wastewater from the tanning process is becoming the most significant ecological issue for tanners (Cuq, &

Delman, 1999; Ola, & Iman, 2008). This is because the chromium salts, used in the tanning process, that are not fixed to the hide’s collagen would end up being discharged as solid and liquid effluents into the environment, most notably into the ground and water ways (Mukherjee et al., 2005; Ola et al., 2008). Liquid tanning waste occurs as both trivalent and hexavalent chromium, hexavalent chromium being

500 times more toxic than trivalent (Hafez, & El-Manharawy, 2004). Approximately

60-80% of the chromium salts used in the tanning stage are rejected as liquid effluent

(Mukherjee et al., 2005). This is because the chromium compounds bind themselves to

solids that are suspended in the water, are removed and end up as sediment

(Mukherjee et al., 2005). The waste water treatment technique that is currently available and most favored is the cost effective biological treatment (Midha, & Dey,

2008). Microorganisms are introduced to the waste water in the absence of oxygen so that they reduce the pollutants by using them as energy and nutrients (Midha et al.,

2008).

Many tanneries carry out tanning operations locally using primitive methods and manual labor, which yield much higher pollution due to relaxed environmental regulations regarding waste disposal and chemical treatment (Floqi et al., 2007).

Wastewater containing chrome salt effluents discarded into water basins are not biodegradable and often reach underground water and drinking water supplies (Floqi et al., 2007; Gowd, & Govil, 2008; Iyer, & Mastorakis, 2009). Without a treatment plant for solid waste or wastewater, these effluents are likely sent into the riverbeds

(Floqi et al., 2007). The large amount of chromium salts not consumed by leather in the tanning process is typically discharged into sewer systems without accurate treatment, which also results in wastage of materials and ecological imbalances

(Hafez, & El-Manharawy, 2004; Iyer et al., 2009; Kanth et al., 2008; Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). The situation is worsened due to tanneries’ mismanaged solid waste that contaminates land and water. As a result, the rising contaminated areas not only negatively impact the environmental aesthetic but also presents risks to the health of the environment (Bini et al., 2007; Floqi et al., 2007). For example, when the chromium-contaminated effluent is released into soils, dependent on varying

conditions, it is possible to oxidize and become toxic hexavalent chromium (Gowd et al., 2008). These untreated effluents can damage groundwater permanently (Gowd et al., 2008). Farmers can lose land due to pollution and water will become no longer drinkable (Gowd et al., 2008). Studies show that tannery pollutants have a significant effect on the environment in some areas of the world and the tanneries are the source

(Floqi et al., 2007; Gowd et al., 2008).

Chrome tanning is especially polluting in countries where the environmental regulations are relaxed or non-existent (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). A good example of this is India, the world’s 3rd largest leather producer and exporter

(Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). The Ranipet industrial area in Tamil Nadu is one of the biggest leather export centers in India, producing 60% of India’s leather (Gowd,

& Govil, 2008; Madhan et al., 2005). The town contains 240 tanneries, which lead it to be considered a chronically polluted area suffering from water resource depletion

(Gowd et al., 2008; Madhan et al., 2005). The surface water is heavily contaminated with toxic/heavy metals because the water effluents are discarded onto nearby land and surface waters (Gowd et al., 2008). Joseph and Nithya’s (2009) research affirms

“Most tanneries in India use old/inefficient technologies and production methods.”

This can be said to be “Largely responsible for wasteful use of water and chemicals”

(Joseph, & Nithya, 2009).

The Beamhouse phase of the leather production process is what accounts for most of the total pollution due to the use of sodium sulfide and lime (Castiello et al.,

2008; Saravanbhavan et al., 2003), both major pollutants of the tanning process

(Coudhary et al., 2004; Midha, & Dey, 2008). Both the liming and reliming process are highly noxious and contribute around 60-70% of the pollution load total in the leather process due to the use of ammonium salts in the liming process and consequent emissions (Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). The ammonium salts add to the amount of total dissolved solids in the production of lime sludge effluent (Saravanbhavan et al.,

2003). Polluted effluent is also produced due to the use of sulfide in the dehairing process (Coudhary et al., 2004). This results in the need to develop and explore new processes for the various Beamhouse stages of production that are both safer and cleaner (Coudhary et al., 2004, Saravanbhavan et al., 2003).

Micro-pollutants are gaining attention as an environmental issue (Alexander et al., 1992). This includes pesticides used to control parasites on live animals and biocides used in processing or to protect tanned goods (Alexander et al., 1992).

Micro-pollutants from leather that is chrome tanned, such as buffing dust, is a waste that is both hazardous to the environment and human health and is also unfortunately very difficult to manage (Chronska, & Przepiorkowska, 2007). The structure of the dust is made up of collagen fibers that are isolated through the fatliquoring process

(Chronska et al., 2007). While wasteful if unattended, this dust is now being introduced as filler for rubbers and PVC and is also used in yeast production. The filler gives rubber high cross-linking density, better strength, lower elasticity and shock absorption and higher hardness.

2.6 Health Impact

Although Trivalent chromium, or Cr(III), has been found to be essential in humans in order to maintain glucose and lipid metabolism (Bini et al., 2007),

Hexavalent chromium, or Cr(VI), is recognized as a known human carcinogen through inhalation (Cory, 2000; Midha, & Dey, 2008). Acute exposure can cause problems such as gastro-intestinal hemorrhages, pulmonary edema as well as liver and kidney damage (Bini et al., 2007; Gowd, & Govil, 2008). In addition to the aforementioned health problems, prolonged exposure to Hexavalent chromium can lead to fertility decrease, blood disturbance and anemia, allergies, neural disorders, chromium ulcers, nausea, skin diseases, respiration difficulties, asthma, hypertension, cardiovascular disease and pulmonary cancer (Bini et al., 2007; Gowd et al., 2008; Iaia et al., 2006;

Iyer, & Mastorakis, 2009). There has also been fear related to the buffing dust formed from the fatliquoring process and whether it negatively impacts the nose, throat and lungs of tannery workers (Mukherjee et al., 2005). Under certain humidity conditions, there is a risk of hexavalent chromium appearing from transforming trivalent chromium compounds, which could ultimately migrate from the leather (Mukherjee et al., 2005). While the chromium found in studies was rated as undetectable, precautionary safety measures have been put in place (Mukherjee et al., 2005).

Allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) is reported as one of most prevalent occupational and environmental skin diseases among tannery workers (Forte, Petrucci,

& Bocca, 2008). It is an “inflammatory process of the skin caused by contact with exogenous substances, generally having a low molecular weight” (Forte et al., 2008).

It can greatly affect quality of life, both economically and psychologically (Forte et al., 2008). It is estimated that 1 billion dollars a year are spent on treatment in the US

(Forte et al., 2008). Those who had to change jobs or have been affected by ACD of the face reported having the worst quality of life among tannery workers surveyed

(Forte et al., 2008). Chromium’s use in leather tanning has a significant effect on tannery workers (Forte et al., 2008).

In addition to chromium, sulfide that has been used in the beam house stage of the tanning process, is also “highly toxic to humans and can cause headaches, nausea and affect central nervous system even at low levels of exposure” (Castiello et al.,

2008; Midha, & Dey, 2008, p. 473). In high enough doses, sulfide exposure can cause instant death (Midha et al., 2008).

2.7 Alternatives to Traditional Leather Production Methods

Alternatives to the chemicals traditionally used in leather manufacturing processes are often suggested as environmentally responsible options (Table 1). Many of the processes have environmentally friendly alternatives to the toxic chemicals utilized by traditional methods (Alexander, Corning, Cory, Donohue, & Sykes, 1992;

Mukherjee et al., 2005). Table 1 shows some examples of the alternatives currently being employed by industry manufacturers. While there are alternatives to the traditional methods previously discussed, not every process has an alternative that would be economically feasible or practical for use in the long run (Coudhary et al.,

2004).

Table 2.1 Comparison of chemicals (alternative vs. traditional) used in leather production process

Leather Production Traditional Chemical(s) Used Alternative(s) Used Process Alkali solutions, wetting Enzymes Soaking • • agents • Vegetable tannins • Calcium hydroxide, sharpening agents (e.g., Liming sodium • Enzymes hydrosulphide/sulphide, dimethylamine) • Enzymes Dehairing • Sodium Sulfide • Hydrogen peroxide • Deliming salts (e.g., ammonium Bating sulphate/chloride, sodium • Enzymes bisulphate, lactic acid, boric acid) • Sulphuric acid or • Napthalene sulfonic Pickling hydrochloric acid, sodium acid chloride or sodium sulphate • Vegetable tannins Cheap organic solvent (e.g., Degreasing/Deliming • Enzymes paraffin), salt • • Enzymes • Vegetable tannins • Fruit tannins Sodium chloride, sulfuric Isocyanates, Tanning • • acid • Aluminium, tannic acid, and silica combination • Iron Vegetable tannins or Retanning • Fruit tannins synthetic tannins •

2.7.1 Alternatives to Traditional Beamhouse Operations

A. Enzymes

There is renewed interest in enzymes for beamhouse operations because of

“vast catalytic potential, high specificity and high catalytic activity under mild environmental conditions of pH, temperature and pressure” (Coudhary et al., 2004).

The current enzyme use resides in applications such as fermentation of wine, beer, cheese, bread and many vegetables (Coudhary et al., 2004). These enzymes are modified and become isolated, purified and immobilized for use in cell-mediated conversions (Coudhary et al., 2004). Enzyme microorganisms are derived from the cells of bacteria, fungus, vegetable and animals that either occurs naturally or from

DNA that has been genetically modified (Coudhary et al., 2004). Currently they play an integral role in the treatment of water, industrial effluence, crude oil spills, degradation of petroleum sludge and fly ash dump, eco-restoration of mine dumps, and degraded eco-systems (Coudhary et al., 2004). Enzymes are used for common applications like fuel oil additive, construction mould release agent, dissolution of blood clots, removal of dead tissue, protein rich material modification, turbidity removal in beverage and reverse hydrolysis in aspartame synthesis (Coudhary et al.,

2004). There is potential for further enzyme use in leather, agriculture, and the pharmaceutical and textile industries (Coudhary et al., 2004).

In leather production, enzymes are used directly in the stages of soaking, bating, degreasing, dehairing, and waste processing (Coudhary et al., 2004;

Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). The enzymes most commonly used in leather

production are proteases (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). While the most common enzymes were once derived from the feces of pigeons and dogs, the products are now standardized as a combination of deliming salts and enzymes derived from pig pancreatic glands (Hamer et al.,1966). Enzymes used in the soaking process help to remove protein and result in a shorter soaking period (Coudhary et al., 2004). In bating, enzymes are used in order to break down certain protein and improve flexibility (Hamer et al., 1966). The use of enzymes in bating makes the process very efficient if temperature and pH are properly controlled (Coudhary et al., 2004).

Enzymes, lipases more specifically, were incorporated into the dehairing process to develop a production stage that was both safer and cleaner than the traditional methods (Coudhary et al., 2004; Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010;

Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). Because dehairing alone is the largest leather production process in terms of water and processing chemical use, it requires large amounts of industrial enzymes (Coudhary et al., 2004). Enzymes can be used to remove hair but can cause damage to the dermal collagen (Coudhary et al., 2004). For this reason, a dehairing enzyme paste was developed that was found to be physically and economically competitive with chemical dehairing (Coudhary et al., 2004). An isolated alkaline protease enzyme was developed for dehairing that can be used to yield soft leather (Coudhary et al., 2004). The many advantages of enzyme dehairing include enzyme action control, reduction of sulfide use, greater time efficiency, pollution/dry sludge reduction and clean up cost reduction (Coudhary et al., 2004;

Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). A disadvantage to using enzyme dehairing is that the

enzymes are more expensive than the process chemicals used traditionally. There is also careful control needed to handle the enzymes and the possibility that the hides’ altered states will require further changes in processing after dehairing (Coudhary et al., 2004).

A process of enzyme-based fiber opening has also been developed and standardized for use on goatskins and cowhides (Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). With the incorporation of enzymes into this process, it allows deliming to become an unnecessary step (Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). The fiber bundles being opened using enzymes are comparable to the same step done using lime (Saravanbhavan et al.,

2003). When used alongside the enzymatic dehairing process, these two methods render the bating process useless, having already met its purpose (Saravanbhavan et al., 2003).

Although enzymes are not directly involved in the tanning process itself, residual enzymes used in the pre-tanning treatments have a significant effect on tanning quality (Coudhary, Jana, & Jha, 2004). When compared to vegetable tanned leather, the enzyme treatment had better tactile evaluation, better hydrothermal stability and comparable fiber structure (Kanth et al., 2008).

Researchers Saravanbhavan, Aravindhan, Thanikaivelan, Raghava Rao, and

Unni Nair (2003) suggest, “Enzymes are exemplary agents of green technology” (p.

708). Using enzymes in the tanning process is both environmentally friendly and process time efficient, resulting in higher production yield (Coudhary et al., 2004;

Saravanbhavan et al., 2003).

Using enzymes to replace sulfide in the dehairing process reduces the amount of polluted effluent (Coudhary et al., 2004). The use of enzymes in the fiber opening process allows for better water uptake than with the traditional method

(Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). These enzymatic processes also eliminate the need for the use of sulfuric acid and sodium chloride that is present in the traditional tanning process (Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). Neither enzyme process yields dry sludge as a pollutant and reduces water consumption, chemical consumption, effluent treatment needed, and energy used (Saravanbhavan et al., 2003).

Bacterial threats are a greater risk with a long soaking time (Coudhary et al.,

2004). The use of enzymes in this process reduces the need for surfactants and therefore reduces pollutants (Coudhary et al., 2004). Enzymes have also been used to solubilize chrome shavings (Coudhary et al., 2004).

In one study by Kanth, Madhulatha, Madhan, Venba and Chandrababu (2008), they used an enzymatic tanning treatment compared to traditional vegetable tanning process, which had 97% exhaustion versus the vegetable treatment’s 85% exhaustion

(Kanth et al., 2008).

B. Salt Free Pickling

This process uses naphthalene sulfonic, a well-known and heavily researched acid (Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). The salts used to suppress acid swelling in the traditional pickling process help to increase the dissolved solids in total

(Saravanbhavan et al., 2003). Salt free pickling can greatly reduce the emission of mild alkali salts and the amount of dry sludge yielded (Saravanbhavan et al., 2003).

C. Oxidative Unhairing Process

As an alternative to the traditional chromium dehairing phase of the

Beamhouse operations, an oxidative unhairing process using hydrogen peroxide instead of sodium sulfide has been developed (Castiello et al., 2008). Previous testing has shown that the resulting leather is comparable in terms of technical, physical and mechanical properties to those done by traditional methods (Castiello et al., 2008).

This process is also compatible with the existing machinery, making the alternative process economically feasible (Castiello et al., 2008). There are environmental benefits with the reduction in environmental load from the oxidative unhairing process compared to the traditional chromium method (Castiello et al., 2008).

D. Vegetable Tannins

Traditional methods may also be substituted in specific processes in favor of using vegetable tannins, such as for its use in place of chemicals and salts commonly used in the soaking float or pickling process (Colak, 2007; Saravanbhavan et al.,

2004).

2.7.2 Alternatives to Traditional Tanning Agents

A. Vegetable Tanning

One of the oldest methods used in converting hides to leather is vegetable tanning (Qiang et al., 2008, Kanth et al., 2008). Vegetable tanned leather has been historically used as armor (following hardening) and book bindings (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010). Tannin and other ingredients derived from tree bark, vegetable

matter and other sources are used in the process (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010).

High quality, supple leather can be produced with the use of vegetable tanning agents

(Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010; Madhan et al., 2005). However, vegetable- tanned leather is unstable in water and can become discolored and brittle and may shrink (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010).

The entire tanning process can be performed effectively using certain types of vegetable tannins in place of chemicals traditionally used in order to produce high quality leather (Hilbert, 1938). They may be used individually, as with oak bark tannin, or in combinations of two or more different vegetable tannins (Hilbert, 1938).

Leathers produced using vegetable tanning are generally dense, firm and have a high level of dimensional stability (Hamer et al., 1966). Due to its properties, vegetable tanned leather is typically used for applications such as shoes, belting, bags, upholstery and book binding (Hamer et al., 1966).

Because most vegetable tanning extracts are easily biodegradable, most forms of vegetable tannins are be classified as an environmentally friendly leather chemical

(Qiang et al., 2008). Agents used in vegetable tanning decompose under acidic and oxidative conditions and promote similar decomposition of collagen (Larsen, 2000).

With use of the correct tanning agents, there is greater conservation of water, time, cost and power (Madhan et al., 2005).

Vegetable tannins contain phenols catechol and pyrogallol, which are both effective against microorganisms and for this reason are often used as a substitute for the hazardous biocides typically used in the soaking process (Colak, 2007; Qiang et

al., 2008). While vegetable tannins inhibit microorganism growth, non-tannins in vegetable tannin extracts promote growth (Qiang et al., 2008). However, biodegradation will occur once microorganisms in the tannery-activated sludge adapt

(Qiang et al., 2008). In a study done by Colak (2007), gall-nut and chestnut were both examined to determine whether microorganism activity was prevented. Both were found as viable, eco-friendly alternatives to biocide (Colak, 2007).

There are a few problems with using vegetable tannins as a chemical alternative. While the vegetable tannins will eventually biodegrade, their inclusion in the process can leave treated wastewater with a retained residual color (Kanth et al.,

2008). New strategies also need to be devised in order to improve vegetable tannin take-up during the process so that there is less vegetable waste (Kanth et al., 2008).

B. Fruit Tanning

Fruit is used as a preventative measure against putrefaction, just as chrome is used in the traditional tanning method. Fruit tanning also encourages suppleness, improves hand, fills looser parts, improves resistance to general wear, alkali and perspiration, and increases moisture resistance (Booth, 2009). Applications of this process include footwear, clothing, upholstery, luggage and other accessories (Booth,

2009).

The tannins are extracted from the fleshy fruits by being pulped, heated in high temperature water and spray dried for longer preservation. The fruit is then introduced into a tanning-processing drum to get a homogenous mixture. Tannins are extracted through using a pressing technique (Booth, 2009).

Fruit tanning is advantageous in many ways including sustainability. Fruit is both a renewable resource and the edible waste is available readily for use in the process (Booth, 2009).

C. Isocyanate Tanning

When used as a tanning agent base, because isocyanates have a relatively low molecular weight and are highly effective in cross-linking collagen molecules, they can increase leather’s shrinkage temperature (Ebbinghaus et al., 2005). This tanning agent can also help to improve lightfastness (Ebbinghaus et al., 2005). Isocyanate tanning agents can also be used in conjunction with synthetic, vegetable or fruit tanning agents to further improve leather quality (Ebbinghaus et al., 2005).

However, although isocyanate tanning agents have low water solubility and higher vapor pressure, they cannot be used in commercial tanning machines

(Ebbinghaus et al., 2005). Other reported disadvantages to using isocyanate-based tanning agents have included high cost, requiring technically high quality, and reduced tanning action due to the alcohol content (Ebbinghaus et al., 2005).

D. Eco-Benign Tanning

This chrome-free tanning system uses a combination of aluminium, tannic acid

(vegetable tannin precursor) and silica (Nishad et al., 2004). Tannic acid is used because of its low molecular weight as compared to vegetable tannins (Nishad

Fathima et al., 2004). It can thus be used to make leather and avoid problems when using vegetable tannins, such as hard biodegradability of tannins, darkness and fullness of leathers (Nishad Fathima et al., 2004). Aluminium enhances hydrothermal

stability and gives the leather pastel coloring, which allows for the application of natural dyeing (Nishad Fathima et al., 2004). Silica allows for leather softness and fluffiness due to its ability to fill loose portions (Nishad Fathima et al., 2004). Through the process there is also 98% aluminium exhaustion (Nishad Fathima et al., 2004). The leather strength is competitive or better than chrome tanned leather (Nishad Fathima et al., 2004). This tanning system requires no pickling in the pretanning phase (Nishad

Fathima et al., 2004).

Using this system, leathers were softer, had better bulk properties, comparable strength, moderately good light fastness, good color intensity, better fiber structure and smoother grain (Nishad Fathima et al., 2004). There are also environmental advantages including a significant reduction in pollution and a greater degree of biodegradability (Nishad Fathima et al., 2004).

E. Iron Tanning

Iron, in combination with other tanning metals, is being examined as a non- pollutant tanning agent (Gaidau, Platon, & Badea, 1998). Iron has the ability to cross- link collagen and positively impact softness and leather filling (Gaidau et al., 1998). In studies, using iron as a tannage had no impact on leather quality (Gaidau et al., 1998).

It also provided faster penetration, high chrome exhaustion in the tanning float and good fiber quality such as brilliant shades, fullness and softness (Gaidau et al., 1998).

When used without other organic agents, the tanning material is also very inexpensive

(Gaidau et al., 1998).

2.7.3 Alternatives to Traditional Tanning Process

There is a high exhaustion process with total chrome tanning liquor exhaustion and lower chrome oxide concentration that supplies high quality leather called the

Cr.A.B. tanning process (Cuq, & Delman, 1999). Results have shown that the volume of effluent can be cut in half using this process (Cuq, & Delman, 1999). Compared to the traditional tanning process, when the leather is washed and wrung out, no released chromium is found (Cuq, & Delman, 1999). Leather tanned using this process is comparable to leather tanned using traditional methods and is commercially viable

(Cuq, & Delman, 1999).

The advantage of the Cr.A.B. tanning process is that it is applied with minimal disruption to the conventional process, permits significant reduction in chrome use, promotes low solid and liquid effluent, exhaust liquor is recyclable, obtained leather has good physical/chemical properties, and the new process may be adaptable to raw materials other than ovine hides (Cuq, & Delman, 1999).

The process is done in four stages: pretannage, masking, tannage and neutralization (Cuq, & Delman, 1999). In the pretannage stage, a traditional tanning agent with weak tanning action is used to improve skin diffusion and chrome penetration (Cuq, & Delman, 1999). In masking, a sodium sulfite/sodium formate mixture (Mesa Q) is used as a masking agent to increase molecular size, lower the charge and strengthen the leather’s chrome complex absorption (Cuq, & Delman,

1999). In the tannage stage, commercial self-basifying chrome tanning agents are used because they automatically adjust themselves to the necessary pH amount to

reach required basicity (Cuq, & Delman, 1999). Use of these salts leads to a more uniform chromium fixation and rapid penetration (Cuq, & Delman, 1999). Lastly, in the neutralization stage, sodium bicarbonate and a neutralizing agent mixture (Baso

CH) are used to raise the pH level to increase reactivity of chromium complexes and improve chromium fixation (Cuq, & Delman, 1999).

2.7.4 Alternatives to Traditional Retanning Methods

Fruit tanning can be used as a retanning agent following hide preparation and synthetic or vegetable tanning (Booth, 2009). Since they contain tannins known as polyphenolic compounds, fleshy fruits such as pomes and cider or bittersweet apples are preferred for the tanning process (Booth, 2009). To extract these tannins, the apples are first pulped; being heated in water at a high temperature and then spray dried to increase preservation time (Booth, 2009). To obtain a homogenous mixture, the apple is then introduced into a tanning processing drum (Booth, 2009). Using pressing, the tannins are then extracted (Booth, 2009).

2.8 Future of Chrome-Tanned Leather Production

Alexander, Corning, Cory, Donohue, and Sykes (1992) argue that substitution in the leather production process is the superior method to reducing the impact waste and chemicals have on the environment. Other researchers make a case that chromium tanning can have a low environmental impact as a reagent, and that chrome is believed to be the future of tanning but with improved technologies (Covington, 2008;

Mukherjee et al., 2005). Some researchers even draw the conclusion that tanning salts are irreplaceable as a tanning agent because of the high quality leather they produce

and their ease of use (Mukherjee et al., 2005). Through the development of tanning baths and the recycling of residual water, tanners are economizing water and chemicals while also reducing chromium emission rates (Mukherjee et al., 2005). In the past, chromium exhaustion in the tanning floats ranged from 60-80% (Mukherjee et al., 2005). With the new processes, chromium exhaustion can reach around 97%

(Mukherjee et al., 2005). Treatment plants for effluent liquid waste are also being installed all over the world in order to provide a treatment zone for use in areas where there is a high concentration of tanneries (Mukherjee et al., 2005).

Theoretical Framework 2.9 Overview

The first section of the literature review provided an overview of leather production’s impact on the environment. The present study seeks to understand how consumers’ environmental values and knowledge regarding the environmental impact of leather production impact consumers’ attitudes towards and purchase behavior surrounding leather products. Therefore, Fishbein’s Theory of Reasoned Action

(Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) and Dickson’s (2000) elaboration on this theory shaped the design of the present study. According to the Theory of Reasoned Action, an individual’s purchase behavior can be predicted by his/her expressed intention to purchase an object. In turn, an individual’s intention to purchase is shaped by his/her attitude towards an object. An individual’s attitude towards an object is based on a holistic evaluation of the criteria he/she uses to evaluate the object. Ultimately, an individual’s evaluation of and resulting attitude towards an object is influenced by

his/her knowledge and beliefs about the object (Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980), as well as his/her personal values (Dickson, 2000).

In this section, an overview of Fishbein’s Theory of Reasoned Action, as well as Dickson’s (2000) elaboration on the theory, will be presented. Related concepts central to the present study, including attitude, beliefs and knowledge, and values will be discussed in detail. Furthermore, prior research related to the theory of reasoned action and the environment will be presented.

2.10 Theory of Reasoned Action

The following theoretical framework and extensions of the original model are used to identify potentially significant factors that influence consumer attitudes and behavioral intentions, terms that will both be further explained and defined. The

Theory of Reasoned Action was originally developed by Martin Fishbein and introduced to the research world in 1967 (Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980). In the next decade, Fishbein alongside Icek Ajzen redeveloped, refined and tested the updated theory (Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980). It proposes that there are “relations among beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behavior” (p. 9) and that both attitude and subjective norm are factors in determining behavioral intention (Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980; Engel et al.,

1995). The Theory of Reasoned Action is referred to as such “based on the assumption that human beings are usually quite rational and make systematic use of the information available to them” (Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980, p. 5). The TRA is a multiattribute attitude model; meaning it examines the beliefs about an object’s attributes, the salience of an object’s attributes and how the evaluations form an object

attitude (Engel et al., 1995). Of all multiattribute models in existence, Fishbein’s

Theory of Reasoned Action is possibly best known (Engel et al., 1995). This type of model is highly regarded in research due to its significant diagnostic abilities (Engel et al., 1995). These abilities stem from in-depth information collected about consumer choices and the reasons behind them, as opposed to the traditional cognitive component perspective of looking only at general measures of evaluation and behavioral intention (Engel et al., 1995).

For the purpose of this particular study, we will only be examining attitude as a factor toward behavioral intention. From Ajzen and Fishbein’s (1980) perspective, “an attitude toward any concept is simply a person’s general feeling of favorableness or unfavorableness for that concept” (p. 54). They suggest that attitude be looked at as an overall evaluation, as it is widely believed that evaluation is the key component of attitude. Any attitude toward an object or product exists as a result of how the attribute beliefs are summed up as a whole and how each individual attribute is weighted by evaluation (Bennet, & Kassarjian, 1972, Engel et al., 1995; Robertson, 1970).

Beliefs are a determinant of attitude and can thus be viewed as a factor that influences behavioral intention. The beliefs that people have about their environment and themselves are information that is processed when forming attitudes that will determine behavioral intentions. Beliefs held about an object determine what attitude is held toward the object. Associating an object with certain characteristics, attributes, and qualities is what forms beliefs about the object. If these characteristics are found to be positive, a favorable attitude toward the object is formed. Many beliefs towards

objects, events or actions may be formed based off of a person’s life experiences.

Some beliefs stand the test of time, while others may be disregarded and new beliefs formed. Just as “attitudes must correspond to intentions, beliefs must correspond to attitudes if they are to permit either prediction or understanding of those attitudes”

(Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980, p. 64).

Each attribute varies in salience, or the relevance and importance of an attribute to an individual (Bennet, & Kassarjian, 1972, Engel et al., 1995; Robertson,

1970). According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), the few beliefs that are most salient to a person are what immediately determine the attitude. People tend to be more knowledgeable about things that are important to them, giving them more certainty about the information, which further influences their attitude (Ajzen, & Fishbein,

1980). “[…] A person’s attitude toward a behavior is determined by his salient beliefs that performing the behavior leads to certain outcomes and by his evaluations of those outcomes” (Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980, p. 67).

2.10.1 Extensions of the Theory of Reasoned Action

Dickson (2000) proposes a model that was developed based on Fishbein’s multiattribute attitude model that focuses on beliefs, values, attitude and behavioral intention. Dickson (2000) updated this model to include an additional factor of knowledge. The model shows a relationship between “personal values” and “attitude”, as well as “beliefs and knowledge” and “attitude”. In turn, attitude relates to intention to purchase. Values, beliefs and knowledge all serve as the formation base of attitudes, which is a predictor of behavioral intentions (Dickson, 2000).

Dickson (2000) and other researchers define values as “abstract principles that are central to an individual’s self-concept […] They act as guides for assessing situations and determining an individual’s social and ideological positions” (Dickson,

2000; Rokeach, 1979; Smith, 1982). Since values are both resistant to change and centrally held, it is believed that they steadily influence both attitude and behavior in many situations (Dickson, 2000; Munson, 1984).

Dickson (2000) suggests that knowledge plays a part in whether consumers hold positive or negative attitudes toward objects and behavioral intention. Dickson

(2000) also states that consumers who hold beliefs affirming that an issue exists have greater levels of concern and will alter their behavioral intention.

2.11 Behavioral Intention and its Related Concepts

Behavioral intention can best be described as the purposeful aim to perform a specific action (Engel et al., 1995). Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) suggested that behavioral intention is largely influenced by the attitude held toward the behavior, and whether the attitude is positive or not. Without a positive attitude regarding the consequence of the person imagining them selves performing the action, the intention to perform that specific behavior decreases (Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980). Additionally, values, beliefs and knowledge all serve as the formation base of attitudes, which therefore means they are an influential predictor of behavioral intentions (Dickson,

2000).

2.11.1 Attitude

Attitude is simply defined as a general evaluation. Attitudes are consumers’ likes and dislikes. “Attitudes usually play a major role in shaping consumer behavior”

(Engel et al., 1995). Attitude is defined by Kretch and Crutchfield (1948) as “an enduring organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual, and cognitive processes with respect to some aspects of the individual’s world.”

Bennet, & Kassarjian (1972) state that attitude as “a set of regularities of an individual’s feelings, thoughts, and predispositions to behave toward some aspect of the world” (p. 77). Attitude is inherently not neutral, but instead very insistent. The attitude may be either extremely positive or unusually negative. Attitude is what defines an individual’s position as for or against something, whether it is obvious to outsiders or not. Individuals may not even be fully aware of their attitudes. While it is possible to hold a belief without an attitude, it is not possible to hold an attitude without a belief. Attitudes must be directed at something, corresponding to their overall evaluations. They are developed and formed through a learning process over time and through interaction with others. Thus, it can be concluded that others’ personal values, beliefs and knowledge can impact an individual’s attitudes (Bennet,

& Kassarjian, 1972).

Attitudes can vary among dimensions such as valence, extremity, resistance, persistence and confidence. Whether the attitude is negative, positive or neutral refers to the dimension of valence. Degrees to which something is favorable or unfavorable relates to the attitude’s extremity. Resistance refers to what degree an attitude is

vulnerable to change. Persistence relates to how an attitude may dissolve with the passing of time. Degree of confidence with a person’s attitude will vary based on how strongly people believe themselves to be correct. “Attitudes associated with greater confidence are more resistant to change” (Engel et al., 1995). Dickson (2000) states that unlike values, attitudes are specifically focused on situations/objects that are more apt to change. Research has shown that attitudes can be an accurate predictor of behavior, especially when attitudes are highly specific and correspond with the behavior being examined (Dickson, 2000). A study found that when subjects were asked to recall a time when they felt good about themselves, they answered questions and approached future behavioral intention with a more broad-minded outlook

(Nyhan, 2014).

A. Attitudes and Evaluative Criteria

There is general agreement among scholars that the most significant part of attitude is evaluation (Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980). It has also been found to be an essential step in the process of purchase decision (de Klerk, & Lubbe, 2004). Past researchers have defined evaluative criteria as “the standards and specifications used by consumers to compare different products and brands” (Engel et al., 1995, p. 51;

Dickson, & Littrell, 1997). When evaluating products, consumers take many factors into consideration (Huddleston et al., 1993). Consumers can obtain product information from surface cues alone (Huddleston et al., 1993). Many authors have previously classified product evaluative criteria as intrinsic and extrinsic. Eckman,

Damhorst, & Kadolph (1990) explain intrinsic cues as “product attributes that cannot

be changed or manipulated without also changing the physical characteristics of the product itself.” They further explain extrinsic cues as “product attributes that are not component parts of the physical product but that are applied by the manufacturer or retailer.” Past research indicates that the more product-knowledgeable the consumer is, the more they rely on intrinsic cues and “true” extrinsic cues than on “perceived” extrinsic cues (Hatch, & Roberts, 1985). Research proposes that intrinsic characteristics are of more value to consumers than extrinsic characteristics in product evaluation (Dickson, & Littrell, 1997; Eckman et al., 1990; Hatch, & Roberts, 1985).

Extent of knowledge about, or familiarity with, a product impacts how a consumer uses information to evaluate product attributes (Hatch, & Roberts, 1985).

Apparel evaluation is influenced by many different criteria, including price, brand, physical performance (i.e. care requirements, workmanship, fabric, color), physical appearance (i.e. styling, fabric, color, pattern, texture), advertising image, store image, expressive components (i.e. how the user feels in the garment) and more (Abraham-

Murali, & Littrell, 1995; Eckman et al., 1990). Abraham-Murali and Littrell (1995) suggest that consumers use both data driven and concept driven perceptual modes in order to identify attributes of a product. Data driven perceptual mode involves the sense of the consumer such as feel and color to get concrete, tangible information. In concept driven perceptual mode, abstractions are used to gather information such as whether a garment can be cared for easily and how the consumer will feel wearing it.

It has been suggested that attitude, an insistent favorable or unfavorable feeling regarding product attributes, leads to behavioral intention (Bennett, & Kassarjian,

1972, p. 76). Additionally, any attitude that exists toward a product is the direct result of a number of beliefs held toward each individual product attribute (p. 78). More simply put, consumers hold certain beliefs about a product’s various attributes based on what they view as true. In turn, each attribute varies in salience, depending on how relevant it is to the consumer. Once each attribute is evaluated and beliefs are formed, these beliefs can be looked at as a whole in order to make an overall product evaluation and assign a positive or negative attitude toward the product (Bennett, &

Kassarjian, 1972, p. 78).

The majority of research shows that while criteria such as aesthetics and price influence behavioral intention, characteristics such as workmanship and country of origin have only a minor effect (Abraham-Murali, & Littrell, 1995; Eckman et al.,1990). Dickson (2000) indicates that not very many consumers are aware of their apparel’s origin and fewer yet don’t voice a concern. What can be gathered from this is that societal attitudes and beliefs probably have less of an impact on behavioral intention than product criteria (Dickson, 2000).

B. Attitude Toward a Behavior and Behavioral Intention

“Social psychologists consider attitudes to be among the most basic constructs leading to behavior” (Bennett, & Kassarjian, 1972, p. 76). What Ajzen and Fishbein

(1980) meant by “the term attitude toward a behavior” (p. 56) was that an individual’s evaluation of a behavior to be good or bad relates to whether they view performing the specific behavior in a favorable or unfavorable manner. “[…] A person’s attitude toward a behavior is determined by his salient beliefs that performing the behavior

leads to certain outcomes and by his evaluations of those outcomes” Ajzen,

&Fishbein, 1980; Fransson, & Garling, 1999). The more favorable an individual’s attitude is toward a behavior, the greater the intention they have to perform the behavior (Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980; Engel et al., 1995). Bennett and Kassarjian (1972) offer data suggesting that positive attitudes increase purchase intention and predisposition to purchase (p. 93). The more unfavorable an individual’s attitude toward a behavior, the lower the intention they have to perform the behavior (Ajzen,

& Fishbein, 1980). The attitude that relates to a person’s behavioral intention stems from the person’s evaluation of himself or herself performing the behavior (Ajzen, &

Fishbein, 1980).

Attitudes can be very helpful in understanding the reasons behind consumer behavior and behavioral intention, especially when attitudes are connected to what knowledge a consumer possesses about a product (Dickson, 2000; Engel et al., 1995).

Consumers who have purchased a product in the past should have an attitude more predictive of future behavioral intention than those consumers who have not shared that purchase experience (Engel et al., 1995). Neither attitude nor intentions are static and can change based on situation and circumstance (Engel et al., 1995).

2.11.2 Values

As stated earlier, values can be defined as abstract principles, central to the self-concept of an individual (Dickson, 2000; Rokeach, 1979; Smith, 1982). They can be viewed as “beliefs pertaining to desirable end states of modes or conduct that transcend specific situations and guide choices of actions” (Fransson, & Garling,

1999). Different values are tapped for different situations (Dickson, 2000; Munson,

1984). Since they resist change and are centrally held, values are thought to have a continual influence on both behaviors and attitudes (Dickson, 2000; Munson, 1984).

Even with attempts to change prior beliefs, the original beliefs held by an individual can continue to influence them through both thoughts and memories of the original exposure (Nyhan et al., 2014).

Dickson and Littrell (1996) studied consumers who made purchases from alternative trade organizations and found that they put greater emphasis on societally centered values. These consumers rated the worker conditions more negatively, had greater concern for workers, and were much likelier to support fair trade movements

(Dickson, 2000). Environmental-related values are of interest in the present study.

Dunlap (2008) developed a scale to measure proenvironmental orientation, the New

Ecological Paradigm (NEP) scale. The NEP is a new way to think, representative of growing environmental concern (Fransson, & Garling, 1999). The scale is used to measure environmental values, concern, attitudes and most accurately as an environmental belief measurement (Dunlap, 2008). The scale incorporates five facets in ecological worldview: reality of limits to growth, antianthropocentrism, fragility of nature’s balance, rejection of exemptionalism, and possibility of ecocrisis. Dunlap

(2008) states that the NEP “has become the most widely used measure of environmental concern in the world and has been employed in hundreds of studies in dozens of nations.”

Riley Dunlap developed the original version of the New Ecological Paradigm scale in the late 1970’s as a response to Pirages and Ehrlich’s (1974) Dominant Social

Paradigm, or DSP (Dunlap, 2008). The DSP can be described as “the prominent worldview, model, or frame of reference through which individuals, or collectively, a society, interpret the meaning of the external world” (Dunlap, 2008). Through his review of the DSP, Dunlap concluded that it was perhaps more widely accepted and geared towards Republicans and conservatives rather than liberals, Democrats and conservationists (Dunlap, 2008). His real interest laid in comparing peoples’ environmental beliefs and how these beliefs related to their political party affiliation

(Dunlap, 2008). Dunlap’s original NEP scale encapsulated the environmental concern’s shift to a new view from the dominant view (Cardano et al., 2003). The dominant view depicted the environment as humankind’s bountiful and unlimited domain, while Dunlap’s new view expressed the environment as both fragile and limited (Cardano et al., 2003).

Although Dunlap’s first 12-item scale was largely criticized in the beginning as being unidimensional, lacking predictive validity and being too outlandish for mainstream research use, it gained popularity in the late 1980’s as environmental concern became far more relevant to societal issues (Dunlap, 2008; Cardano et al.,

2003). A 6-item version of the NEP scale was developed and used in many cross- national studies in the early 1990’s, contributing to its visibility (Dunlap, 2008). The abbreviated scale is said to be reliable and even more appropriate in certain research when individual items are being measured (Cardano et al., 2003; Dunlap, 2008).

Dunlap (2008) had wanted to revise the original scale and in the midst of this,

Cotgrove’s (1982) bipolar measurement technique arose. Cotgrove’s (1982) scale used bipolar items to measure subjects’ support for either the NEP and DSP side-by-side, rather than having them separately compete with one another (Dunlap, 2008). As sustainable development gained ground, the bipolar measurement technique didn’t appeal to people, as they felt there were more sustainable options than what was offered by solely looking at the DSP and NEP scales (Dunlap, 2008).

The original NEP scale was updated in 1992 to include updated content and language (Cardano et al., 2003). The validity was tested against the original scale and it has been said to be at least comparable if not improved upon (Cardano et al., 2003).

The NEP scale was finally revised and published as a 15-item scale with both positive- and negative- NEP facets (Dunlap, 2008). Revisions included were the addition of

“two new facets of an ecological worldview” with the purpose of measuring the degree of feelings respondents have regarding eco-regulations on modern industry and likelihood or an eco-crisis occurring (Dunlap, 2008). While the revised scale has found most of its use in measuring environmental values, concerns, attitudes and beliefs, a recent development is the NEP scale’s use in risk perception research as well as a completed meta-analysis of the scale (Dunlap, 2008).

As mentioned earlier, the scale has been heavily questioned for it’s lack of unidimensionality and there are still differing opinions regarding the revised scale today (Dunlap, 2008). Researchers have also criticized the scale’s use outside of a western country but it has successfully been used internationally, as well as in cross-

national comparisons (Dunlap, 2008). Overall, results demonstrate that each version of the NEP scale is appropriate for a different end use while maintaining validity. Neither is superior to the other and the original NEP is still regarded as a valuable tool

(Cardano et al., 2003). “[…] Researchers have noted that the scale has predictive, construct, and content validity” (Fransson, & Garling, 1999).

2.11.3 Beliefs and Knowledge

As mentioned earlier, beliefs and knowledge are interrelated concepts. Bennett and Kassarjian (1972) state,

A belief (or an opinion) is an emotionally neutral cognition or a “knowledge”

that the individual holds about some aspect or object in the environment – that

is, the things a person “knows” to be true from his own point of view,

consisting of the facts about something as he sees them at a given point in time

(p. 76).

Many beliefs towards objects, events or actions may be formed based off of a person’s life experiences. Some beliefs stand the test of time, while others may be disregarded and new beliefs formed (Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980). Beliefs are used in evaluating object attributes and potential outcomes of specific actions. These beliefs/evaluation are used to form a positive or negative attitude, thus influencing our behavioral intention (Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980; Engel et al., 1995).

“At a general level, knowledge can be defined as the information stored within memory. The subset of total information relevant to consumers functioning in the marketplace is called consumer knowledge” (Engel et al., 1995). Information that

consumers hold about a product has a large impact on both purchasing patterns and behavioral intention (Engel et al., 1995). For the present study, knowledge regarding leather production is of interest and is addressed in the leather production section of the literature review.

2.12 Research on Concepts Related to Behavioral Intention and the Environment

The following research is related to the previously mentioned relationships between behavioral intention and the concepts of attitude, beliefs, values and knowledge in terms of the environment.

2.12.1 Environmental Values and Behavioral Intention

Fransson and Garling (1999) present findings that suggest there is a relationship “between values and environmentally friendly behaviour.” In another study, a relationship was found between “societally-centered values and consumer behavior” (Dickson, & Littrell, 1997). It has been shown that values relate to readiness towards pro-environmental behavior, or intention (Fransson, & Garling, 1999).

Researchers have categorized eco-friendly behavior in the domain of morals, showing that values are essential in explaining behaviors (Fransson, & Garling, 1999).

Dickson (2000) states that although values are resistant to change, environmental issues and their growing salience to individuals through sources such as the news can create a shift in both priorities and values. The greater importance widespread societal values gain, the greater suspicion held towards business intentions by consumers (Dickson, 2000). While a shift in consumer values creates concerns about the apparel industry being socially responsible, these concerns may not be a

factor in consumer behavioral intention (Dickson, 2000). Fransson and Garling state,

“[…] Differences in values or value orientation account for differences in environmental concern and, to some lower degree, differences in intentions to perform pro-environmental behaviours.”

However, in a study by Collett, Cluver and Chen (2013), they stated that although the consumer may hold a high degree of concern for the environment, this might not equate to a high degree of environmental behavior. Studies have found that consumers who show environmental concern may not be as eager to practice this concern when it comes down to purchasing behavior. While consumers may have found the environment to be important in theory, in practice other evaluative criteria such as aesthetic and price overshadowed this (Collett et. al, 2013).

2.12.2 Environmental Beliefs and Behavioral Intention

“Environmental concern has been treated as an evaluation of, or an attitude towards facts, one’s own behaviour, or others’ behaviour with consequences for the environment” (Fransson, & Garling, 1999). The beliefs that people have about their environment and themselves are information that is processed when forming attitudes that will determine behavioral intentions (Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980).

Large corporations are both publicly lauded and praised as a reflection of their business practices and whether they are responsible (Dickson, 2000). An increasing amount of consumers believe that corporations are largely responsible for certain societal problems. These beliefs have lead some consumers to demand change and

have philosophers predicting that many businesses will soon reform their practices

(Dickson, 2000; Embley, 1993; Hawken, 1993).

2.12.3 Environmental Knowledge and Behavioral Intention

The knowledge consumers have regarding environmental issues may play a role in both apparel consumption and intention to be environmentally responsible

(Dickson, 2000, Shim, 2995). People tend to be more knowledgeable about things that are salient to them, giving them more certainty about the information, which further influences their attitude and therefore behavioral intention (Ajzen, & Fishbein, 1980;

Fransson, & Garling, 1999).

In a study by Dickson (2000), consumers suggested that their knowledge regarding the apparel industry was limited for the most part. However, those who were knowledgeable had higher levels of concern and were more eager to support apparel businesses that were socially responsible. While educating consumers on environmental issues has not been a priority of the apparel industry, research indicates that greater consumer knowledge can lead to purchase intention from socially responsible businesses (Dickson, 2000).

2.12.4 Environmental Attitude and Behavioral Intention

Intentions are directly determined by a specific attitude regarding environmental concern. If environmental concern is viewed as good, behavioral intention is increased (Fransson, & Garling, 1999). Additionally, although consumers may have a positive attitude toward socially responsible businesses, other product attributes may be more salient when forming product attitudes (Dickson, 2000).

Another issue with responsible behavior is that it requires consumers to actively limit the range of things available for them to purchase (Dickson, 2000).

However, an increased positive attitude toward environmental concern creates an increased positive attitude towards pro-environmental behavior (Fransson, &

Garling, 1999). If the attitude’s degree of importance is increased, the intention will also increase, and the likelihood of creating behavioral change will increase (Fransson,

& Garling, 1999).

CHAPTER 3

METHODS

3.1 Overview

The purpose of this research was to investigate whether exposure to information regarding the environmental and health impact of leather production would ultimately change consumers’ beliefs, attitudes and intentions to purchase leather products. The Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein, 1967), an extension of

Fishbein’s TRA (Dickson, 2000), and the New Ecological Paradigm (Dunlap, 1980) served as guides when identifying concepts related to behavior intention regarding leather products; therefore, they were instrumental in developing hypotheses and measurement instruments that drove the design of the study. A survey was developed and administered to test both proposed hypotheses and the model by means of data collection. A detailed description of methods used during this study will be explained throughout this chapter.

3.2 Research Design

To address the first objective of this study, a modification of classical experimental design, using a pre-test and post-test format, was followed. Four hypotheses were tested in which the independent variable was subjects’ exposure to knowledge about leather production and its environmental and health impact delivered via the lecture design for this study. The dependent variables included subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ attributes, subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ environmental and health impacts, and subjects’ attitudes towards purchasing leather

products. All subjects took a pre-test, which measured independent variables before exposure to the lecture. All subjects took an identical post-test, which measured independent variables after exposure to the lecture. To address the first objective, data was used collectively to test hypotheses, regardless of whether or not consumers held a proenvironmental orientation.

To address the second objective of this study, relationships between the levels to which subjects’ values encompassed a proenvironmental orientation and subjects’ beliefs, attitudes, and intentions were investigated. Four hypotheses were tested in which the independent variable was subjects’ environmental values, specifically subjects’ levels of proenvironmental orientation, and the dependent variables included change in subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ attributes, change in subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ environmental and health impact, and subjects’ attitudes towards purchasing leather products.

To ensure that any change observed was due to the lecture-driven treatment, rather than confounding variables such as increased general knowledge of textiles over the course of the term, a control group that was not exposed to the leather production lecture completed identical pre-tests and post-tests. Without the use of a control group, the experiment would be unable to determine whether the change was more likely to occur than if the experimental group had received no treatment.

3.3 Subjects

72 Oregon State University undergraduate students were recruited from two Design and Human Environment courses, including both a DHE 255 Textile class and a DHE

245 Application of Design Theory class that were each offered during the Winter 2012 term through the Department of Design and Human Environment. Each class was asked to fill out the NEP score questionnaire. Students enrolled in DHE 255 then took a pre-test, were exposed to an informational lecture on leather production two weeks later during their scheduled class section, and then took a post-test directly after the lecture was administered. Students enrolled in DHE 245 took the same pre-test and post-test two weeks apart; however, they were not exposed to an information lecture on leather production. For both pre-test and post-test, the course instructors handed out copies of the developed survey questionnaire on the researcher’s behalf. The questionnaire included information about the study, survey and an informed consent sheet.

Since leather goods are available in many different forms, consumers of leather products consist of a large population. Although subjects used in this study are students in the field of merchandising, apparel and interior design, and they are a convenience sample, they are also future career professionals in the related fields of retail, apparel/interior design, merchandising and marketing of leather goods.

Additionally, research has shown that both age and education are factors associated with this group of consumers having a higher positive attitude toward environmental conservation and regulation, evident through the clothing they intend to purchase

(Butler, & Francis, 1997; Dickson, 2000). Therefore, the information attained in this study regarding the participants’ environmental values and behavioral intention towards leather is valuable for many reasons. Researching this group of

undergraduates will provide leather producers, manufacturers and retailers with a greater understanding of which factors have an impact on consumer intention to purchase leather goods and how environmental concern affects this.

3.4 Lecture Development

One independent variable in this study is subject exposure to knowledge through an information lecture on traditional leather production. The purpose of this lecture is to inform subjects about the general process of traditional leather manufacturing, its environmental impact and the employee health hazards that are associated with the industry, as well as sustainable alternatives to the chemicals used in traditional production. Before beginning the lecture, students were informed that taking notes is unnecessary but giving their full attention to the lecture is highly encouraged.

To begin, subjects were shown six minutes of an educational video entitled

Field Trip: Leather Production (Davis, 2000). This video was shown for its clear depiction and explanation of three of the major processes involved in traditional methods of leather production: unhairing, pickling and tanning. Following this segment, subjects were shown a PowerPoint presentation coordinating with an explanation from the lecturer. First, the presentation briefly explained how and when leather production began and leather’s early end uses. Next, the lecture touched on each process involved in traditional leather production as is relevant to this study.

Chemicals used in traditional leather production were also explained through the lecture. Following this, the environmental impact and potential health hazards of

traditional leather production methods were explored. After, subjects were shown a table that included all the processes previously explained, chemicals traditionally used in each process and sustainable alternatives to the chemicals favored in traditional leather production. To conclude the lecture, students were then shown a scene from the movie Erin Brokovich, in which the main character learns the hazards of the same chemicals used in traditional leather production.

3.5 Instrument Development

To measure variables included in the hypotheses, several scales were borrowed and developed for use in the identical pre-test and post-test questionnaire (See

Appendix).

The survey questionnaire developed consisted of eight sections used to measure the subjects’ level of proenvironmental orientation, beliefs about leather products’ environmental and health impact (with regards to processing/production), beliefs about leather products’ attributes, attitude towards purchasing leather products, and demographic information.

To measure the level of values encompassing a proenvironmental orientation, fifteen items were adopted from the 5-point Likert-type (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) New Environmental Paradigm Scale. The most recent version of this scale can be looked at as a general measure of proenvironmental orientation, with responses summed and assigned a score corresponding to a continuum ranging from

15 to 75 (15 being very anthropocentric, 75 being very ecocentric).

The fifteen items included were designed to broaden the scale’s content by covering five important facets in ecological worldview. The first facet, reality of limits to growth, was tapped using the following statements: “We are approaching the limit of the number of people the earth can support”, “The earth has plenty of natural resources if we just learn how to develop them”, and “The earth is like a spaceship with very limited room and resources.” The second facet, antianthropocentrism, was tapped using the following statements: “Humans have the right to modify the natural environment to suite their needs”, “Plants and animals have as much right as humans to exist”, and “Humans were meant to rule over the rest of nature.” The third facet, fragility of nature’s balance, was tapped using the following statements: “When humans interfere with nature, it often produces disastrous consequences”, “The balance of nature is strong enough to cope with the impact of modern industrial nations”, and “The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset.” The fourth facet, rejection of exemptionalism, was tapped using the following statements:

“Human ingenuity will insure that we do not make the earth unlivable”, “Despite our special abilities, humans are still subject to the laws of nature”, and Humans will eventually learn enough about how nature works to be able to control it.” Lastly, the fifth facet, possibility of an ecocrisis, was tapped using the following statements:

“Humans are severely abusing the earth”, “The so-called ‘ecological crisis’ facing humankind has been greatly exaggerated”, and “If things continue on their present course, we will soon experience a major environmental catastrophe.” The reliability

for this scale as one measurement was reported at .83 (Dunlap, Van Liere, Mertig, &

Jones, 2000)

Two 5-point Likert-type (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) items were developed to collect data to measure beliefs about leather products’ environmental and health impact (with regards to processing/production). For example, to assess the beliefs subjects possess they are asked to either agree or disagree with the following statement: “Traditional leather processing/production poses no health threat to industry workers.” To gather information regarding subject belief on leather production and the environment, subjects can agree or disagree with the statement “Leather production has no negative impact on the environment.”

Responses will be summed and a score will be assigned to each subject.

To measure beliefs about leather products’ attributes, nine items were developed on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree).

Subjects are shown a picture of a couch and asked to agree or disagree with whether leather makes the couch more durable, comfortable, attractive, easy to care for, fashionable, prestigious and whether it gives the couch a nice texture. These scale items were developed with the understanding that these attributes often serve as evaluative criteria during purchase decision making (Dickson, & Littrell, 1997;

Eckman, Damhorst, & Kadolph, 1990). Subjects are also asked to respond to the statements that “leather makes the couch smell good” and “leather is a safe option for consumers with regards to their health when using the couch” out of general curiosity

from the researcher. Data was tabulated for use in statistical analysis through responses being summed and a score being assigned for each subject.

To further measure beliefs about leather products’ attributes, the same nine items from the previous section were modified to gather responses towards a leather jacket. The items are again measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Subjects are shown a picture of a gender neutral leather jacket and asked to agree or disagree with whether leather makes the jacket more durable, comfortable, attractive, easy to care for, fashionable, prestigious and whether it gives the couch a nice texture. Again, these scale items were developed with the understanding that these attributes often serve as evaluative criteria during purchase decision making (Dickson, & Littrell, 1997; Eckman, Damhorst, & Kadolph,

1990). Subjects are also asked to respond to the statements that “leather makes the jacket smell good” and “leather is a safe option for consumers with regards to their health when using the jacket” out of general curiosity from the researcher. Data will be tabulated for use in statistical analysis through responses being summed and a score being assigned for each subject.

Six items on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) were developed in order to measure attitude towards purchasing leather products. Subjects were asked to agree or disagree with the following statements:

“Leather is a good choice of fabric when purchasing a couch”, “Leather is a good choice of fabric when purchasing a jacket”, “Leather is a good choice of fabric when purchasing a handbag”, “Leather is a good choice of fabric when purchasing a wallet”,

“Leather is a good choice of upholstery fabric when purchasing a car.” These particular items were developed in order to assess whether subjects evaluated leather as the appropriate textile for use in each product. Research has shown that consumer attitude toward a textile’s use in particular products contributes to their purchase intention of that good (de Klerk, & Lubbe, 2004; Hatch, & Roberts, 1985; Philippe,

Schacher, & Adolphe, 2003). Responses to these items will be summed and a score will be assigned for each subject for use in statistical analysis.

Participants were asked to list any leather products they had purchased within the last twelve months. Lastly, in order to gather demographic information, six questions were developed to collect the following information: age, gender, ethnicity, major, class status and name.

3.6 Data Collection

This study was reviewed by Oregon State University’s Institutional Review

Board (IRB) to obtain the approval for using the subjects. After approval, data collection for this study occurred during a four-week period within Winter Term 2012.

Instructor permission was obtained to administer the New Ecological Paradigm scale and both the pre-test and post-test questionnaire to all consenting students enrolled in the two DHE courses. These students were invited to participate in the researcher’s study in class with an incentive for extra credit in their course. Participants were given a cover page including introductory information about the study, the researcher’s contact information, the general purpose of the research and instructions on how to complete the questionnaire. Before beginning the survey, participants were asked to

fill out an informed consent form. For their participation in the study, students were given five points extra credit for each survey completed in DHE 255 by their course instructor, and three points extra credit for each survey completed in DHE 245 by their course instructor.

The NEP scale was administered during class time in the fourth week of the term in both participating DHE courses after IRB approval was obtained. A pre-test was administered two weeks later during class time in both DHE courses. Two weeks after the pre-test, subjects in the DHE 255 class received an hour-long informational lecture on current leather industry practices and were then given the post-test

(identical to the pre-test) to complete following the lecture. During that same week, subjects in DHE 245 were given the same post-test to complete without receiving the treatment lecture.

3.7 Variables

The independent variables for this study were knowledge delivered via lecture, proenvironmental orientation, and attitudes towards purchasing leather products. The dependent variables were beliefs about leather products’ attributes, beliefs about leather products’ environmental and health impact, attitude towards purchasing leather products, change in beliefs about leather product attributes after exposure to knowledge via lecture, change in beliefs about leather product environmental and health impact after exposure to knowledge via lecture, and change in attitude about purchasing leather products after exposure to knowledge via lecture. Attitude is a continuous variable based on the score each participant received in response to their

answers to the attitude scale. The attitude scale in the questionnaire measured attitude towards purchasing leather goods.

3.8 Statistical Analysis

Hypotheses 1-4 were tested using paired T-tests to compare data from the pre- test group to the data in the post-test group regarding beliefs about leather product attributes, attitude about purchasing leather products and beliefs about leather product environmental and health impact. Hypotheses 5-8 were tested using a simple regression. This used the continuous variable for individuals and their New Ecological

Paradigm scores to see how they relate to their changes in beliefs, attitudes and purchase intention.

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether exposure to information regarding the environmental and health impact of leather production would ultimately change consumers’ intentions to purchase leather products. The research design was a modification of a classical experimental design, using a pre-test and post-test format.

The two objectives of the study were developed using the Theory of Reasoned Action as a guide. The first objective was to investigate whether consumers’ beliefs about leather product attributes and environmental/health impact and attitudes towards purchasing leather could be changed by exposing consumers to lecture-delivered information about the environmental and health impact of leather production, as well as to confirm that consumers’ attitudes towards purchasing leather products is related to consumers’ leather-purchase intention. The second objective was to investigate whether consumers whose values include a proenvironmental orientation would exhibit a greater change in beliefs about leather product attributes and environmental/health impact and attitudes towards purchasing leather after exposure to lecture-delivered information about the environmental and health impact of leather production. This study examined the relationships between environmental orientation, consumer beliefs about leather product attributes and environmental/health impact, consumer attitudes towards purchasing leather goods, consumer leather-purchase intention and exposure to information regarding the environmental and health impact of leather production. In this chapter, the demographic characteristics of the

participants were discussed first. Next, scale reliability using Cronbach’s alpha was reported. Hypothesis testing was reported using simple regressions and paired t-tests.

All statistical analyses were carried out using the Statistical Package for the Social

Sciences (SPSS version 18).

4.1 Demographic Characteristics

A total of 72 surveys were gathered. The sample included 42 participants from

DHE 255 and 30 participants from DHE 245. The overwhelming majority of survey respondents, 91.55%, were female. Respondents ranged in age from 18 to 36, with the mean age being 20.65. Most respondents, 70.42%, classified their ethnicity as

Caucasian. 35.21% of respondents were declared as Apparel Design majors, while

33.80% of respondents were enrolled as Merchandise Management majors. Most respondents were in their sophomore year of college at 43.66%. See Table 4.1(a) for the complete demographic characteristics of all respondents. For a more in depth look into the sample, demographics of the experimental group can be seen in Table 4.1(b) and demographics of the control group can be seen in Table 4.1(c).

There is potential for limitations in the differences found between the experimental and control groups. These characteristic differences may skew results. A large difference between the two groups is the difference in majors. While the majority, 58.54%, of participants in the experimental group were declared as

Merchandise Management majors, there were no Merchandise Management majors in the control group. This could result in skew dependent on the different course work required of each major and the content of the courses that could bias their data.

Another issue could arise from the difference in current college year between the two groups. While the majority of the experimental group’s participants, 53.66%, were in their sophomore year of college, 56.67% of the control group’s participants were in their freshman year of college. This could result in skew if the group with students further along in their career has been more exposed to information relating to this study. In line with this, differences in age could also be a factor in skewing the results.

While the majority of students in the control group were 18 (30.00%) or 19 (33.33%), most respondent in the experimental group, 43.90%, were 22 years and older. This could skew the results due to the greater amount of experience and possible exposure to relevant information the older students may have had.

Table 4.1(a) Demographics (N=72) Mean Frequency % Gender Female 65 91.55% Male 6 8.45% Age 18 and below 11 15.49% 19 21 51.22% 20 19 46.34% 21 9 21.95% 22 and above 11 18.03% Race Caucasian 50 70.42% Asian, Asian 9 21.95% American Hispanic 6 8.45% Native American or 1 1.41% Alaskan Native African 1 1.41% American Hawaiian or 0 0% Pacific Islander Other 4 5.63% Major Apparel Design 25 35.21% Housing 1 1.41 Studies Merchandise 24 Management 33.80% Interior Design 17 23.94% Other 4 5.63% Year in Freshman 20 28.17% College Sophomore 31 43.66% Junior 18 25.35% Senior 2 2.82%

Table 4.1(b) Experimental Group Demographics (N=42) Frequency % Gender Female 36 87.80% Male 5 12.20% Age 18 and below 2 4.88% 19 11 26.83% 20 12 29.27% 21 7 17.07% 22 and above 18 43.90% Race Caucasian 29 70.73% Asian, Asian 5 12.20% American Hispanic 4 9.76% Native American or 1 2.44% Alaskan Native African 1 2.44% American Hawaiian or 0 0% Pacific Islander Other 1 2.44% Major Apparel Design 11 26.83% Merchandise 24 58.54% Management Interior Design 3 7.32% Other 3 7.32% Year in Freshman 3 7.32% College Sophomore 22 53.66% Junior 14 34.15% Senior 2 4.88%

Table 4.1(c) Control Group Demographics (N=30) Frequency % Gender Female 29 96.67% Male 1 3.33% Age 18 and below 9 30.00% 19 10 33.33% 20 7 23.33% 21 2 6.67% 22 and above 1 3.33% Race Caucasian 21 70.00% Asian, Asian 4 13.33% American Hispanic 2 6.67% Native American or 0 0% Alaskan Native African 0 0% American Hawaiian or 0 0% Pacific Islander Other 3 10.00% Major Apparel Design 14 46.67% Interior Design 14 46.67% Housing 1 3.33% Studies Other 1 3.33% Year in Freshman 17 56.67% College Sophomore 9 30.00% Junior 4 13.33% Senior 0 0%

Table 4.1(d) Participant Leather Purchases Within the Last 12 Months Frequency % Experimental Group Shoes 27 64.29% (N=42) leather purchases within the last 12 months: Bags 24 57.14% Accessories 21 50.00% Clothing 18 42.86% Car 3 7.14% Furniture 2 4.76% Other 0 0.00% Average number of 3.26 46.57% category option items (7) Experimental group purchased within the last 12 months: Number of participants 0 0.00% who had no leather purchases within the last 12 months:

Control Group (N=30) Shoes 15 50.00% leather purchases within the last 12 months: Bags 15 50.00% Accessories 9 30.00% Clothing 10 33.33% Car 1 3.33% Furniture 0 0.00% Other 1 3.33% Average number of 1.7 24.29% category option items (7) Control group purchased within the last 12 months: Number of participants 4 13.33% who had no leather purchases within the last 12 months:

4.2 Preliminary Analysis

Preliminary analyses were carried out in order to determine that the scales used had adequate reliability. The reliability of the items in each construct was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha. The items measuring beliefs about leather product attributes yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.890 deeming the reliability of the scale adequate

(Table 4.2(a)). The items measuring attitude toward purchasing leather products yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.794 determining the scale to be of adequate reliability

(Table 4.2(b)).

Table 4.2(a) Cronbach’s apha test of reliability for items measuring beliefs Reliability Statistics Cronbach’s Cronbach’s N of Items Alpha Alpha Based on Standardized Items .890 .898 18 Questions 1-18: Beliefs about leather product attributes

Table 4.2(b) Cronbach’s alpha test of reliability for items measuring attitudes Reliability Statistics Cronbach’s Cronbach’s N of Items Alpha Alpha Based on Standardized Items .794 .809 6 Questions 19-24: Attitude toward purchasing leather products

4.3 Hypothesis Testing

H1- 4 collectively examine subjects’ beliefs and attitudes following knowledge exposure, regardless of their NEP score.

H4: Subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ environmental impact before exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture designed for this research project will differ from subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ environmental and health impact after exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture.

Hypotheses 1-4 were tested using a paired T-test. In this analysis the independent variable was the knowledge delivered via lecture and the dependent variables were beliefs about leather products’ attributes, attitude towards purchasing

leather products, beliefs about leather products’ environmental impact and beliefs about leather products’ health impact.

The results from the paired T-test for the experimental group’s pre-test and post-test yielded a p-value of .948, which is greater than the accepted level of 0.05 and is therefore not significant (Table 4.5). Thus, Hypothesis 1 is not supported for the experimental group. A possible explanation for this could be that while participants may have been impacted by the treatment, they found no relevant link between the delivered information and their beliefs about leather’s specific attributes.

An additional paired T-test for the control group’s pre-test and post-test was performed, yielding a p-value of .744. Thus, no significant difference was found for the control group who did not receive the treatment. Unpaired T-tests were also performed between both the experimental and control groups’ pre-test results and the experimental and control groups’ post-test results. There was no significant difference found between either. Beliefs did not change and this is consistent whether subjects received the lecture or not.

Individual Analysis

Although Hypothesis 1 was not supported, when subjects were looked at individually, 8 out of the 42 subjects from the experimental group did have significant changes (p < 0.05) from pre-test to post-test as a result of knowledge exposure.

Item analysis

Each individual item examined specific product attributes, such as whether subjects found leather products to be durable, comfortable and fashionable…(etc).

Durability: Items 1 and 10 are related to product durability.

Comfort: Items 2 and 11 are related to product comfort.

Texture: Items 3 and 12 are related to product texture.

Attractiveness: Items 4 and 13 are related to product attractiveness.

Smell: Items 5 and 14 are related to product smell.

Ease of care: Items 6 and 15 are related to product ease of care.

Fashionable: Items 7 and 16 are related to product fashion.

Communicates prestige: Items 8 and 17 are related to product prestige

communication.

Safe for consumer health: Items 9 and 18 are related to product health safety.

When looking at each belief item individually and running a paired t-test, there were no significant changes from pre-test to post-test within the experimental group (Table

4.3(a)).

The results of the paired T-test for the experimental group’s pre-test and post- test showed a p-value of .596, which is greater than 0.05 and thus not significant

(Table 4.5). Therefore, Hypothesis 2 is rejected. A possible explanation for this could be that while participants may have been impacted by the treatment, they found no relevant link between the delivered information and their attitudes toward leather’s use for a specific end product.

A paired T-test was also performed for the control group’s pre-test and post- test, which yielded a p-value of .035, showing a significant difference regardless of not receiving a treatment. This could be explained by the fact that while two different classes were being examined, students in each class were not isolated from the other, possibly sharing information from the treatment lecture and contaminating the study.

Unpaired T-tests were also performed between both the experimental and control groups’ pre-test results and the experimental and control groups’ post-test results. There was no significant difference found between either.

Individual Analysis

Although Hypothesis 2 was not supported, when subjects were looked at individually, 5 of those 8 subjects that had significant changes in beliefs and leather

product attributes after exposure to knowledge also had significant changes from pre- test to post-test relating to questions on consumer attitude and purchase intention.

Item analysis

Each individual item examined subjects’ attitude towards leather as a choice of fabric when purchasing specific products, such as a couch, jacket, handbag…(etc).

Couch: Item 19 relates to leather as a fabric choice for a couch.

Jacket: Item 20 relates to leather as a fabric choice for a jacket.

Handbag: Item 21 relates to leather as a fabric choice for a handbag.

Wallet: Item 22 relates to leather as a fabric choice for a wallet.

Shoes: Item 23 relates to leather as a fabric choice for shoes.

Car: Item 24 relates to leather as a fabric choice for a car.

When looking at each attitude item individually and running a paired t-test, there were found to be no significant changes from pre-test to post-test within the experimental group (Table 4.3(b)).

Discussion

Results for Hypotheses 1 and 2 could be explained in part by the data collected regarding participants’ leather product purchases within the last 12 months. When asked whether they had purchased items from 7 different categories within the last 12 months, the average experimental group participant said they had purchased 3.26 of the items (Table 4.1d). The beliefs and attitudes the participants had formed toward leather products prior to the experiment could have influenced how they answered the questions and responded to the treatment.

Table 4.3(a) Individual item analysis of belief change from pre-test to post-test within the Exoerimental Group

Degrees of Question Number T-value P-value Freedom 1. The leather makes the couch durable. -1.6741 68.741 0.09865 2. The leather makes the couch -0.5003 57.243 0.6188 comfortable to sit on. 3. The leather makes the couch have a -1.1438 57.761 0.2574 nice texture. 4. The leather makes the couch attractive. -0.3781 45.269 0.7071 5. The leather makes the couch smell -0.8145 60.955 0.4185 good. 6. The leather makes the couch easy to -0.7258 65.28 0.4706 care for. 7. The leather makes the couch 0.6796 47.914, 0.5 fashionable. 8. The leather on the couch 0.4885 63.574 0.6269 communicates prestige. 9. Leather is a safe option for consumers with regards to their health when using 0.7609 64.123 0.4495 the couch. 10. The leather makes the jacket durable. 0.0285 63.711 0.9774 11. The leather makes the jacket 0.4517 59.995 0.6531 comfortable to wear. 12. The leather makes the jacket have a 0.7853 69.32 0.435 nice texture. 13. The leather makes the jacket 1.3923 67.01 0.1684 attractive. 14. The leather makes the jacket smell 0.3073 61.582 0.7596 good. 15. The leather makes the jacket easy to 0.0251 67.78 0.98 care for. 16. The leather makes the jacket 1.0577 62.412 0.2943 fashionable. 17. The leather on the jacket 1.336 64.931 0.1862 communicates prestige. 18. Leather is a safe option for consumers with regards to their health when -0.1679 55.761 0.8672 wearing the jacket.

Table 4.3(b) Individual item analysis of attitude change from pre-test to post-test within the Experimental Group

Degrees of Question Number T-value P-value Freedom 19. Leather is a good choice of -1.171 67.814 0.2457 fabric when purchasing a couch. 20. Leather is a good choice of 0.3369 -0.9676 64.305 fabric when purchasing a jacket. 21. Leather is a good choice of fabric when purchasing a -0.1859 67.91 0.8531 handbag. 22. Leather is a good choice of -0.7267 67.705 0.4699 fabric when purchasing a wallet. 23. Leather is a good choice of -0.2977 68.825 0.7669 fabric when purchasing shoes. 24. Leather is a good choice of 0.7174 upholstery fabric when -0.3639 54.9 purchasing a car.

H3: Subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ health impact before exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture designed for this research project will differ from subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ health impact after exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture.

The results from the T-test yield a p-value of .0000, which is far below the accepted level of 0.05 and is therefore very significant (Table 4.4). As a result,

Hypothesis 3 is supported.

An additional paired T-test for the control group’s pre-test and post-test was performed, yielding a p-value of .769. Thus, no significant difference was found for the control group who did not receive the treatment. Unpaired T-tests were also performed between both the experimental and control groups’ pre-test results and the

experimental and control groups’ post-test results. While no significant difference was found between the pre-tests, the unpaired T-test between the experimental and control groups’ post-tests yielded a significant p-value of .007 due to the effectiveness of the treatment.

Item Analysis

Item 25 examines subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ health impact before exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture designed for this research project compared to subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ health impact after exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture.

Discussion

When comparing the experimental and control group, there is a difference that can be found in the changes between the experimental and control groups regarding the question focusing on the health threat traditional leather processing/production poses to industry workers. Using a T-test to compare the changes from pre-test to post- test within the experimental group regarding subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ health impact, the results yielded a p-value < 0.000, making this a significant finding

(Table 4.5).

H4: Subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ environmental impact before exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture designed for this research project will differ from subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ environmental impact after exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture.

The results of the paired T-test for the experimental group’s pre-test and post- test showed a p-value of .125, which is greater than 0.05 and thus not significant

(Table 4.4). Therefore, Hypothesis 4 is rejected. A possible explanation for this could be that while participants may have been impacted by the treatment, they found no relevant link between the delivered information and their beliefs about leather products’ environmental impact.

An additional paired T-test for the control group’s pre-test and post-test was performed, yielding a p-value of .442. Thus, no significant difference was found for the control group who did not receive the treatment. Unpaired T-tests were also performed between both the experimental and control groups’ pre-test results and the experimental and control groups’ post-test results. There was no significant difference found between either.

Item Analysis

Item 26 examined subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ environmental impact before exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture designed for this research project compared to subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ environmental impact after exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture.

When comparing the experimental and control group, there is a no significant

difference that can be found in the changes between the experimental and control

groups regarding the question focusing on the impact traditional leather

processing/production poses to the environment. Using a T-test to compare the

changes from pre-test to post-test between the experimental and control group

regarding subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ environmental impact, the results

yielded a p-value > 0.05, and is thus not significant (Table 4.5).

Table 4.4 Paired T-tests (N = 42) Changes in subjects’ attitudes and beliefs about leather before the lecture versus subjects’ attitudes and beliefs about leather after the lecture Paired Differences 95% Confidence Std. Interval of the Std. Error Difference Sig. (2- Hypotheses Mean Deviation Mean t df tailed) Pair 1: Pre-test Items Hypothesis 1-18 – Post- .071 7.045 1.087 -2.124 2.267 .066 41 .948 #1 test Items 1-18 Pair 2: Pre-test Items Hypothesis 19-24 – Post- .333 4.046 .624 -.928 1.594 .534 41 .596 #2 test Items 19- 24 Pair 3: Hypothesis Pre-test Item 1.048 1.081 .167 .711 1.384 6.281 41 .000 #3 25– Post-test Item 25 Pair 4: Hypothesis Pre-test Item -.357 1.479 .228 -.818 .104 -1.565 41 .125 #4 26 – Post-test Item 26

Table 4.5 Changes from pre-test to post-test between the experimental and control group regarding subjects’ beliefs about leather products’ environmental and health impact Degrees of Question Number T-value P-value Freedom Item 25. Traditional leather processing/production poses no -5.0447 67.097 3.688e-06** health threat to industry workers. Item 26. Traditional leather production has a negative impact 0.7848 69.158 0.4353 on the environment.

H5 - 8 compare subjects’ New Ecological Paradigm scores and changes in their

beliefs, attitudes and purchase intention after exposure to knowledge delivered via the

lecture.

H5: The level of subjects’ proenvironmental orientation is positively related to the

subjects’ change in beliefs about leather products’ attributes.

H6: The level of subjects’ proenvironmental orientation is positively related to the

subjects’ change in attitude toward purchasing leather products.

H7: The level of subjects’ proenvironmental orientation is positively related to the

subjects’ change in beliefs about leather production’s health impact.

H8: The level of subjects’ proenvironmental orientation is positively related to the

subjects’ change in beliefs about leather production’s environmental impact.

Hypotheses 5-7 were tested using simple regressions. In this analysis the

independent variable was the knowledge delivered via lecture and the dependent

variables were beliefs about leather products’ attributes, attitude towards purchasing

leather products (specifically a couch and jacket), beliefs about leather products’ environmental impact and beliefs about leather products’ health impact.

H5: The level of subjects’ proenvironmental orientation is positively related to the subjects’ change in beliefs about leather products’ attributes.

The fifth hypothesis stated that when compared to subjects with a lower New

Ecological Paradigm score, subjects’ with a higher New Ecological Paradigm score would have a greater change in beliefs about leather product attributes after exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture designed for this research project. In this analysis the independent variable was the New Ecological Paradigm score and the dependent variable was change in beliefs about leather attributes. The results showed that there is no positive relationship between subjects’ proenvironmental score and their change in beliefs about leather product attributes after exposure to knowledge delivered via lecture, F (1, 40) = .471 p > .05 (Table 4.6). The R2 value for this relationship is .012, which means that the proenvironmental orientation score explains only 1.2% of the variance in their change in beliefs regarding purchasing leather products after exposure to knowledge delivered via lecture. Therefore, Hypothesis 5 is not supported.

Table 4.6 Proenvironmental orientation as a predictor of change in beliefs about leather products’ attributes

Model Summaryb Std. Error of the Model R R Square Adjust R Square Estimate 1 .108a .012 -.013 4.084 a. Predictors: (Constant), Experimental Group NEP Scores b. Dependent Variable: Change in Beliefs about Leather Product Attributes

Coefficientsa Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig. 1 (Constant) 9.108 5.019 1.815 .077 EXP Scores -.066 .096 -.108 -.686 .496 a. Dependent Variable: Change in Beliefs about Leather Product Attributes

H6: The level of subjects’ proenvironmental orientation is positively related to the subjects’ change in attitude toward purchasing leather products.

Hypothesis 6 stated that when compared to subjects with a lower New

Ecological Paradigm score, subjects’ with a higher New Ecological Paradigm score will have a greater change in attitude towards purchasing leather products after exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture designed for this research project. In this analysis the independent variable was the New Ecological Paradigm score and the dependent variable was change in attitude towards purchasing leather products. The results showed that there is a relationship between proenvironmental score and the change in attitude towards purchasing leather products after exposure to knowledge delivered via lecture, F (1, 40) = 8.856, p < .05 (see Table 4.7 for results). The R2

value for this relationship is .161, which means that the proenvironmental orientation score explains 16.1% of the variance in their change in attitude towards purchasing leather products after exposure to knowledge delivered via lecture. The negative beta is an indication that there is a negative nature to the relationship between the proenvironmental orientation score and change in attitude towards purchasing leather products after exposure to knowledge delivered via lecture, β = -.426, p < .05.

Therefore, Hypothesis 6 is rejected.

A possible explanation for this negative relationship could be that subjects with higher NEP scores could have had preconceptions regarding leather. If they already had an aversion to using leather products there would be less room for change if their attitudes.

Table 4.7 Proenvironmental orientation as a predictor of change in attitude towards purchasing leather products Model Summaryb Std. Error of the Model R R Square Adjust R Square Estimate 1 .426a .181 .161 2.698 a. Predictors: (Constant), Experimental Group NEP Scores b. Dependent Variable: Change in Attitude Towards Purchasing Leather Products Coefficientsa Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig. 1 (Constant) 12.551 3.316 3.785 .001 EXP Scores -.188 .063 -.426 -2.976 .005 a. Dependent Variable: Change in Attitude Towards Purchasing Leather Products

H7: The level of subjects’ proenvironmental orientation is positively related to the subjects’ change in beliefs about leather production’s health impact.

Hypothesis 7 stated that when compared to subjects with a lower New

Ecological Paradigm score, subjects’ with a higher New Ecological Paradigm score will have a greater change in beliefs about leather production’s health impact after exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture designed for this research project. In this analysis the independent variable was the New Ecological Paradigm score and the dependent variable was change in beliefs about leather production’s health impact.

The regression model for proenvironmental score as a predictor of change in beliefs about leather production’s health impact after exposure to knowledge delivered via lecture is also not significant, F (1, 40, = .054 p < .05 (see Table 4.8 for results). The

R2 value for this relationship is .017, which means that the proenvironmental orientation score explains only 1.7% of the variance in their change in beliefs about leather production’s health impact. Therefore, Hypothesis 7 is not supported.

Table 4.8 Proenvironmental orientation as a predictor of change in subjects’ beliefs about leather production’s health impact Model Summaryb Std. Error of the Model R R Square Adjust R Square Estimate 1 .129a .017 -.008 .853 a. Predictors: (Constant), Experimental Group NEP Scores b. Dependent Variable: Change in Beliefs about Leather Production’s Health Impact Coefficientsa Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig. 1 (Constant) 2.093 1.049 1.996 .053 EXP Scores -.016 .020 -.129 -.821 .416 a. Dependent Variable: Change in Beliefs about Leather Production’s Health Impact

H8: The level of subjects’ proenvironmental orientation is positively related to the subjects’ change in beliefs about leather production’s environmental impact.

Hypothesis 8 stated that when compared to subjects with a lower New

Ecological Paradigm score, subjects’ with a higher New Ecological Paradigm score will have a greater change in beliefs about leather production’s environmental impact after exposure to knowledge delivered via the lecture designed for this research project. In this analysis the independent variable was the New Ecological Paradigm score and the dependent variable was change in beliefs about leather production’s environmental impact. The regression model for proenvironmental score as a predictor of change in beliefs about leather production’s environmental impact after exposure to knowledge delivered via lecture is not significant, F (1, 40) = .675 p > .05 (see Table

4.9 for results). The R2 value for this relationship is .001, which means that the

proenvironmental orientation score explains 0.1% of the variance in their change in beliefs regarding leather production’s environmental impact. Therefore, Hypothesis 8 is not supported.

Table 4.9 Proenvironmental orientation and its positive relationship to the subjects’ change in beliefs about leather production’s environmental impact

Model Summaryb Std. Error of the Model R R Square Adjust R Square Estimate 1 .037a .001 -.024 .972 a. Predictors: (Constant), Experimental Group NEP Scores b. Dependent Variable: Change in Beliefs about Leather Production’s Environmental Impact

Coefficientsa Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig. 1 (Constant) 1.443 1.194 1.208 .233 EXP Scores -.005 .023 -.037 -.233 .817 a. Dependent Variable: Change in Beliefs about Leather Production’s Environmental Impact

Discussion

When the subjects from the experimental group are looked at individually and listed in order of their New Ecological Paradigm score, it can be noted that there are significant changes from pre-test to post-test that occur mostly at the higher proenvironmental orientation score level. Since the scores range from 15 to 75 on the scale, the scores in the lower half would fall between 15 and 45 and the scores in the upper half would fall between 45 and 75. While 4 subjects in the lower half had significant changes from pre-test to post-test, 11 subjects with higher

proenvironmental orientations and scores 45 and above had significant changes (Table

4.9).

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Table 4.10

Statistically significant changes from pre-test to post-test within the experimental group

Experimental Group ID Significance NEP Score 31972-7 0.200 33 31973-16 0.007** 41 31973-15 0.048** 43 33714-11 0.0149* 43 33714-13 0.559 44 31972-11 0.691 45 33714-4 0.002** 45 33714-6 0.788 45 31973-4 0.043* 46 33714-8 0.164 47 31972-9 0.574 48 31972-12 0.048* 48 31973-6 0.000*** 48 31973-10 0.824 49 31972-6 0.009** 50 31973-8 1 51 33714-9 0.096 51 33714-12 0.088 51 31973-9 0.057 52 31973-13 0.788 52 33714-7 0.005** 52 31972-2 0.232 53 31973-1 0.010** 53 31972-4 2.54 E-07*** 54 31972-8 0.083 54 31973-5 0.327 54 31972-3 0.824 55 31973-11 0.056 55 33714-14 0.095 55 31973-2 7.71 E-05*** 57 31973-3 0.327 57 31973-7 0.013* 57 31973-14 0.001** 57 33714-1 0.086 57 33714-3 0.802 57 33714-2 0.450 58 31972-10 0.265 59 33714-5 0.203 59 31972-1 0.376 60 31972-5 0.015* 64 33714-10 0.502 64 31973-12 0.490 65 *** p < 0.001 ** p < 0.01 * p < 0.05

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

5.1 Summary of Purpose and Method

Sustainability is becoming a major concern worldwide and the leather industry with its traditional and hazardous production practices is not exempt from scrutiny. While some manufacturers have adopted eco-friendly methods of production, most tanneries still use techniques that generate waste that is both toxic to people and the environment. Regardless of this fact, consumer demands for a wide variety of leather products endures and no previous studies have focused on whether educating the consumer can make an impact. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether exposure to information regarding the environmental and health impact of leather production would ultimately change consumers’ beliefs, attitudes and intentions to purchase leather products.

A study was conducted of Oregon State University undergraduate students from two courses in the Department of Design and Human Environment to examine whether knowledge exposure could impact their beliefs, attitudes and intention to purchase leather products. Each class was asked to complete a pre- test and post-test. The experimental group received a treatment lecture between tests, while the control group did not.

A modified version of Fishbein’s (1975) Theory of Reasoned Action,

Dickson’s (2000) extension of the theory and Dunlap’s (2008) New Ecological

Paradigm were used to interpret data collected. Using the New Ecological Paradigm,

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students were assigned environmental orientations accurately from the survey they were given. These NEP scores were compared against the statistics gathered from the other questionnaires and used to judge whether having a proenvironmental orientation determined change in attitudes and beliefs. While there was no relationship found between environmental orientation and change in this study, it still provided a foundational point from which to further analyze the data.

5.2 Conclusion

The findings support the previous works of the Theory of Reasoned Action and its extension, arguing that consumer knowledge and beliefs regarding specific products impact consumer attitudes, specifically consumer attitude toward leather production’s health impact. And although all but one hypothesis was rejected, this can also be argued to support the Theory of Reasoned Action. Researchers have stated that beliefs are deeply ingrained and not easily changed and without this change in beliefs, attitudes will not be shifted as a reflection of this.

The reason for the significant findings regarding leather production and its health impact could be explained by the possibility that the question and its content were found to be most salient to subjects in the study. The Theory of Reasoned Action operates under the assumption that human are rational and make use of the information that is available to them and also that the more relevant the beliefs to a person’s self the more these beliefs affect their attitudes. This may be the reason that this particular finding was found to be significant.

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The collected data examined whether the treatment lecture would lead to changes in beliefs, attitude and purchase intention. It was analyzed using paired and unpaired T-tests. When examining the experimental group as a whole, no significant changes could be found from pre-test to post-test regarding beliefs, attitude or purchase intention except for with the item regarding leather products’ health impact. This change was found to be very statistically significant with a p-value < .001, meaning that the knowledge delivered via the lecture had a definite impact on what consumers believe about traditional leather production and its health impact. By examining data within the experimental group relative to their NEP score, students with a higher NEP score were found to have more significant changes when comparing pre-test and post-test results at an individual level. Observations were also made regarding significant change from pre-test to post-test and participant New Ecological Paradigm score.

The motivation for beginning this project stemmed from an innate need to inform people on where our leather goods are coming from, how they are produced and by whom. From the slaughterhouses to the tanneries, many consumers are uninformed about the reality of the process. This study was started to see whether knowledge delivery could change the beliefs, attitudes and purchase intentions of consumers and if begun again, there are many improvements that could be made.

The study would have benefited from a number of changes and would have yielded more successful results with their implementation. The population

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studied was a convenience sample of undergraduate students in the Department of Design and Human Environment, most participants between the age of 19 and

25. Using a wider population, including participants of a greater age range, participants with backgrounds beyond the university and the addition of more male participants could have a significant effect on the outcome of the study.

Perhaps even having a more balanced gender population would have altered the scope. It is possible that the level of maturity in participants based on their age could have a large impact on how change is reflected in attitudes. The treatment may have acted as only an early influence on the younger participants, whose attitudes and beliefs may have been less rigid and more undefined at this point in their lives. With all of these changes and a larger population size, maybe there would be a lower standard deviation, yielding more significant findings.

It is also possible that the cultural background of participants could impact how their attitudes are affected. Perhaps subjects coming from a culture where chromium leather production is prevalent would be more personally impacted by the study and exhibit far more change. The participants in Corvallis could have been exhibiting cultural apathy for issues they do not face in their current lives.

The manner of the treatment delivery could also explain the lack of statistically significant results. Maybe with different content, delivery method and survey questionnaire items more useful information could be obtained. If the survey questionnaire were updated to include questions more personally

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relevant to the participants and with a great emotional impact, there would be a very different outcome. Perhaps knowledge delivery is not the most effective method in general for changing consumer beliefs, attitudes and purchase intention. Maybe the only way to really change consumers’ beliefs, attitudes and purchase intentions is through government policy, animal rights and workers’ rights.

5.4 Limitations of the Study

The model and strategy used for the study could explain much of the gathered results. The study may have produced more successful results if the treatment had been presented in a series of multiple lectures, at a later time in the day and with a greater incentive for motivation to take in the delivered information. The treatment lecture was composed of an informational video on the leather tanning process, a documentary on workers living in India, a clip from an award-winning movie, and text visually presented and read aloud via

PowerPoint. Perhaps the treatment would have been better received if it were split into several lectures. It is plausible that going over each point of the lecture more in depth and over a greater period of time would be less overwhelming and easier to take in for the participants. The information could have also been easier to accept at a later time in the day versus ten o’clock in the morning. While students were given extra credit for being present at the treatment lecture and completing the survey, they were not tested on any of the material presented,

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which could have accounted for a lack in motivation to focus on the treatment lecture.

Although the study made all attempts to give an unbiased and educational treatment lecture to the experimental group, there could have been multiple factors that influenced the results collected. The facilitator may have delivered the lecture information too quickly, thus losing the attention of the students and inhibiting understanding of the material. The facilitator could have also let personal investment in the study and hope for change in attitudes and beliefs affect their attitude, therefore biasing their delivery of the treatment information.

Although the scales were tested for both reliability and validity, the wording of the questions could have been confusing and vague. The lack of visual aids in the survey could have affected the students’ thought process and biased their answers. The use of the Likert scale and the study’s definition of a “3” on the scale as “neutral” could have also developed confusion in how the questions were answered among participants.

Since there was both limited time and funding, a convenience sample was used for this study, meaning the results cannot be generalized to the entire population. The classes observed in the study were relatively small in size and produced only 72 participants in total. It is possible that greater validity and consistency could have been attained with larger class sizes.

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5.3 Implications for Further Study

If given more funding and time, future studies would be able to observe a greater population and widen the scope. It would be interesting to see whether a study with a balanced gender population would produce different results. It would also be interesting to study a population with a wider range of ages and look for whether a pattern emerges in the change of attitude and beliefs in the younger subset of participants versus the more mature subset of participants.

Another area for future research would be to observe the attitudes and beliefs in participants from different cultural backgrounds. It would be interesting to see whether there was more cultural apathy for tannery workers and the environment from one group to the next.

There is a limited amount of published research currently available in the area of consumer perception and how knowledge contributes to change in their attitudes, beliefs and purchase intention. It would be interesting to see whether a larger study conducted over a greater amount of time with a larger and more diverse population could influence change in these participants and whether their environmental orientation is a contributing factor. Research has proposed that beliefs are very ingrained within each person. Perhaps with more exposure to knowledge delivered over a longer period of time, this could have a more significant impact on beliefs and attitudes. Also, if questions were developed to be more relevant to the group of participants, it is possible further information could be collected.

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Philippe, F., Schacher, L., & Adolphe, D.C. (2004). Tactile feeling: sensory analysis applied to textile goods. Textile Research Journal, 74(12), 1066-1072. Qiang, H., Danhong, S., Liu, X., Lin, W., & Bi, S. (2008). Evaluation of environmental impact of typical leather chemicals. part iii: biodegradability of vegetable tannin extracts by activated sludge. Journal of the Society of Leather Technologists and Chemists , 92, 103-106. Robertson, T. S. (1970). Consumer behavior. Glenview, IL: Scott-Foresman and Company. Rokeach, M. (1979). Understanding human values: Individual and societal. New York: Free Press. Saravanbhavan, S., Aravindhan, R., Thanikaivelan, P., Raghava Rao, J., & Unni Nair, B. (2003). Green solution for tannery pollution: effect of enzyme based lime-free unhairing and fibre opening in combination with pickle-free tanning. Green Chemistry, 5, 707-714. Saravanbhavan, S., Thanikaivelan, P., Raghava Rao, J., Unni Nair, B., & Ramasami, T. (2004). Natural leather from natural materials: progressing toward a new arena in leather processing. Environmental Science & Technology, 38(3), 871-879. Schwartz, S. (1992). Universals in the content and structures of values: theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Smith, M. J. (1982). Persuasion and human action. Belmong, CA: Wadsworth. Sundar, V. J., & Muralidharan, C. (2009). Eco-benign skin preservation through salt substitution--a low salt approach. Desalination & Water Treatment, 11(1), 314- 317. What is leather?. (2007). Retrieved from http://www.all-about-leather.co.uk/what-is-leather/what-is-leather.html Wickens, J. (2008). Hell for leather [Web]. Retrieved from http://www.theecologist.org/trial_investigations/314208/hell_for_leathe r.html

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX A

IRB Informed Consent Approval Page

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APPENDIX B

Recruitment Guide

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I am Beth Becker, a master’s student in the Department of Design and Human Environment. This term, I am working with Dr. Cluver on a research project about consumers’ environmental values and leather products. Because you are college students, you are likely to have purchased and worn/used leather goods. Therefore, I would like to invite you to participate in our study about consumer beliefs and attitude toward leather goods and leather production. I am here to ask that you complete a survey for my study. The survey will take less than five minutes to complete. If you want to participate, you will need to fill out an informed consent form before beginning and completing the survey questionnaire. Please note that your participation in this study is completely voluntary. I know that your instructor will give you five extra credit points for participating in my study, but if you do not want to participate she is offering an optional five point extra credit assignment that is not related to this study. Whether you choose to do either is entirely up to you.

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APPENDIX C

Phase 1 Survey Questionnaire

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Listed below are statements about the relationship between HUMANS and the ENVIRONMENT. Please indicate the degree to which you agree with each item.

Strongly Mildly Mildly Strongly Unsure Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 3 1 2 4 5 We are approaching the limit of 1) the number of people the earth can support. Humans have the right to modify 2) the natural environment to suit their needs. When humans interfere with 3) nature, it often produces disastrous consequences. Human ingenuity will insure that 4) we do not make the earth unlivable. Humans are severely abusing the 5) earth. The earth has plenty of natural 6) resources if we just learn how to develop them. Plants and animals have as much 7) right as humans to exist. The balance of nature is strong 8) enough to cope with the impact of modern industrial nations. Despite our special abilities, 9) humans are still subject to the laws of nature. The so-called “ecological crisis” 10) facing humankind has been greatly exaggerated. The earth is like a spaceship with 11) very limited room and resources. Humans were meant to rule over 12) the rest of nature. The balance of nature is very 13) delicate and easily upset. Humans will eventually learn 14) enough about how nature works to be able to control it. If things continue on their present 15) course, we will soon experience a major environmental catastrophe.

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Before you finish the survey, please tell us more about yourself. All provided information will be kept confidential.

16) What is your age?

17) What is your gender?

! Male ! Female

18) What is your ethnicity?

! Caucasian ! Asian, Asian American ! Hispanic ! Native American or Alaskan Native ! African American ! Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ! Other

19) What is your major?

20) What year in college are you?

! Freshman ! Sophomore ! Junior ! Senior ! Graduate student

21) Please provide your name in order to receive extra credit in your DHE course.

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APPENDIX D

Phase 2 Survey Questionnaire

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Listed below are statements about the relationship between HUMANS and the ENVIRONMENT. Please indicate the degree to which you agree with each item.

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Before you finish the survey, please tell us more about yourself. All provided information will be kept confidential.

16) What is your age?

17) What is your gender?

! Male ! Female

18) What is your ethnicity?

! Caucasian ! Asian, Asian American ! Hispanic ! Native American or Alaskan Native ! African American ! Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ! Other

19) What is your major?

20) What year in college are you?

! Freshman ! Sophomore ! Junior ! Senior ! Graduate student

21) Please provide your name in order to receive extra credit in your DHE course.

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APPENDIX E

Phase 3 Survey Questionnaire

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Listed below are statements regarding your beliefs about the LEATHER FABRIC on the pictured couch. Please indicate the degree to which you agree with each statement. Strongly Mildly Mildly Strongly Unsure Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 3 1 2 4 5 1) The leather makes the couch durable. 2) The leather makes the couch comfortable to sit on. 3) The leather makes the couch have a nice texture. 4) The leather makes the couch attractive. 5) The leather makes the couch smell good. 6) The leather makes the couch easy to care for. 7) The leather makes the couch fashionable. 8) The leather on the couch communicates prestige. 9) Leather is a safe option for consumers with regards to their health when using the couch.

Listed below are statements regarding your beliefs about the LEATHER FABRIC used for the pictured jacket. Please indicate the degree to which you agree with each statement. Strongly Mildly Mildly Strongly Unsure Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 3 1 2 4 5 10) The leather makes the jacket durable. 11) The leather makes the jacket comfortable to wear. 12) The leather makes the jacket have a nice texture. 13) The leather makes the jacket attractive. 14) The leather makes the jacket smell good. 15) The leather makes the jacket easy to care for. 16) The leather makes the jacket fashionable. 17) The leather on the jacket communicates prestige.

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18) Leather is a safe option for consumers with regards to their health when wearing the jacket. Please indicate how well the following statements match your attitude towards purchasing leather products. Please indicate the degree to which you agree with each statement.

Strongly Mildly Mildly Strongly Unsure Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 3 1 2 4 5 Leather is a good choice of fabric when purchasing a 19) couch.

Leather is a good choice of fabric when purchasing a 20) jacket.

Leather is a good choice of 21) fabric when purchasing a handbag. Leather is a good choice of 22) fabric when purchasing a wallet. Leather is a good choice of 23) fabric when purchasing shoes. Leather is a good choice of 24) upholstery fabric when purchasing a car.

Listed below are statements about TRADITIONAL LEATHER PRODUCTION. Please indicate the degree to which you agree with each statement.

Strongly Mildly Mildly Strongly Unsure Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 3 1 2 4 5 Traditional leather processing/production poses 25) no health threat to industry workers. Traditional leather production 26) has a negative impact on the environment.

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27) Please list any leather products you have purchased in the last twelve months (e.g., clothing, shoes, bags, gloves, wallets, watches, furniture, car upholstery, etc.).

______

Before you finish the survey, please tell us more about yourself. All provided information will be kept confidential.

33) Please provide your name in order to receive extra credit in your DHE course.

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APPENDIX F

Treatment Lecture Outline

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Leather

• General Properties o Leather is defined as “a durable and flexible material created via the tanning of putrescible (degradable) animal rawhide and skin, primarily cattlehide” (Leathermaking: skin, leather, 2010, p. 51). o Leather is used in a wide range of products, such as apparel, athletic gear, upholstery/wall coverings, bags, and luggage and for accessories like wallets. • Historical Leather Production o Meat industry bi-product o Humankind’s earliest manufacturing process (dating back to prehistoric times) " Used by ancient civilization as bags, boots/sandals, harnesses, waterskins, quivers, scabbards, armor, shelter and boats. o The first leathers produced were thought to be produced in a tannery using components of brain, animal fat, animal feces, urine, smoke and decaying flesh. (Smelled horrendous, pushing the tanneries to the outskirts of town surrounding the homes of the poor) • Traditional Leather Production o This refers to chrome tanning, which has been used as the primary method for over a century. o 3 primary stages: " Beam house operations " Tanning " Post-tanning

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• Beam House Operations/Pre-tanning o Designed to eliminate non-leather making components of the hides/skins (Examples of this would be fat cells, hair non-fibrous flesh and proteins) o Aims to convert the collagen fibers into a state that is both physically and chemically suitable for tanning

• Beam House Operations Summarized o Curing: preserves the hides from spoiling and ceases bacterial decay by removal of excess water from the hides/skins using salt. o Soaking: uses diluted alkali solutions of anti-microbial compounds and wetting agents (surfactants) to treat hides and skins in order to remove excess salt and dirt and rehydrate the hides to return them to the state they were following slaughter. o Liming: hides/skins are soaked in an alkali solution of calcium hydroxide and are given a treatment with milk of lime to make collagen structures swell and remove interfibrillary and keratin proteins (this includes nails, hairs and hooves as examples. If this step isn’t done properly the leather could become brittle and hard as a result) o Dehairing: largest process, requiring the most energy and water. Removes hair from the hides through chemically burning the root or shaft of the hair using lime liquor and sodium sulphide. o Fleshing: subcutaneous material/fatty tissue is removed without chemicals using manual or machine cutting.

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o Deliming: done to remove the alkali from the pelt, lower the pH value and reduce swelling created by the liming process. o Bating: done to loosen and peptize the skin that is non-collagenous through removing interfibrillary protein, epidermis and scud residue by quickly and harshly beating the leather with metal rods or wooden logs. Leaves the hides soft and supple. o Pickling: uses pickling salts (hydrochloric or sulphuric acid) to lower the pH level and suppress swelling (done in order to render tanning chemicals more effective) o Degreasing: to remove residual grease using organic solvents like paraffin. o Depickling: may following in order to basify the chemical composition of the hide and increase the pH to a stable level using chromic salts. (Skins become more astringent, which will in turn accelerate the reactions with the tanning salts.) • Traditional Tanning Process o Most important stage in converting unstable rawhide into leather with adequate strength and resistance to attacking biological agents. o Over 90% of leather tanned globally is produced using this basic method. o Uses a rotating drum to introduce the hides to an alkaline aqueous tanning agent, which contains chromium salts, typically of the trivalent variety. (The skin’s collagen enables the tanning agents to fix to the reactive sites, ceasing putrefaction. The tanned leather is stored for several days allowing the collage/chromium bonds to consolidate) • Post-Tanning o Treats the hides and gives them the necessary properties desired for intended end uses. o Hides may be retanned in order to achieve physical strength properties required for specific end uses. o Hides can be dyed using coloring agents to achieve an even depth of shade. o They may also be fatliquored, introducing fats/oils into the skin to replace those lost in the previous processing. o Applying a finishing material, such as a resin, to the surface enables it to be commercially viable. • Traditional Tanning Process Advantages o Used to obtain light leather with good resistance to bacteria. o Preferred method because it is simple, fast and inexpensive. o Material yielded has a high thermal and mechanical resistance and a better dyeing capacity. o The bond between collagen and chromium is known to be the strongest amongst all the alternative options.

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• Traditional Tanning Process Disadvantages o Hazardous chemicals used in the process are not properly disposed of, causing a negative environmental impact. o Water and energy use are not properly managed in tanneries, contributing to a negative environmental impact. o Safety regulations are not in place to keep industry employees from chemical exposure in the tanneries. • Industry Regulations o Hazardous waste (Because chromium waste is classified as hazardous due to its ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity, there are varying regulations.) " Regulations not consistent across the board (Because chromium use isn’t consistent across all industries, it is not regulated as it should be. Often when it is regulated, corporations operate illegally and dispose of waste in improper ways) " Different types of Chromium are grouped together and regulated together (Although Hexavalent chromium is 500 times more toxic than trivalent chromium, there is often only one permissible exposure level set) " Waste disposal (While some disposal is heavily regulate by the government, leather tannery waste is exempt in some areas. This means that contaminated waste sludge and water containing chromium is disposed freely into waterways and land. This could possibly cause irreversible damage to the environment.) o Worker’s Compensation Laws (there are currently no Worker’s Compensation Laws in Indian industries as well as others and they need to be enacted. Workers injured or disabled in this industry do not receive compensation or payment for medical treatment.)

• Traditional Tanning: Environmental Impact – Important Statistics o It is estimated that “world production of chrome tanned leather causes formation of 805,657 tons/year of solid tanned wastes” (Chronska and Przepiorkowska, 2007). o In the Indian footwear sector alone, 2.25 million tons of chemicals are used and most are released into the environment because most tanneries don’t possess waste management facilities. • Traditional Tanning: Environmental Impact o Chrome tanning waste can have hazardous effects on groundwater, soil and plants. (Waste water often reaches underground water and drinking water supplies. Farmers can lose land due to pollution and water becomes no longer drinkable.)

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o Chromium oxidization (Solid chromium waste released into the soil can oxidize and become toxic Hexavalent chromium). o Approximately 60-80% of the chromium salts used in the tanning stage are rejected as liquid effluent. o A good example: India (India is the world’s 3rd largest producer of chrome tanned leather. Because the environmental regulations are less stringent, there are areas suffering from water resource depletion. The surface water is heavily contaminated with toxic/heavy metals because of the effluent discarded by local tanneries.) o Beam house phase (Because of the use of ammonium salts in certain processes, the beam house operations contribute roughly 60-70% of the pollution load total in the leather process). • Traditional Tanning: Health Impact o Chromium (although trivalent chromium has been found to be essential in humans, hexavalant chromium is recognized as a known human carcinogen through inhalation. A list of only some of the health problems caused through chromium exposure is as follows: gastro- intestinal hemorrhages, pulmonary edema, live and kidney damage, fertility decrease, blood disturbance and anemia, allergies, neural disorders, chromium ulcers, nausea, skin diseases, respiration difficulties, asthma, hypertension, cardiovascular disease and pulmonary cancer. o Sulfide (exposure to this highly toxic chemicals can cause headaches, nausea and affect the central nervous system even at low levels of exposure. At high enough doses, it can cause instant death) • Alternatives to Traditional Leather Tanning o Chemical alternatives (In place of the toxic chemicals traditionally used, viable alternatives include enzymes, vegetable tannins, fruit tannins, iron and more) o Process Alternatives (There are also alternatives to the traditional processes such pickling and unhairing that decrease the amount of waste emitted and energy and water consumed). o Leather produced (the leather produced through these alternatives is comparable to the quality of that produced by traditional methods)