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Buddha on the Rocks: Gandhāran Connections Through the Karakorum Mountains M Buddha on the Rocks: Gandhāran connections through the Karakorum mountains M. E. J. J. van Aerde, A. D. L. Mohns, and A. G. Khan The Global Connections of Gandhāran Art Proceedings of the Third International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 18th-19th March, 2019 Edited by Wannaporn Rienjang Peter Stewart Archaeopress Archaeology Archaeopress Publishing Ltd Summertown Pavilion 18-24 Middle Way Summertown Oxford OX2 7LG www.archaeopress.com ISBN 978-1-78969-695-0 ISBN 978-1-78969-696-7 (e-Pdf) DOI: 10.32028/9781789696950 www.doi.org/10.32028/9781789696950 © Archaeopress and the individual authors 2020 Gandhāran ‘Atlas’ figure in schist; c. second century AD. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, inv. M.71.73.136 (Photo: LACMA Public Domain image.) This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. This book is available direct from Archaeopress or from our website www.archaeopress.com Contents Acknowledgements ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������iii Illustrations ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������iii Contributors ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� iv Preface ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ vi Wannaporn Rienjang and Peter Stewart Part 1 Global perspectives Gandhāra perceptions: the orbit of Gandhāran studies �������������������������������������������������������������������� 1 Warwick Ball Part 2 The Graeco-Roman connection On the crossroads of disciplines: Tonio Hölscher’s theory of understanding Roman art images and its implications for the study of western influence(s) in Gandhāran art ���������������������������������29 Martina Stoye Roman sarcophagi and Gandhāran sculpture �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������50 Peter Stewart The transmission of Dionysiac imagery to Gandhāran Buddhist art �����������������������������������������������86 Tadashi Tanabe Part 3 Asian influences Buddha on the Rocks: Gandhāran connections through the Karakorum mountains��������������������105 M. E. J. J. van Aerde, A. D. L. Mohns, and A. G. Khan Buddhist temples in Tukhāristān and their relationships with Gandhāran traditions ����������������135 Shumpei Iwai More Gandhāra than Mathurā: substantial and persistent Gandhāran influences provincialized in the Buddhist material culture of Gujarat and beyond, c� AD 400-550����������������������������������������156 Ken Ishikawa Part 4 Gandhāra and China Cross-cultural Buddhist monastery ruins on the Silk Road and beyond: the layout and function of Buddhist monasteries reconsidered �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������207 Joy Yi Lidu The sinicization and secularization of some Graeco-Buddhist gods in China ������������������������������234 Juping Yang Part 5 Epilogue De-fragmenting Gandhāran art: advancing analysis through digital imaging and visualization ���251 Ian Haynes, Iwan Peverett, Wannaporn Rienjang with contributions by Luca M. Olivieri i ii (105-134): DOI: 10.32028/9781789696950-6 Buddha on the Rocks: Gandhāran connections through the Karakorum mountains1 M. E. J. J. van Aerde, A. D. L. Mohns, and A. G. Khan ‘It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit facts.’ (Arthur Conan Doyle, A Scandal in Bohemia). Introduction This paper takes the Gandhāra region as a starting point to explore its wider connections as part of ancient trade networks from c. 300 BC onwards, often referred to as the early ‘Silk Road’.2 While taking a bottom-up approach to the archaeological record, we focus especially on the role and spread of the diverse Buddhist imagery along the trade routes that have been found throughout the Karakorum mountain range. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Gandhāra scholars worked from a near- exclusive focus on Greek and Roman influences on the art of the region. During such early excavations, as evidenced by their reports, materials were often taken out of their original archaeological and environmental contexts upon discovery.3 On the one hand this enabled the detailed art-historical studies of what was labelled ‘Graeco-Buddhism’,4 while on the other hand it remains an obstacle when we wish to analyse patterns of connectivity based on the much wider archaeological contexts from sites that were excavated during these early periods. Even within such a larger scope, however, the unique character of Gandhāran Buddhist art is undeniable. The arrival of Mediterranean migrations in this region does seem to coincide with the development of naturalistic sculpting techniques that would so significantly shape the repertoire of especially Buddhist material culture in Gandhāra.5 As a result of the unique character of its Buddhist material culture in particular, the Gandhāra region itself has in the past been studied mainly as a unique or even isolated region, too. But, as is evident from its extensive archaeological record, not only has the material culture of Gandhāra spread out well beyond its regional borders – the very region itself, in a geographical sense, was ideally positioned between the Hindu Kush and Karakorum mountain passes and the north-western ports of the Indian Subcontinent to enable routes of exchange and trade and their naturally resulting processes of connectivity. Gandhāra would have functioned as a natural nodal point, a crossroads, within a network of interaction, migration, and trade that went not 1 The authors wish to thank Peter Stewart and Wannaporn Kay Rienjang for inviting Marike van Aerde to speak at the third Gandhāra Connections workshop ‘The Global Connections of Gandhāran Art’ at Oxford, 18th-19th March 2019, where part of this research was first presented. Van Aerde’s research project at Leiden University is generously supported by the Byvanck Fellowship (2017-2019). We also wish to thank Jason Neelis and Murtaza Taj, whose Applied Field Workshop of Gilgit-Baltistan Petroglyphs, hosted by the Karakorum International University (KIU) in July 2019, was attended by co-authors Alexander Mohns and Abdul Ghani Khan. We are particularly grateful to Muhammad Zahir (Hazara University) for his collaboration and expertise. Our gratitude is likewise due to the late Harald Hauptmann for sharing his data and experience concerning the Karakorum petroglyphs with Van Aerde (Heidelberg 2017-2018). We furthermore wish to thank Mike Kneppers for his work on the zoomorphic petroglyphs, and Beatriz Gomez de Silva for her assistance with the GIS charts. 2 We choose not use this term, as ‘Road/Roads’ incorrectly implies linear connections, which is not in line with the currently available archaeological data. The term ‘Silk’ is another issue: it refers to a traditional focus on luxury goods (which was based on fragmentary reference only, such as Pliny, Natural History, 12.84), while the archaeological records of the ‘Silk Roads’ trade exchanges in fact contain substantially more utility material, such as food stuffs, transport ceramics, spices and herbs, etc. For that reason, we here refer to ancient routes of exchange or trade networks. See also Van Aerde & Zampierin 2020 on the (misinterpretation of) archaeological statistics of early Afro-Eurasian trade routes. 3 Cf. Cunningham 1970; Marshall 1918; 1951. 4 As first coined by Foucher 1905. The concept is still in use today, e.g. see recently, Boardman 1994; 2015; Beckwith 2015. 5 Cf. Van Aerde (2018: 203-230) for a review of Gandhāran sculpture at Taxila in particular, where these contexts are discussed more widely. See also Rienjang & Stewart (eds.) 2018; 2019 for various recent explorations on Gandhāran art and sculpture. 105 The Global ConneCTions of Gandhāran arT only beyond the region but also beyond the Indian Subcontinent; and Buddhist art, it seems, became part of these processes.6 When we turn to the full (currently available) record of the output of Gandhāran material culture through these wider connections, sculpture and monumental architecture make up only a fraction of the quantity; ceramics are perhaps not the first or most artistically striking example that comes to mind when we think of Gandhāra, but pottery used for exchanging goods such as spices, herbs, oils, and rice constitutes by far the most numerous finds; in the ceramics assemblage from Taxila, for example, amphorae can be found with parallel types from Gujarat ports like Somnath and Devnīmorī, Arikamedu in the Tamil south, but also from Roman Palmyra, Petra, and Jerusalem, thus concretely linking Gandhāra with a widespread network of international trade exchange.7 In this chapter, we propose to study early Buddhist iconography within this same, wider context of the routes that led to and from the Gandhāra region. In particular, we focus on the Karakorum mountain range and the currently available dataset of rock carvings from that region. Specifically, after a brief introduction to the Karakorum archaeological record and state of research, this paper will: 1) examine the diversity of Buddhist iconography encountered by means of a database of all relevant anthropomorphic
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