The Extent of the Barents–Kara Ice Sheet During the Last Glacial

Quaternary Science Reviews 21 (2002) 111–119

The extent of the Barents–Kara ice sheet during the Last Glacial Maximum Jan Mangeruda,*, Valery Astakhovb, John-Inge Svendsenc a Department of Geology, University of Bergen, Alle!gt 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norway b Geological Faculty, Petersburg University, Universitetskaya 7/9, 199034 St. Petersburg, Russian Federation c Centre for Studies of the Environment and Resources, University of Bergen, Hyteknologisenteret, N-5020 Bergen, Norway Received 30 January 2001; accepted 18 July 2001

Abstract

It has been a long-standing discussion whether the Barents–Kara Ice Sheet expanded onto mainland Russia during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). In this paper, we describe many well-dated (by conventional and AMS 14C methods and optically stimulated luminescence) sedimentary sequences in the controversial area of Northern Russia. The sequences discussed are not covered by till, and yet all predate the LGM. The deposits consist mostly of aeolian or lacustrine, easily deformable soft silt and ﬁne sand. Two sites feature frozen mammoth carcasses and three sites contain Palaeolithic artefacts and mammalian bones. We emphasise that these formations show no sign of having been overridden by an ice sheet. At several sites, deposition of aeolian sediments and formation of ice wedges took place during the LGM time span. These observations present unambiguous proof that the Barents–Kara Ice Sheet did not cover mainland Russia during LGM, with a possible exception for the northern tip of the Taimyr Peninsula. r 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction et al., 1995). However, the dimension of the Barents– Kara Ice Sheet during the LGM has been controversial Results of different methods of estimating the total over the last decades. Ice sheets of widely different sizes volume of glacial ice on earth during the Last Glacial have been suggested (CLIMAP, 1981; Denton and Maximum (LGM) were extensively discussed during the Hughes, 1981; Grosswald, 1993, 1998; Peltier, 1994; EPILOG symposium. The principal method is to Velichko et al., 1997; Svendsen et al., 1999; Petit-Maire calculate volumes of individual ice sheets by using their et al., 2000), although in all reconstructions the LGM mapped areas and modelled ice thicknesses. Therefore, ice sheet boundary is located well inside the maximum empirical geological evidence of the extent of the ice Quaternary drift limits. sheets is needed. In the present paper, we describe and In the reconstructions of Svendsen et al. (1999, discuss data constraining the southern extent of the submitted), which we presented at the EPILOG Barents–Kara Ice Sheet during the LGM. The time of symposium (Fig. 1), the western and northern margins the LGM is used in the sense of EPILOG; i.e. as the time of the ice sheet are localised along the edge of the slice 18–21 14C kyr or about 21–24,000 cal yr BP. continental shelf (Landvik et al., 1998), which agrees An ice sheet centred over the Barents and Kara seas well with the corresponding limits in Grosswald’s (1993) (hereafter the Barents–Kara Ice Sheet) expanded onto reconstruction. This is also the maximum feasible extent the Russian mainland several times during the Quatern- for a grounded ice sheet because beyond the shelf break ary (e.g. Astakhov, 1976). At its Quaternary maximum the water depth becomes so deep that the ice front extent, this ice sheet covered vast areas of West Siberia would float. A possible expansion of this ice sheet into and European Russia (Arkhipov et al., 1986; Arkhipov the deep sea as a floating ice shelf would not contribute to a lowering of the global sea level. Therefore, if the Barents–Kara Ice Sheet was significantly larger than *Corresponding author. Tel.: +47-55-58-35-04; fax: +47-55-58-94- that shown in Fig. 1, the additional ice must have 16. resided on mainland Russia, especially in the Pechora E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Mangerud). Lowland and the West Siberian Plain (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1. Limits of the Barents–Kara Ice Sheet during the LGM according to Svendsen et al. (submitted), which is a slightly revised version of the map in Svendsen et al. (1999). It should be noted that except for the southern part, the precise position of the ice limit in the Kara Sea is uncertain.

This has indeed been suggested in many of the earlier form, that formed the basis for the LGM reconstruction published reconstructions of the LGM ice sheets by Svendsen et al. (1999), supplemented by some results (CLIMAP, 1981; Denton and Hughes, 1981; Grosswald, obtained later. 1993, 1998; Peltier, 1994; Petit-Maire et al., 2000). We emphasise that all the stratigraphic sections and During the EPILOG symposium Grosswald again geomorphological features described below are located presented an LGM reconstruction with an ice limit within the ice limits proposed by Grosswald (Fig. 2). All located far to the south on the Russian mainland sediments and landforms predate the time of LGM but (Fig. 2), arguing that glaciological modelling supports none of the sites show any sign of glacial overriding. that alternative. Russian, Western European and Some sections also show deposition of non-glacial American field geologists who presently work in the sediments at LGM time. The observations are therefore Russian Arctic, on the other hand, maintain that the incompatible with Grosswald’s and other similar recon- existing field observations and geochronometric data structions of a large LGM ice sheet in this area. Details falsify Grosswald’s hypothesis (Astakhov et al., 1999; on the sections, methods, dating results, etc, are Forman et al., 1999; Larsen et al., 1999; Mangerud et al., contained in the referred literature. 1999; Svendsen et al., 1999; Polyak et al., 2000). However, the discussion at the EPILOG symposium shows that Grosswald’s idea is still considered as a 2. Pechora Lowland and Pechora Sea viable alternative among researchers from other dis- ciplines of Quaternary science, or by those who have not The Pechora River runs from the large lowland in the studied this region themselves. Therefore, we will here NE corner of Europe into the SE part of the Barents present a few selected key observations, in a simplified Sea, sometimes named the Pechora Sea (Figs. 1 and 2). J. Mangerud et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 21 (2002) 111–119 113

Fig. 2. Map of Northern Russia showing the proposed limits for the Barents–Kara Ice Sheet during the LGM according to Grosswald (1993, 1998) and Svendsen et al. (submitted). Sites described in the text and for which obtained dates and the stratigraphy or morphology demonstrates that they have not been overrun by a LGM glacier are marked.

Grosswald (1993, 1998) placed the LGM glacial limit in moth, and a few artefacts were found in a cross-bedded the southern part of the Pechora Lowland (Fig. 2). gravel, interpreted as river-channel deposits (Mangerud et al., 1999; Pavlov et al., 2001). The 14C dates from the 2.1. Palaeolithic sites bones yielded ages of 35–37 ka (Fig. 3). The gravel is covered by alluvial sand, interpreted as a point-bar The Byzovaya Palaeolithic site (Locality no. 1, Fig. 2) sequence. A series of AMS 14C dates on terrestrial plant has been known for decades. Recently, we have made remains (leaves, mosses, etc.) from these alluvial large excavations in order to improve our knowledge sediments yielded ages in the range 31–24 ka. The about the archaeological remains and the sediments sequence is capped by undisturbed aeolian fine sand/ (Mangerud et al., 1999; Heggen, 2000). We have coarse silt OSL-dated to 20–14 ka (Fig. 3). Just like the obtained 25 radiocarbon dates on bones and mammoth Byzovaya site wind-blown sediments accumulated here tusks from the cultural layer, which all yielded ages in during the LGM. the range 25.5–30.0 ka, except for one date that yielded At the Pymva Shor site (no. 3, Fig. 2), several shallow 3372 ka. Only some of the dates are plotted in Fig. 3. pits have been excavated (Mangerud et al., 1999). Here, The layer with bones and artefacts is blanketed by a animal bones have yielded radiocarbon dates traversing 10 m thick sequence of unconsolidated aeolian sand and the LGM time slice: 26.2, 21.9, 20.0, 16.9, 16.5, 16.5 and silt, in places intercalated with beds deposited by 15.8 ka. solifluction or debris flows from the valley slopes. A series of optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates 2.2. Early Weichselian shorelines from the aeolian sediments have yielded ages in the range 32–18 ka, indicating that wind-blown sand, Shorelines of the large, pro-glacial, ice-dammed Lake intercalated with solifluction deposits, accumulated here Komi mapped by aerial photography are morphologi- during the LGM (Fig. 3). cally expressed as many kilometre long knicklines or At the Mamontavaya Kurya Palaeolithic site (no. 2, sand bars following the 100 m altitude contour across Fig. 2), many bones of large mammals, mostly mam- most of the Pechora Lowland (Fig. 2) (Astakhov et al., 114 .Man J. g rde l utraySineRe Science Quaternary / al. et erud v es2 20)111–119 (2002) 21 iews

Fig. 3. Simplified logs from sites described in the text plotted in an N–S profile from the Pechora Sea to the southern Pechora Lowland. Locations on the map in Fig. 2 are given as site nos. (in parentheses) above each log. For Byzovaya the log gives a synthesis of the excavations and is based on Mangerud et al. (1999), Heggen (2000) and unpublished results. Only 14 of the 25 radiocarbon ages from the cultural layer are listed; all the rest also yielded ages 26–30 ka. For Mamontovaya a simplified log of the section in Pavlov et al. (2001) is shown. The log for the Kolva River terraces is a synthesis of two sections (Mangerud et al., 1999). A simplified log of the section in Mangerud et al. (1999) is given for the Timan Beach, with OSLdates sl ightly corrected for a different water content (27%). The log from the southern Pechora Sea is based on the boreholes B-210–218 with several AMS ages added (the right hand row) from borehole B-234 with a similar stratigraphy (Polyak et al. 2000). J. Mangerud et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 21 (2002) 111–119 115

1999). Several sections through the shorelines show that The lower part of the section is laminated lacustrine they consist of loose beach sand and gravel (Mangerud sand that interfingers with solifluction deposits. Both et al., 1999). The lake was formed in front of an facies are rich in plant remains, from which four AMS advancing Barents–Kara Ice Sheet that blocked the 14C dates yielded non-finite ages (Fig. 3). Three OSL Pechora River. dates from the sand yielded ages in the range 32–57 ka. The Byzovaya and Mamontovaya sites described Above follows a >3-m thick unit of flat-bedded aeolian above are incised into the floor of Lake Komi, providing cover sand. Two AMS dates from tiny plant remains in a minimum age for the shorelines of 30–37 14Cka. this sand also yielded non-finite dates, but the small Optically stimulated luminescence dates of beach sand organic particles were probably eroded from the under- (Locality no. 4, Fig. 2) yielded ages in the range 80– lying organic-rich unit and redeposited in the aeolian 100 ka (Fig. 4) (Mangerud et al., 2001). sand. Two OSLdates yielding 21 ka have been obtained from the aeolian sand. Ice wedge casts and a thin fluvial 2.3. River terraces gravel show a break in aeolian sedimentation before deposition of several metres of a second aeolian sand In the Pechora Lowland, we have studied several river OSL-dated to 13.5–16 ka. A Holocene peat caps the terraces that predate the LGM; here, we will only sequence. discuss one of them. The River Kolva (the river on which site no. 5, Fig. 2, is located) starts some 50 km 2.5. Sediments on the sea floor south from the Barents coast and runs southwards before joining the Pechora River. Along much of the In the southern part of the Pechora Sea, the youngest River Kolva course there is a terrace about 20 m above till is overlain by thick marine sediments (Gataullin et al. the flood plain. Sections in the terrace show mainly 2001). A series of 14C dates, mainly on molluscs and cross-bedded fluvial sand, interpreted as braided river foraminifera collected from cores (no. 7, Fig. 2) yielded deposits (Mangerud et al., 1999). Many bones and ages in the range 24–42 ka (Fig. 3), proving that the unit mammoth tusks are found in the lower part of the sand. predates the LGM (Polyak et al., 2000). The top of the Six radiocarbon dates from two sites gave ages 26–37 ka unit is cut by an erosional unconformity which is traced (Fig. 3). A thin mantle of loess-like silt covers the to submerged shorelines 50–70 m below the present sea terrace. level, and is interpreted to result from the global sea- level fall during the LGM (Gataullin et al., 2001). 2.4. Exposures along the Barents Sea coast

Sections in a wave-cut cliﬀ have been investigated on the Timan Beach (no. 6, Fig. 2) (Mangerud et al., 1999). 3. Urals

The northern Urals were partly invaded by the Barents–Kara Ice Sheet according to Grosswald’s (1993, 1998) LGM reconstruction, whereas in the ‘‘minimalist’’ reconstruction of Velichko et al. (1997) an ice cap was centred over these mountains. The youngest mountain glaciers that reached the foothills from the Polar Urals can be identified from distinct lobate end-moraines along the western and eastern flanks of the mountain chain (Astakhov, 1979; Astakhov et al., 1999). The western of these piedmont glaciers collided with a contemporaneous ice lobe from the Barents–Kara Ice Sheet. The latter deposited the Harbei moraines dated to the Early Weichselian at about 90 ka (Mangerud et al., 2001). The morphologi- cally well-expressed Harbei moraines have been traced around the northern tip of the Urals where the ice sheet flowed up valleys to an altitude of 560 m a.s.l. (no. 8, Fig. 2) (Astakhov et al., 1999). Nowhere along the Urals Fig. 4. OSLdates of beach sand from sections in LakeKomi were the Early Weichselian moraines overrun by shorelines (no. 4 in Fig. 2). The dates are plotted according to increasing age. Open squares show three dates considered as outliers. younger glacier advances. This implies that LGM Dates are shown with one standard deviation. Adapted from glaciers of the Urals were confined to the mountain Mangerud et al. (2001). valleys. These findings are incompatible with the LGM 116 J. Mangerud et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 21 (2002) 111–119 reconstructions of both Grosswald (1998) and Velichko formed. This latter surface is covered by another unit of et al. (1997). aeolian sediments dated to 16–12 ka by means of 12 AMS dates. In eastern Yamal, there is an important and well- 4. West Siberian Plain studied section named Syo-Yakha (no. 10, Fig. 2). This section displays a more than 20-m thick sequence of The largest discrepancy between Grosswald’s (1993, Yedoma-like silt (mainly aeolian in our opinion) with 1998) and Svendsen et al.’s (1999) reconstructions is on thin moss-mat layers. Altogether 14 radiocarbon dates the West Siberian Plain (Fig. 2). However, it should be (AMS and conventional dating) with ages ranging from noted that also Grosswald’s ice limit is inside the 37 to 17 ka in the correct stratigraphic order have been maximum extension of the Barents–Kara Ice Sheet obtained on plant material from this section (Fig. 5) during the Quaternary. (Vasilchuk et al., 1984, 2000). The sedimentary sequence is pierced by two generations of thick, syngenetic ice 4.1. Yamal Peninsula wedges, which grew simultaneously with sediment accretion. Radiocarbon AMS dates of minute organic This Peninsula, as well as much of northern West remains from ice in the wedges yielded ages in the range Siberia, is covered by thick terrestrial sediment. Two 21.0–14.5 ka, whereas dates on alkali extracts from the well-dated sequences will be outlined here. same samples yielded slightly higher ages 23.6–20.0 ka Many radiocarbon and OSLdates were recently (Vasilchuk et al., 2000). Measured oxygen isotope values obtained from the large Marresale section on western in the ice are about –23 per mil (Fig. 5), as compared to Yamal (no. 9, Fig. 2) (Forman et al., 1999). Above the –17 for Holocene wedge ice in this area. Vasilchuk et al. youngest till that cantains fossil glacier ice there are (2000) interpreted this difference to indicate that winter lacustrine and aeolian sediments from which 16 AMS temperatures during ice wedge formation were 6–91C radiocarbon dates yielded ages in the range 33–25 ka. lower than today. For the theme of the present paper, Five OSLdates are consistent with these radiocarbon the most important result is that sediments accumulated ages. Apparently there was a break in deposition continuously between 37 and 17 ka and that ice wedges during the LGM, at which time large ice wedges were were growing here during the LGM.

Fig. 5. The Syo-Yakha section on the eastern coast of Yamal (no. 10, Fig. 2). Simpliﬁed from Vasilchuk et al. (2000). J. Mangerud et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 21 (2002) 111–119 117

4.2. Yenisei region On northern Taimyr, Alexanderson et al (2001) mapped an end moraine formed by ice moving in from End moraines with blocks of fossil glacier ice are the Kara Sea and dated to LGM by means of two exposed in sections situated where the Polar Circle radiocarbon dates on marine shells included in glacial crosses the Yenisei River (Fig. 2) (Astakhov and ice. The moraine could show either an outlet glacier Isayeva, 1988). The moraines were formed by a lobe of from the Barents–Kara Ice Sheet or a minor dome on the Barents–Kara Ice Sheet that flowed southward along the shelf. As discussed below, we are sceptical it is a lobe the river valley. North of the moraines there is a plain from the LGM Barents–Kara Ice Sheet, because then a built of glaciolacustrine sediments. Thermokarst lakes, major ice-dammed lake should be formed. which developed on this plain, were subsequently filled with silty sediments. Radiocarbon dates from well- preserved tree logs collected in sinkhole silts in the 6. Discussion observation pit at the Igarka Permafrost Station (no. 11, Fig. 2), yielded ages of 35, 39 and 50 ka (Kind, 1974), Above we have described stratigraphic sequences and indicating that the latest glaciation of this area occurred geomorphological features from the Arctic Russia, more than 50 kyr ago. This age estimate is consistent which are all dated to 20 ka or older. The best-dated with radiocarbon dates of around 31 and 32 ka that were sediment successions are located hundreds of km inside obtained on well-preserved plant material from a fluvial the LGM ice limit proposed by Grosswald (1993, 1998). terrace incised into the glaciolacustrine plain (Astakhov, Many more sites with similar stratigraphic sequences 1998). have been observed in these areas. Most of the described In the extreme north of the Yenisei region, there are deposits consist of easily deformable, loose silt or fine several findings of frozen mammoth carcasses which sand, and some contain fragile artefacts and bones, or were buried in surficial sediments not covered by till. frozen mammoth carcasses. However, none of the sites Radiocarbon dates on mammoth flesh from two sites shows any sign of glacial overriding. At some sites, along the rivers Mokhovaya (no. 12, Fig. 2) and Gyda deposition of non-glacial sediments and/or formation of (no. 13) yielded ages of 35.8 and 33.5 ka, respectively ice wedges took place during the LGM. The inevitable (Heintz and Garutt, 1965). A fresh-looking knee of conclusion, reached by us and other researchers, is that mammoth collected directly from the permafrost at a the LGM ice sheet did not overrun the sites described. site near Leskino (no. 14, Fig. 2) was dated to 30.1 ka Astakhov (1998) examined the stratigraphic and and plant remains from the enclosing silt to 29.7 ka geochronometric basis for Grosswald’s (1993) recon- (Astakhov, 1998). structed ice sheet in West Siberia. Only 23% of the total 208 radiocarbon dates in West Siberia that yielded finite ages in the time range 15–50 ka came from sub- 5. Taimyr Peninsula diamicton sediments, and many of them were obtained from interglacial strata. Therefore, Astakhov (1998) The section at Cape Sabler, Lake Taimyr (no. 15, concluded that the samples had been contaminated by Fig. 2) features one of the best-dated Weichselian younger carbon. The remaining 73% of the 15–50 ka sedimentary formations in the Russian Arctic. The dates were derived from sedimentary successions with sequence consists of laminated silt and sand with peaty no signs of glacial overriding, like the sites described in interlayers. The silt is similar to the Yedoma formation, this paper. The sections that Grosswald (1993, 1998) which covers much of NE Siberia. Long syngenetic ice used as evidence for LGM and even Younger Dryas ice wedges propagate through the section (Derevyagin et al., advances onto the Pechora Lowland have been reex- 1999). Kind and Leonov (1982) and Isayeva (1984) amined (Tveranger et al., 1995; Astakhov et al., 1999; obtained nine successive radiocarbon dates in the range Mangerud et al., 1999; Henriksen et al., 2001). These 35–18 ka from the Cape Sabler section. In a more recent investigations showed that the youngest sediments study, Moller. et al. (1999) obtained another 21 beneath the uppermost till are older than 40–50 ka, not successive AMS ages in the range 34–17 ka, demonstrat- about 10 ka as postulated by Grosswald. ing ice-free conditions during the LGM. Concerning samples yielding ‘‘old’’ radiocarbon ages, The old age of the latest glaciation of the southern it is useful to keep in mind that such dates are insensitive Taimyr is confirmed by a study on the northern shore of to contamination by old carbon, but very sensitive to Lake Labaz (no. 16, Fig. 2). Here, 21 samples from contamination by young carbon. For example, a sample postglacial sediments yielded radiocarbon ages in the contaminated with 10% of ‘‘infinite old’’ carbon appears range from >48 to 20 ka (Siegert et al., 1999). only about 850 yr old, whereas a contamination of an Additionally, a non-finite date (53 ka) has been obtained ‘‘infinitely old’’ sample by only 1% of modern carbon from a frozen mammoth carcass found in a river terrace would yield a date of about 37 ka. In practice, this nearby (Arslanov et al., 1980). means that if the discussed dates are erroneous due to 118 J. Mangerud et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 21 (2002) 111–119 contamination, that has to be contamination by younger the global sea level drop. Our reconstruction shows carbon, and the real ages are higher than assumed. This the ice sheet in the Russian Arctic was less than half would not reverse our conclusion because the samples the size of that in Grosswald’s (1993, 1998) recon- were collected above the latest till. On the other hand, struction. contamination of samples collected beneath a till would 2. The limit of the LGM Barents–Kara Ice Sheet was result in very young ages for the till. located in the SE part of the Barents Sea (i.e. in the We consider that the main source of error in the dates Pechora Sea) and the western Kara Sea. used in this paper is redeposition from older sediments. 3. During the LGM there was a cold and dry However, this cannot be the case for frozen mammoths, continental climate along the northern coast of peat, vascular plants in situ, or most of the bones and mainland Russia, and major ice-dammed lakes did artefacts. It can neither be applied to the Lake Komi not exist in front of the Barents–Kara Ice Sheet. shorelines dated by OSL. Also, it is unlikely that reproducible dates in correct stratigraphic order (Cape Sabler, Yamal) could result from redeposition. Acknowledgements The restricted LGM ice sheet extent given in Fig. 1 is also consistent with the lack of raised Late Weichselian Eva Bjrseth made the drawings. Brian Robins or Holocene shorelines along the southern coast of the corrected the English language. The journals reviewers Kara and Barents seas (Troitsky and Kulakov, 1976; Steve L. Forman and Leonid Polyak provided many Forman et al., 1999; Mangerud et al., 1999). The useful comments. This paper is a contribution to the deposition of aeolian sediments close to sea level during Russian–Norwegian interdisciplinary project Paleo En- the LGM also demonstrates that relative sea level was vironment and Climate History of the Russian Arctic low. (PECHORA) funded by the Research Council of Just as important, these aeolian sediments deposited Norway, and to the project Ice Sheets and Climate in near sea level at LGM also demonstrate that extensive the Eurasian Arctic at the LGM (Eurasian Ice Sheets, ice-dammed lakes did not exist in front of the ice sheet. Contract no. ENV4-CT97-0563) of the EC Environment This implies that there was an open drainage pathway and Climate Research Programme. Both projects are co- across the floor of the present Kara Sea to the Arctic ordinated by the European Science Foundation research Ocean for the Pechora, Ob, Yenisei and other rivers and program: Quaternary Environments of the Eurasian thus that the ice sheet did not impinge on Taimyr North (QUEEN). We sincerely thank the people and (Fig. 1). However, it should be noted that a LGM institutions mentioned. moraine is mapped on northern Taimyr, as described above (Alexanderson et al., 2001). 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