ARTICLE IN PRESS

Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357

The periglacial climate andenvironment in northern Eurasia during the Last Glaciation Hans W. Hubbertena,*, Andrei Andreeva, Valery I. Astakhovb, Igor Demidovc, Julian A. Dowdeswelld, Mona Henriksene, Christian Hjortf, Michael Houmark-Nielseng, Martin Jakobssonh, Svetlana Kuzminai, Eiliv Larsenj, Juha Pekka Lunkkak, AstridLys a(j, Jan Mangerude, Per Moller. f, Matti Saarnistol, Lutz Schirrmeistera, Andrei V. Sherm, Christine Siegerta, Martin J. Siegertn, John Inge Svendseno a Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Telegrafenberg A43, Potsdam D-14473, Germany b Geological Faculty, St. Petersburg University, Universitetskaya 7/9, St. Petersburg 199034, Russian Federation c Institute of Geology, Karelian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushkinskaya 11, Petrozavodsk 125610, Russian Federation d Scott Polar Research Institute and Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CBZ IER, UK e Department of Earth Science, University of Bergen, Allegt.! 41, Bergen N-5007, Norway f Quaternary Science, Department of Geology, Lund University, Geocenter II, Solvegatan. 12, Lund Sweden g Geological Institute, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 10, Copenhagen DK-1350, Denmark h Center for Coastal and Ocean Mapping, Chase Ocean Engineering Lab, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA i Paleontological Institute, RAS, Profsoyuznaya ul., 123, Moscow 117868, Russia j Geological Survey of Norway, PO Box 3006 Lade, Trondheim N-7002, Norway k Institute of Geosciences, University of Oulu, PO Box 3000, Linnanmaa FIN-90014, Finland l Geological Survey of Finland, Betonimiehenkuja 4, PO Box 96, Espoo FI-02151, Uusimaa, Finland m Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, RAS, Leninskiy Prospect, 33, Moscow 119071, Russia n Bristol Glaciology Centre, School of Geographical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 ISS, UK o Department of Geology, Allegt." 41, Bergen N-5007, Norway

Abstract

This paper summarizes the results of studies of the Late Weichselian periglacial environments carried out in key areas of northern Eurasia by several QUEEN teams (European Science Foundation (ESF) programme: ‘‘Quaternary Environment of the Eurasian North’’). The palaeoglaciological boundary conditions are defined by geological data on timing and extent of the last glaciation obtained in the course of the EU funded project ‘‘Eurasian Ice Sheets’’. These data prove beyond any doubt, that with the exception of the northwestern fringe of the Taymyr Peninsula, the rest of the Eurasian mainlandandSevernaya Zemlya were not affectedby the Barents–Kara Sea Ice Sheet during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Inversedmodellingbasedon these results shows that a progressive cooling which startedaround30 ka BP, causedice growth in Scandinavia and the northwestern areas of the Barents–Kara Sea shelf, due to a maritime climate with relatively high precipitation along the western flank of the developing ice sheets. In the rest of the Eurasian Arctic extremely low precipitation rates (less than 50 mm yr1), did not allow ice sheet growth in spite of the very cold temperatures. Palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental conditions for the time prior to, during, and after the LGM have been reconstructed for the non-glaciated areas around the LGM ice sheet with the use of faunal and vegetation records, permafrost, eolian sediments, alluvial deposits and other evidences. The changing environment, from interstadial conditions around 30 ka BP to a much colder and drier environment at the culmination of the LGM at 20–15 ka BP, andthe beginning of warming around15 ka BP have been elaboratedfrom the fielddata,which fits well with the modelling results. r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Major progress has been made during recent years in *Corresponding author. Fax: +49-331-2882-137. understanding the timing and extension of the Weichse- E-mail address: [email protected] (H.W. Hubberten). lian glaciations of Eurasia. Basedon comprehensive

0277-3791/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2003.12.012 ARTICLE IN PRESS 1334 H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 geological investigations, a new reconstruction of the 2. Results Eurasian Ice Sheets has been presentedfor the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) at about 18–20,000 years ago 2.1. LGM climate inferred from numerical simulations of (Fig. 1 from Svendsen et al., 2004b). According to this the Eurasian Ice Sheets reconstruction the northwestern fringe of the Taymyr Peninsula was affectedby a restrictedice advance from Siegert et al. (1999, 2001) useda numerical ice-sheet the Kara Sea, but the eastern part of the Eurasian model linked to a simple climate model to reconstruct mainlandandSevernaya Zemlya was not ice-covered the Barents–Kara Sea Ice Sheet as constrainedby the during the LGM. Thus, the ice sheet was much smaller geologically mappedice margins ( Svendsen et al., 1999, during this period than suggested by several previous 2004b). An inverse procedure was employed in which reconstructions, which have shown a large ice mass 2 km the ice-sheet model’s climate inputs (mean-annual thick locatedover most of the Eurasian Arctic (e.g. precipitation andair temperature) were adjusteduntil Denton andHughes, 1981 ; Hughes, 1985; Grosswald a ‘fit’ between the model results and the geological andHughes, 1995, 2002 ; Grosswald, 1998). evidence was established (Siegert andMarsiat, 2001 ). In this paper, we present our current knowledge of the The ice-sheet model is based on the flow law for ice periglacial environment andclimatic conditions in (Glen, 1955). Ice streams were modelled in bathymetric northern Eurasia during the build-up, culmination, troughs by accounting for the reduction in effective ice andwaning of the LGM ice sheets, basedon proxy pressure due to ice buoyancy in water (e.g. Bentley, data from the north of western Russia and Siberia and 1987). Several ice-sheet models based on these principles on glaciological modelling. The geological records are available, andintercomparison experiments indicate indicate that the continental shelves in the Eurasian that such models provide similar results on a continental Arctic were basically free of glaciers at the endof the scale (Huybrechts et al., 1996). Details of the ice-sheet Middle Weichselian (Mangerudet al., 1998 ; Bauch et al., model are provided by Siegert et al. (1999). The model 2001; Kleiber et al., 2001; Knies et al., 2001; Stein et al., requires time-dependent inputs of ice accumulation and 2001), which implies that the Barents–Kara Sea Ice surface air-temperature from a climate model that is Sheet, as it appearedat the LGM, formedduringa linkedto the ice sheet ( Dowdeswell and Siegert, 1999; relatively short periodof time ( Mangerudet al., 1999 ; Siegert et al., 1999). Alexanderson et al., 2001; Gataullin et al., 2001). The The model produces an ice dome 2.5 km thick over eastern flank of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet advanced a Scandinavia, slightly higher than predicted by the ICE- 1000 km during this period (e.g. Lunkka et al., 2001). 4G isostatic model of the same region (Peltier, 1994). This rapidbuild-up of glacier ice represents a response Across the Barents Sea the ice sheet was only 1200 m to a rapidshift in the climate system, which in turn must thick. Fast-flowing ice streams occupying bathymetric also have modified the environment in the ice-free troughs drained ice from the central Barents Sea, and western part of northern Russian andSiberia. this causedthe ice thickness to be generally low ( Fig. 2). A three-dimensional ice-sheet reconstruction for the The entire western margin of the Barents Sea was LGM, forcedto fit the new geological constraints on the glaciatedat the LGM ( Landvik et al., 1998). The eastern ice sheet extent over the Eurasian Arctic, has been margin of the ice sheet was situatedwithin the Kara Sea. generatedusing inverse modelling( Siegert et al., 1999, No glacier was formedon the Taymyr Peninsula, and 2001). From these model experiments, specific climatic there was limitedglacier growth on Severnaya Zemlya parameters (mean-annual precipitation andair tempera- (Fig. 2). The marine margins of the ice sheet lost ice ture) were defined for the land areas along the eastern through iceberg calving, predominantly at the mouths of andsouthern bordersof the ice sheet. The results were bathymetric troughs where the ice streams terminated. subsequently comparedwith geological recordscontain- However, the dominant wastage process along the ing information on climate in the different study areas. southern margin of the ice sheet was surface melting. Both publishedandunpublisheddata from our field The LGM palaeoenvironment impliedby the ice-sheet studies are used to reconstruct the palaeoclimate in the model is characterized by a maritime climate across the areas beyondthe ice fronts ( Fig. 1). Various types of western ice-sheet margin andby extreme polar desert information are usedto characterize the terrestrial conditions towards the east (Fig. 2). Specifically, rates of environment, including faunal and vegetation records, ice accumulation of over 600 mm yr1 are calculated the distribution of permafrost, aeolian sediments and across the western margin of Scandinavia. The mean- alluvial deposits. We have also incorporated results annual surface air-temperature in this region was 5C from some previous projects into this synthesis. Palaeo- (similar to Svalbardtoday). At the western margin of climatic data used for our present reconstruction are the Barents Sea the rate of accumulation was between obtainedfrom numerical modelling andfrom field 200 and100 mm yr 1 andthe mean-annual air tempera- observations in the following areas, arrangedfrom east ture was around 20C. Farther east ice accumulated to west (cf. Fig. 1). hadan extremely low rate (i.e. o50 mm yr1). On the ARTICLE IN PRESS H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 1335

Fig. 1. Map showing the LGM Eurasian Ice Sheet according to Svendsen et al. (2004b), with the numberedworking areas describedin the text. (1) Laptev Sea Coast andBykovsky Peninsula, (2) Central Taymyr Peninsula, (3) SE Taymyr Peninsula, Labaz Lake Region, (4) Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago, (5) West Siberia andYamal Peninsula, (6) Ural Mountains, (7) Pechora Lowland,and(8) NW Russian Plain.

Taymyr Peninsula precipitation was reduced to zero, conditions are calculated by the AGCM across the and according to this model no ice sheet was build-up northeastern half of the ice sheet. Mass balance here or anywhere farther east across the Eurasian Arctic calculations (Fig. 3) are in close agreement with those was curtailed. establishedfrom the ice-sheet model( Fig. 2). For The southern margin of the ice sheet was affectedby example, high net accumulation rates (over surface ablation, implying warmer mean-annual air 500 mm yr1) are simulatedby both modelsalong the temperatures here andtherefore a considerable N–S southwestern part of the ice sheet. These high rates of ice temperature gradient from the Arctic islands to main- accumulation decrease northwards along the Atlantic landRussia. However, the ice-sheet modelcalculates Coast and eastwards across the Scandinavian Ice Sheet. mean-annual temperatures that do not preclude perma- At the western margin of the Barents Sea the rate of ice frost across the periglacial region, or extreme coldevents accumulation was calculatedat around280 mm yr 1, during the wintertime across this zone. comparedwith 300 mm yr 1 in the ice-sheet model (Figs. Results from a sophisticatedatmospheric general 2 and3 ). From the western Barents Sea margin, ice- circulation model (AGCM) were used to ascertain the accumulation rates decreased rapidly towards the east relative importance of these climatic processes (Siegert across the Barents Sea andKara Sea Ice Sheets. Over andMarsiat, in press ). The LGM palaeoclimate the centre of the Barents Sea Ice Sheet, the AGCM developed by the AGCM (Fig. 3) shows a distribution model calculates ice-accumulation rates between 280 of mean-annual ice accumulation andair temperature and120 mm yr 1. This compares well with the ice-sheet similar to that establishedfrom the ice-sheet model.The model’s prediction of ice-accumulation rates between major difference is that the AGCM indicates much 300 and100 mm yr 1. Farther east, extreme polar desert colder conditions across the Kara Sea (mean-annual air conditions are simulated over the Kara Sea Ice Sheet, temperature less than 35C). Although air tempera- where the accumulation rate of ice was as low as tures simulatedby the two modelsare similar over the 40 mm yr1. Again, this compares favourably with the southwestern part of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet, colder ice-sheet model results, in which the ice-accumulation ARTICLE IN PRESS 1336 H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357

Fig. 3. AGCM palaeoclimate results for the LGM Eurasian Ice Sheet Fig. 2. LGM Eurasian Ice Sheet andclimate basedon numerical ice- depicted in the ICE-4G reconstruction of Peltier (1994): (a) ice-sheet sheet modelling: (a) ice-sheet topography (contours every 300 m); (b) topography (contours every 250 m); (b) mean-annual temperature mean-annual surface air-temperature (C); and(c) mean-annual rates (C); and(c) annual rate of ice accumulation (water equivalent of ice accumulation (water equivalent mm yr1). After Siegert et al. mm yr1). After Siegert andMarsiat (2001). (1999). rate here was between 100 and0 mm yr 1. However, the Part of the warm air was directed towards the northern ACGM model gives a slightly higher accumulation part of the oceanic basin, whilst a much weaker flux of figure for the northwest coast of Taymyr, which was heat enteredthe Eurasian continent. However, these affectedby a limitedLGM ice sheet. warm winds were not deflected northwards across the The ACGM calculates a full range of climate Eurasian Arctic but insteadfollowedthe Mediterranean parameters. These can be usedto infer detailsabout coast towards Central Europe. The southeastern margin the climatic conditions associated with the Eurasian Ice of the Eurasian Ice Sheet andnorthwest Siberia were Sheets at the LGM (Fig. 4). The atmospheric circulation under the flow of cold and dry winds coming off the over the Atlantic Ocean was split into two branches. Scandinavian Ice Sheet, resulting in polar desert ARTICLE IN PRESS H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 1337

Fig. 4. AGCM meteorological conditions associated with the ice-sheet mass balance and air temperatures presented in Fig. 2 (from Siegert and Marsiat, 2000). Note that the ‘Pathway of warm air’ represents the positive anomalies of the departure of the 250 hPa stream function from the zonal average. conditions across the Kara Sea and the Taymyr Bykovsky Peninsula, southeast of the Lena Delta (Locality Peninsula. The Kara Sea region was also influencedby 1, Fig. 1). Permafrost deposits with large syngenetic ice a stable anticyclonic flow of air, which further isolated wedges, the so-calledIce Complex andassociatedthermo- the region climatically. The air moves across an ice karst deposits, have preserved many traces of the sheet, so the atmosphere cannot acquire moisture, Pleistocene andHolocene environment andcontain an leading to a long-term condition of cold dry air in this almost continuous recordof the vegetation andfauna at region. This ledto a significantly reducedprecipitation least 50–60,000 years back in time (Schirrmeister et al., pattern, not only over the Kara Sea but also farther east 2002a). Heavy mineral analyses indicate that most of the across the Laptev Sea, comparedwith the present day. It sandandsilt in the Ice Complex deposits andyounger was this reduction in precipitation that curtailed the thermokarst deposits are derived from the neighbouring growth of any significant ice cover east of Novaya Kharaulakh Mountains, the northernmost part of the Zemlya (Fig. 1). Verkhoyansk Mountains (Siegert et al., 2002). This implies that the Kharaulakh Mountains were not coveredby an 2.2. LGM climate inferred from geological evidence ice cap but were exposed to subaerial denudation throughout the last ca 60,000 years. 2.2.1. Laptev Sea Coast, Bykovsky Peninsula The environmental changes from the Middle to the The Late Quaternary environmental history of the Late Weichselian andinto the Holocene have been Laptev Sea region has been studied on the east coast of the reconstructedfrom the results of multidisciplinary ARTICLE IN PRESS 1338 H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 research (1998–2002) on the Bykovsky Peninsula se- much colder winters than presently (Fig. 5; Meyer et al., quence. The two most evident results are (1) the 2002a). In Holocene ice wedges of this area stable- continuous existence of a treeless grass/herb-dominated isotope values vary around 200% for dD and 26% vegetation (Andreev et al., 2002b), and(2) very cold for d18O. A first estimate gave winter temperatures winters, evidenced by continuous growth of thick ice during pre LGM ice complex formation, of approxi- wedges and by their stable-isotope composition. The mately 7C lower than today (Meyer et al., in syngenetic ice wedges of the Bykovsky Ice Complex preparation). The time-relatedvariations in this envir- predating the LGM (50–20 ka BP) show relatively onment are revealedby a detailedrecordof fossil-insect constant mean hydrogen and oxygen-isotope composi- assemblages (Fig. 6); (Kuzmina, 2001; Sher et al., in tion around 240% and 30%, respectively, indicating preparation).

Fig. 5. Development of d18O, dD anddexcess for Ice Complex ice wedgesandHolocene ice wedgesof the Bykovsky Peninsula through time. White dots represent the mean isotopic composition and black dots represent the median of horizontal transects. A straight black line follows the development of the mean isotopic composition through time. The respective range (grey field) and an intermediate area (white field) between the quartiles Q1 and Q3 (dotted lines) are held out for visualization. White gaps were left where no ice wedges were sampled. Sources 1 and 2 describes two different moisture sources as reconstructedfrom the dexcess. (For more detailedInformation, see Meyer et al., 2002a.) ARTICLE IN PRESS H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 1339

Fig. 6. Summer climate changes andthe datedrecordofmammals in the Laptev Sea area (from Sher et al., in preparation). (a) Fossil-insect recordin the Mamontovy Khayata section, Bykovsky Peninsula. Percentage of selected ecological groups of insects (minimum number of individuals in each sample equals 100%): Thermophilous xerophiles: 1—steppe species; 2—other xerophilous insects (except tundra ones); Insects, currently common in tundra: 3—dry tundra inhabitants (prefer warmer sites); 4—Arctic tundra insects (plotted from the right axis). 14C ages in the left column are calculatedfrom two separate regression equations after about 40 AMS dates.(b) Climatic andenvironmental interpretation of the insect assemblage s from the Mamontovy Khayata section. (c) Radiocarbon dates of mammal bones from the Laptev Sea area (number of dates in 2500-year intervals). The latest available dates for mammoth and horse are indicated at the top.

The earlier part of the Middle Weichselian (ca 46– were less common than today. The small water 34 ka BP) was markedby high abundanceof insects bodies were well heated in summer, indicated by living in warm and dry habitats, including steppe the presence of thermophilic species among water species, anda relatively low proportion of high Arctic plants, currently known only from more southern areas. species. That implies that summer temperature was In general, the environment of that time can higher than present. A higher plant species diversity be characterizedas a relatively ‘‘warm’’ variant of (mostly in herbs), inferred from radiocarbon-dated tundra–steppe. pollen spectra (Andreev et al., 2002b) andplant According to the fossil/insect record, the latter half of macrofossils (Kienast, 2002), also suggests more favour- the Middle Weichselian (ca 34–24 ka BP) was character- able summer conditions during that period. Although izedby a distinct lower level of thermophilic xerophiles, water was the main depositional agent of the sediment, while the role of dry tundra inhabitants remained the environment was rather dry during most of the important, but there was a markedincrease in the summer, andthe soil was better heatedthan in the relative abundance of Arctic tundra species (Fig. 6). modern tundra. This is confirmed by the study of This indicates cooler summers than before, although the soil rhizopods (testate amoebae) (Bobrov et al., 2003). temperature remainedhigh enough for the survival of The mosaic of habitats included both extremely dry steppe species. That is in agreement with the plant- andmore mesic (boggy) ones, as well as small macrofossil evidence, suggesting dry and relatively ponds (where peat beds accumulated) which, however, warm summer conditions until at least 25 ka BP, ARTICLE IN PRESS 1340 H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 although vegetation cover was probably sparser (Schirr- considered). After that time, the number of dated meister et al., 2002b). mammoth bones is more or less high (av. 7.6 per 1000 Most of the Late Weichselian (Sartanian), namely years) until about 25 ka BP. Then it starts to decrease from about 24 to 15 ka BP, was characterizedby the progressively during the Late Weichselian with a lowest levels of xerophilic insects, virtual disappearance minimum at 16–17 ka BP (2 dates). It should be noted, of steppe species, and dominance of Arctic tundra however, that even during the peak of the LGM (18– inhabitants (Fig. 6). That definitely indicates lower 20 ka BP) mammoth still inhabitedthe whole area of the summer temperatures than in the Middle Weichselian, Laptev Shelf Land, including the present northernmost but still warmer temperatures than today are indicated islands and Severnaya Zemlya. The number of mam- by the occurrence of some thermophilic plant species moth dates sharply jumps up after 15 ka BP, and stays at (Kienast, 2002). At the same time, the environment high levels (av. 7.4 in 1000 years) until 10 ka BP. This remained very dry, as evidenced by various proxy data period(the Late Sartanian) was the last interval with (Schirrmeister et al., 2002b). Palaeobotanical data abundant dated records of woolly mammoth (the latest indicate that the grass/herb-dominated vegetation cover dated mammoth fossils in the region come from the became discontinuous. Thus, the period corresponding interval 10–9.6 ka BP, andare so far known from the to the LGM was markedin this area by high aridityand Taymyr Peninsula only). relatively low summer temperature. The environment of The chronological variation in the number of radio- that time can be regarded as the cold variant of tundra– carbon dates is subject to many factors. Nevertheless, steppe. the analysis of spatial distribution of dated bones, A sharp increase in summer temperature marks the possible changes in taphonomy andother random latest Weichselian (Sartanian), from about 15 to 12.5 ka factors allows various authors (Sulerzhitsky andRoma- BP. The proportion of all groups of insects preferring nenko, 1999; Kuznetsova et al., 2001; Sher et al., 2003) warm anddryhabitats, jumps to levels even higher than to assume that the chronological distribution of dates in the Middle Weichselian (‘‘warm’’ tundra–steppe). It is may broadly reflect relative numbers of animals in the possible that this abrupt change in summer temperature past. Both of the peaks in the number of mammoth triggeredthe regional outburst of thermokarst pro- dates in the Laptev Sea collection correspond to periods cesses, which, in turn pushedforwardby the Pleistocene/ with a relatively high proportion of xerophilic insects Holocene environmental revolution, resultedin the andthe presence of steppe species ( Fig. 6). A high dramatic turnover of dry grassland into modern boggy diversity of insect fauna implies a richer vegetation tundra with a huge number of thermokarst lakes. mosaic, including more extensive areas with better heat All kinds of proxy evidence—both biological (insects, supply, occupiedby presumably more productivegrass- pollen, plant macrofossils, soil microfauna) andsedi- land. The number of mammoth dates starts to decrease mentological—depict the Early Holocene environment at the same time as the proportions of those insect as completely different from that of the Pleistocene. groups, reaching its lowest point soon after the periodof Many lines of evidence agree in pointing to increasing total absence of steppe species. This pattern allows us to humidity during the so-called ‘‘Early Holocene Climatic infer that all varieties of tundra–steppe insect assem- Optimum’’, when the temperature of the growing season blages indicate environments tolerable to the woolly was higher than present. mammoth, but that the less diverse insect faunas of the In both the Middle and Late Weichselian, environ- LGM, lacking the most thermophilic beetle species, may ments in the Laptev Sea region were favourable for large suggest less productive, probably just sparser, vegeta- grazing mammals, such as mammoth (Mammuthus tion, andlarge grazers seem to have respondedby primigenius), horse (Equus caballus) andbison ( Bison reducing their numbers. priscus). The collection of 14C dates on mammal bones from the region (from Central Taymyr Peninsula to the 2.2.2. Taymyr Peninsula Khroma River valley andthe Arctic islands)has The Taymyr Peninsula (Localities 2 and3, Fig. 1)is amountedto 380 dates,obtainedin the course of the presently situatedat the edgeof the Siberian anticyclone Russian–German Expedition and from various pub- (Atlas Arktiki, 1985 and Fig. 4) andthis region thus is lishedsources; 233 of them are for mammoths, while either influencedby Atlantic air masses or by the other species receivedmany fewer dates (includingabout anticyclone. This transitional position of the Taymyr 60 for horses, 40 for muskox, and30 for bison) anddo region is expressedin its glaciation history andenviron- not provide statistically reliable series (Sher et al., 2003, mental development. in preparation). The distribution of the number A series of radiocarbon data from permafrost of mammoth dates against the timescale can be seen deposits with thick polygonal ice wedges on the north- (Fig. 6). The number of finite dates on bones older than western shore of Lake Taymyr indicates glacier-free 40–42 ka BP is generally low (average 2.8 dates per 1000 conditions in this area since at least 30 ka BP (Isayeva years) for technical reasons (infinite dates are not andKind,1982 ; Pavlidis et al., 1997; Moller. et al., ARTICLE IN PRESS H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 1341

1999). Other investigations have also indicated that the 40 extent of glaciers during the LGM have been noticeably 38 36 smaller than during earlier glacial periods (Isayeva et al., 34 1993; Alexanderson et al., 2001, 2002). Data on the 32 temporal distribution of mammal-bone remains on the 30 Taymyr Peninsula (Sulerzhitsky, 1995; Sulerzhitsky and 28 Romanenko, 1999) are in goodagreement with this 26 24 assumption. In general, it has been shown that 22 mammoths apparently existedin the area from around 20 50,000 years up to the beginning of the Holocene. The 18 presence of horses at the same time indicates an extreme 16 continental climate with a limitedsnow cover. 14 12 In order to verify these findings, detailed studies on 10 well-dated sequences on the Taymyr Peninsula were 8 undertaken during the last decade and are summarized 6 below. A key site is Cape Sabler, situatedon the 4 northwestern shore of Taymyr Lake (Fig. 1). Sections 2 0 here expose sediment successions of laminated silts and 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 fine sands up to 30 m thick, often rich in plant detritus 14C age BP andwith thick bedsof silt-soakedpeat ( Moller. et al., Fig. 7. AMS 14C dates on ‘‘Cape Sabler-type’’ sediments from five 1999). The sequences were first interpretedas lacustrine localities within the Taymyr Lake basin (Cape Sabler, Upper Taymyra deposits, however, a more likely interpretation (Moller,. River delta, Baskura Peninsula, Fedorov Island, and Ovrazhny in preparation) is that the lower part of the sequence Peninsula), sorted according to age (data from Moller. et al., 1999 represents vertical accretion in a terrestrial environment, andunpublisheddatafrom M oller).. Except for Cape Sabler, the dates with peat-bog andaeolian deposition andsyngenetic are from top andbottom of the sections. Date nos. 39 and40 are infinite ages from lowermost samples at Cape Sabler andOvrazhny formation of ground-ice polygons (Siegert et al., 1999), Peninsula, respectively. which were temporarily flooded by the lake during the annual snow melt (the present annual lake amplitude is 5 m). New AMS 14C dates obtained from Cape Sabler, Byrranga Mountains (Hahne andMelles, 1999 ). The andalso from nearby localities with the same type of Late Weichselian pollen spectra are similar to Late sediments, suggest continuous deposition from more Pleistocene pollen spectra. Also the pollen spectrum than 35 ka BP to the Holocene (Fig. 7). An increasing obtainedfrom Cape Sabler (SAO-1 section) ( Fig. 9, sedimentation rate at Cape Sabler around 19 ka BP Andreev et al., 2003) shows some of the characteristics (Moller. et al., 1999) is probably connectedwith an of LGM pollen spectra of the Taymyr Peninsula. LGM ice advance inundating the northwesternmost part Low pollen concentrations andlarge amounts of of the Taymyr Peninsula (Alexanderson et al., 2001, reworkedpre-Quaternary pollen are typical for all LGM 2002; Svendsen et al., 2004b), thus reversing the deposits. Pollen of plants typical for disturbed soils, like drainage direction of the Taymyra river. Chenopodiaceae and Asteraceae, are also common. It is In the Labaz Lake area permafrost deposits rich in inferred that barren slopes, dry lake beds and cryogenic syngenetic andepigenetic ice wedgesaccumulated patternedgroundfavoureddeflation andother pro- between 45 and15 ka BP ( Siegert et al., 1999). In cesses of soil erosion. The low pollen concentration in conformity with the results from the Laptev Sea Coast, the LGM sediments can be explained by both discontin- the stable-isotope composition of ice wedges from the uous vegetation cover andlow pollen productivity, Labaz Lake area (Fig. 8) indicates considerably lower causedby the unfavourable climatic conditions. winter temperatures during the period 45–15 ka BP as In general, pollen data suggest that open steppe-like comparedto the Holocene ( Siegert et al., 1999). Similar plant communities with Artemisia, Poaceae, andAster- results have been obtainedfrom ice wedges at the aceae dominated the vegetation in the eastern Bykovsky Peninsula andfrom the nearby Bol’shoy andcentral parts of the North Siberian Lowland, Lyakhovsky Island( Fig. 5, Meyer et al., 2002a, b). The between the Byrranga Mountains in the north and isotope studies suggest that the winter conditions had the Putorana Plateau in the south. Tundra-like commu- not changedradically from around40 ka BP until the nities with Betula nana, Salix polaris, Dryas, Saxifraga, B^lling/Aller^dwarming events. Oxyria, Carex andsome Brassicaceae were common Pollen spectra from the LGM have been analysed in more mesic sites. The rare tree andshrub pollen from several sites in the western Putorana Plateau are mostly reworked from older sediments. Exposed (Hahne andMelles, 1997, 1999 ), in the Labaz Lake area tills in the study area might be one source for this (Andreev et al., 2002a), at Lake Levinson-Lessing in the material. ARTICLE IN PRESS 1342 H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357

levels the floristic composition is characterizedby a high species diversity dominated by xerocryophilous taxa (Fig. 10). These include Papaver sect. scapiflora, Dryas punctata, Brassicaceae, Saxifraga, Potentilla andAster- aceae. Hydrophytes and marsh plants were not recorded in the horizons formedduring the LGM at about 18 ka BP. The relative abundance of the mountain-steppe plant Orostachys spinosa (Crassulaceae) is consistent with these associations andan important indicator of severe cold and arid conditions during the deposition of the beds. Today this species only grows in distinct rain- shadow areas of the East Asian mountains, in relict tundra–steppe communities of NE Yakutia and in steppe areas of central Yakutia (Yurtsev, 1981). The predominance of pioneer plants is typical for young succession stages andis also an important feature of the macrofossil spectra. Thus, severe continental climatic conditions are indicated both by the plant-macrofossil and pollen records from the studied permafrost sequences of the Taymyr Peninsula. Palaeobotanical records and isotope data from ground ice (cf. Siegert et al., 1999) indicate that a warmer interstadial period existedat 14–11 ka BP.

2.2.3. Severnaya Zemlya Information on the palaeoclimate here has been obtainedfrom sediment cores recoveredfrom Lake Changeable on October Revolution Island(Locality 4, Fig. 1). These cores were investigatedwith a multi- disciplinary approach that covered sedimentological, biogeochemical, mineralogical, andpalaeoecological methods. The results allowed the reconstruction of facies successions that describe the development of the lake andthe associatedclimatic history ( Raab, 2000; Raab et al., 2003). Age control of the sedimentary sequence was obtained 14 Fig. 8. Stable-isotope composition of ice wedges on the Taymyr using a series of C-AMS dates on Foraminifera, humic Peninsula formedduringLate Pleistocene (squares) andHolocene acidextracts, andremains of insects andplants. As these (dots): (a) SAO-1 section, Cape Sabler; (b) northern shore zone of the results did not show a consistent age sequence, two Labaz Lake (after Dereviagin et al., 1999; Siegert et al., 1999). IRSL dating on quartz in the sand fraction and six optically stimulatedluminescence (OSL) dating on feldspar in the fine silt fraction were used in order to Basedon palynological recordsfrom Levinson-Les- provide a better age control (Fig. 11). Following a sing Lake andCape Sabler, Andreev et al. (2003) used glaciation during the Early Weichselian or early Middle the best modern analogue and information-statistical Weichselian, a presumably short marine phase immedi- methods to reconstruct the LGM climate for the area. ately after deglaciation, and a drying of the Changeable They conclude that temperatures at ca 18 ka BP were up Lake depression prior to 33 ka BP the climate before the to 5C colder than today and annual precipitation was Late Weichselian glaciation was characterizedby ca 100 mm lower. warmer andwetter conditions. Due to higher precipita- Results of plant-macrofossil analysis of samples from tion and meltwater production, sedimentation in the the Cape Sabler section (Fig. 10, Kienast et al., 2001) lake basin startedat about 33 ka BP andcontinueduntil correlate well with the pollen data from the same 23 ka BP. No vegetation information couldbe obtained sequence (Fig. 9). The recorded flora in three horizons from the lake sediments due to lack of pollen. from the SAO-1 section at Cape Sabler that are However, considering that mammoths were present radiocarbon dated to 30, 27, and 18 ka BP reflect a on Severnaya Zemlya around25, 20, and19 ka BP the herbaceous tundra–steppe environment. At all three area must have been vegetated( Bolshiyanov and ARTICLE IN PRESS H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 1343 ). Andreev et al., 2003 Fig. 9. Pollen diagram of the SAO-1 section at Cape Sabler, Taymyr Lake ( ARTICLE IN PRESS 1344 H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357

Makeyev, 1995). Judging from other pollen records local ice caps in the archipelago (Makeyev and from islands east of Severnaya Zemlya (Makeyev et al., Bolshiyanov, 1986). 1993; Andreev et al., 2001) it seems likely that the The climatic change that occurredat the termination area was at least partly coveredby tundra–steppe of the Pleistocene is documented in this lake by the vegetation. beginning of sedimentation under freshwater conditions At about 22 ka BP, a change to colder and drier some time between 19 and12 ka BP. The climate climate seems to have occurred. The formation of changedto more humidandwarmer conditionsfrom evaporitic sediments on the lake floor and a very low that time leading to a much higher sedimentation rate in accumulation rate suggests that a perennial ice cover Changeable Lake. formedon the lake andthat it receivedvery little water. Very low precipitation is needed to maintain the small 2.2.4. West Siberian Plain The ‘maximalist model’ of a large Late Weichselian ice sheet coupledwith a huge ice-dammedlake in West Siberia suggestedby Volkov et al. (1978) andfurther elaboratedby GrosswaldandHughes (2002) is in total discrepancy with the QUEEN data from adjacent areas (Svendsen et al., 1999; Mangerudet al., 2002 ). The ‘minimalist’ mountain ice sheets by Biryukov et al. (1988) are also refutedby our investigations in the Urals andin Central Siberia. Numerous bodiesof fossil glacier ice preservedclose to the surface provedto be olderthan the range of the radiocarbon method (Astakhov and Isayeva, 1988). The present syngenetic ice wedges have been growing without interruption for the last 37 ka (Vasilchuk, 1992; Vasilchuk andVasilchuk, 1998 ). Also remains of Late Weichselian mammoth fauna are known from West Siberia (Astakhov, 1998). In the lowest central part of the plain no deep-water lacustrine sediments are found within the Late Weichselian radio- Fig. 10. Distribution of ecological plant groups in the sediments of carbon bracket (Astakhov, 1989). Therefore here we can section SAO-1 at Cape Sabler (Kienast et al., 2001). only describe Late Weichselian environments of the

Fig. 11. Radiocarbon and IRSL ages from the sedimentary sequence of Changeable Lake, Severnaya Zemlya (after Raab, 2000; Raab et al., 2003). ARTICLE IN PRESS H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 1345

West Siberian Plain without glacial ice or ice-dammed Extremely low winter temperatures for the LGM time lakes, according to the most reliable geological data are inferredfrom the occurrence of ice-wedgecasts south from Russian sources, partly discussed before in to 52N. A very continental climate is also indicated by a Astakhov (1992). layer of relict permafrost under 100–150 m of thawed In West Siberia (Locality 5, Fig. 1) the climate during rock. This layer extents southwards to the 59th parallel the final stage of the Middle Weichselian appears to which is 800 km south of the present climatic limit of have been relatively mild, although not of interglacial permafrost formation (Baulin et al., 1981). In the Arctic type. This interval is often recognizedfrom the oldpermafrost contains thick stratiform bodiesof fossil occurrence of palaeosols in the south andthin seams glacier ice preservedfrom the Early Weichselian ice of mossy peat in the Arctic. Pollen spectra with advances (Astakhov andIsayeva, 1988 ). dominance of arboreal taxa are recorded from many The spatial pattern of the aeolian formation reflects alluvial sequences of this periodin the southern part of predominant wind directions from the west and north in the West Siberian Plain. Diagrams from alluvial the central part of the West Siberian Plain (Astakhov, sequences from the areas along the middle course of 1992) andfrom WSW in the southern part of the Plain the Yenisei, radiocarbon dated to 30–24 ka BP, are (Volkov, 1971). The fact that loess sheets andsand characterizedby high percentages of Picea with an dunes reach below the present water level along the large admixture of Larix, in contrast to the present-day Siberian rivers gives evidence of only limited fluvial spectra, which reflect the southern taiga subzone activity at this time (Astakhov, 1989). The scarce pollen dominated by Pinus sibirica. This difference along grains from this formation belong to xerophytic with the higher percentage of xerophytic herbs in the herbaceous communities (Artemisia, Ephedra, andChe- Middle Weichselian sediments suggest a more continen- nopodiaceae) with some dwarf shrubs, indicating 8– tal climate comparedto the modernone. From the 10C lower annual temperatures than at present Lipovka section (58N, 67E) on the Tobol river in the (Arkhipov et al., 1980). Humidification seems to have southwestern part of the West Siberia Plain in situ occurredaround15–14 ka BP, when organic and stumps of larch trees from a peat layer, cappedby 12 m waterlaidsediments startedto accumulate again ( Kind, of loess-like silts, have been radiocarbon dated to 1974; Arkhipov et al., 1980; Volkov andZykina, 1984 ). around30–31 ka BP ( Kaplyanskaya andTarnogradsky, On the eastern Yamal Peninsula there is an important 1974; Kind, 1974; Arkhipov et al., 1980). Palaeosol andwell-studiedsectionnamedSyo-Yakha ( Fig. 12). analyses, mollusc evidence, pollen and plant macro- This section displays more than 20 m of Yedoma-like silt fossils reflect a forest-tundra environment at this time, in with thin moss-mat layers. Altogether 15 radiocarbon contrast to the southern taiga of the present. The dates (AMS and conventional dating) with ages ranging occurrence of large syngenetic ice-wedge casts a 1000 km from 37 to 17 ka BP in the correct stratigraphic order to the south of their present distribution suggests much have been obtainedfrom this section ( Vasilchuk and colder winters at the end of the Middle Weichselian Vasilchuk, 1998; Vasilchuk et al., 2000a, b). Pollen and than today. spores from this section suggest that a humidepisode In the central andsouthern parts of the West Siberian may have occurredaround22–21 ka BP. Nearly similar Plain the late Middle Weichselian interstadial horizon is results were obtainedfrom the Mongotalyang section usually coveredby a continuous loess mantle ( Volkov, (72N/75E); (Vasilchuk, 1992). The section is pierced 1971). In the Arctic it is replacedby a discontinuous by two generations of thick (syngenetic) ice wedges, cover of the perennially frozen Yedoma silt (Bolikhovs- which grew simultaneously with sediment accretion. ky, 1987), which in our opinion is also basically of Radiocarbon dates of plant remains from the ice in the aeolian origin. The lower part of this formation is often wedges yielded ages in the range 21–14 ka BP, indicating recognizedby bluish andgreenish colours, reflecting a that the large ice wedges date from the LGM period. reducing environment. This part of the subaerial Measuredoxygen-isotope values are about 23% (Fig. formation is sometimes referredto as ‘wet loess’ 12), as comparedto 17% for Holocene wedge ice in (Astakhov, 1989) andis believedto reflect tundra this area. Vasilchuk et al. (2000a) interpretedthis conditions with numerous ponds. The ‘wet loess’ and difference to indicate that winter temperatures during contemporaneous waterlain sediments are in places ice-wedge formation were 6–9C lower than today. Ice coveredby thin organic layers that have been radio- wedges 14–11 ka BP old on the Gydan Peninsula, 71N/ carbon dated to 23–20 ka BP (Vasilchuk, 1992; Krivo- 78E, yielded q18O values from 22.6% to 19.9%, nogov et al., 1993). In the area aroundNovosibirsk, a suggesting milder winters, but still 3–5C colder than the palaeosol dated to 26–24 ka BP is believed to reflect a present ones (Vasilchuk, 1992). steppe environment with parklands, not much different A nearly similar development has been recorded in the from the present (Volkov andZykina, 1984 ). This soil large Marresale section on western Yamal (Forman was rewashedin a presumably much colderandwetter et al., 1999). The very coldwinters dominating in the climate with permafrost at around21–20 ka BP. Arctic since at least ca 40 ka BP agree with ice-wedge ARTICLE IN PRESS 1346 H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357

Fig. 12. Sediment stratigraphy at the coastal section of Syo-Yaka, eastern Yamal, West Siberia. From Mangerudet al. (2002) , simplifiedfrom Vasilchuk et al. (2000b). growth in the southwest of the West Siberian Plain equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) depression during the (Kaplyanskaya andTarnogradsky,1974 ). LGM was a maximum of 300 m comparedto the A review of the available evidence indicates the present, andpossibly the glaciers were not much larger following development in West Siberia: (1) relatively than today (Dolvik et al., 2002). Considering that humidbut still continental environments with solid climate during the LGM was much colder than today, permafrost prevailed at the end of the Middle Weichse- the limitedice growth in the Ural Mountains suggests a lian around37–30 ka; (2) a warmer continental climate much drier climate there, with minimal winter accumu- of interstadial type is registered for the time span lation. This is in goodagreement with the datafrom the 30–24 ka BP; (3) this was replacedby a progressive Pechora Lowland, where only aeolian formations cooling with widespread permafrost in a relatively represent the LGM time (Astakhov et al., 1999; humidenvironment between 24 and20 ka BP; (4) the Mangerudet al., 1999 ). latter changedinto a very coldandaridphase after ca 20 ka BP; and(5) the late-glacial humidification in 2.2.6. Pechora Lowland basically permafrost environments startedca 15 ka BP. Contrary to the previous conclusions (Arslanov et al., 1987) no signs of glacial activity have been encountered 2.2.5. Polar Ural in the Pechora Basin within the range of radiocarbon The distribution and size of local glaciers in the Urals method, although ancient permafrost features are wide- (Locality 6, Fig. 1) may also provide information about spread( Astakhov et al., 1999; Mangerudet al., 1999, the climatic conditions during the LGM. Presently, only 2002). The only deposit of buried glacier ice found west a few small cirque glaciers exist in the mountains of the Urals was fossilizedmore than 45 ka ago (GrosswaldandKotlyakov, 1969 ). Our geological field (Astakhov andSvendsen,2002 ). The margin of the investigations have revealedthat no major ice caps have Barents–Kara Ice Sheet during the LGM was situated formedin the Urals since the last interglacial ( Dolvik well offshore (Gataullin et al., 2001; Svendsen et al., et al., 2002). The most extensive glaciation occurred 2004a, b). Analyses of collectedbones, mainly from during the Early Weichselian, when a piedmont glacier archaeological sites (Pymva-Shor, Byzovaya, andMa- on the western side of the Polar Urals coalesced with an montovaya Kurya) reflect a relative rich faunal compo- ice lobe from the Barents–Kara Sea Ice Sheet (Astakhov sition in the Pechora Lowland(Locality 7, Fig. 1) during et al., 1999). We have observedsome endmoraines near the later part of the Middle Weichselian (Mangerud the front of the present-day cirque glaciers and in the et al., 1999, 2002; Pavlov et al., 2001; Svendsen and high altitude valleys that possibly outline extended Pavlov, 2004). From the Palaeolithic site Byzovaya valley glaciers during the LGM, but they have not been (29–28 ka BP) there is evidence for the presence of dated. From available evidence we conclude that the mammoths, woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis), ARTICLE IN PRESS H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 1347 muskox (Ovibos moschatus), bison, bear (Ursus sp.), same size as today during the period 27–24 ka BP horse, reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), hare (Lepus sp.), (Pavlov et al., 2001). Along the Kolva river, a tributary polar fox (Alopex sp.), andvarious rodents( Pavlov and to Usa, similar alluvial formations with remains of a Indrelid, 2000). The fact that humans were present in the mammoth fauna of nearly the same age have been found area during this interval is also an indication that the (Mangerudet al., 1999, 2002 ). This wouldimply that the landscape sustained herds of herbivorous animals; generally treeless tundra–steppe landscape was humid especially mammoths seem to have been an important enough to support fairly fertile river valleys with almost prey animal. Pollen from the silt sequence at the normal water discharge. Such riverine environments Palaeolithic site Mamontovaya Kurya reflect a tundra– that sustaineda rich fauna were the natural pathways steppe environment with some willow scrub along the for northboundhuman migrations during mildinter- river at around32–30 ka BP ( Halvorsen, 2000). At the ludes. transition (25–24 ka) to the Late Weichselian the scrub During the Late Weichselian the periglacial environ- elements disappeared and the local vegetation became ment in the Pechora Basin was characterizedby a much dominated by Artemisia and Poaceae, resembling a cold wider permafrost distribution than today (Astakhov steppe environment. et al., 1999). The present-day discontinuous permafrost Alluvial deposits from the Middle–Late Weichselian is not more than 100 m thick in the area to the west of transition recognizedat several locations in the Pechora the Pechora River. In contrast, Pleistocene permafrost Basin form the secondterrace along the rivers ( Fig. 13). has survivedas a deeply buriedrelict layer in the boreal At Mamontovaya Kurya a thick sequence of cross- forest zone down to 64300N andas a solidsurficial bedded sediments indicate that the river Usa was of the permafrost that is 300–400 m thick in the eastern tundra

Fig. 13. A selection of sediment logs from key sites plotted in an N–S profile from the Pechora Sea to the southern Pechora Lowland. The Middle to Late Weichselian stratigraphy reveals alluvial andaeolian depositscovering strata of bones andartefacts at the Palaeolithic sites Mamontovaya Kurya andByzovaya andbone layer at Kolva river terraces. From Mangerudet al. (2002) . ARTICLE IN PRESS 1348 H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357

(Yershov, 1988). Perhaps the best manifestation of a Sediment coring of a lake basin in the northern part of former thicker and colder permafrost is the widespread Timan Ridge has produced a long Late Weichselian and occurrence of relict ice-wedge polygons (Astakhov et al., Holocene pollen record( Paus et al., 2003). The oldest 1999), which are typically from 10–15 to 300–400 m part of this sequence, which has been radiocarbon dated across (Popov, 1962). In the present-day climate only to around20 ka BP, reflects a treeless herbaceous smaller ice wedges can grow along the Barents Sea coast. vegetation. However, the lowermost radiocarbon date Radiocarbon dates from organic infills in some large ice- from this lacustrine sequence is considered uncertain wedge casts suggest that the thick Pleistocene perma- and Paus et al. (2003) therefore conclude that the lake frost startedto melt prior to 12 ka BP ( Mangerudet al., formedas a result of a climatic warming just after the 1999). Thick sandandsilt formations with shrub LGM. remains startedto accumulate ca 13 ka in large, Considering that there seems to be no fluvial terraces subsequently drained, thaw lakes (Astakhov andSvend- from the periodbetween 24 and13 ka we believe the sen, 2002). Sediment coring confirms that many present river discharge dropped volumetrically during the lakes that characterize the hummock-and-lake glacio- LGM. Most of the fluvial terraces except the Holocene karst landscape to the north of the Early Weichselian ice floodplain are mantled with aeolian sediments from the sheet limit were formedas a result of permafrost melting LGM. However, it is possible that alluvial sediments that seems to have startedaround13 ka BP, i.e. well from this time rest below the present river bedandthus after the LGM (Henriksen et al., 2003). might be potentially identified in boreholes. The investigations in the Pechora Basin reveal a Based on the available evidence the following devel- widespread occurrence of aeolian surface deposits opment can be outlinedfor this region: The climatic characterizedby a vague anddiscontinuous lamination conditions were relatively mild and humid during the draping the underlying topography (Astakhov et al., later part of the Middle Weichselian, up to about 27,000 1999; Mangerudet al., 1999, 2002 ). OSL dates disclose 14C years BP. A change to a much drier and colder that much of the aeolian sediments accumulated during climate occurredat the transition to the Late Weichse- the period27–10 ka BP ( Astakhov et al., 1999; lian, as shown by the widespread accumulation of Mangerudet al., 1999, 2002 ). At the Palaeolithic sites aeolian sediments. During the LGM the southern limit Mamontovaya Kurya andByzovaya, which have been of the permafrost was locatedfar to the south of the radiocarbon dated to around 36 and 28 ka BP, Pechora Basin reflecting a much colder climate than respectively (Pavlov et al., 2001), the strata with bones today. However, it should be noted that very few andartefacts are coveredby up to 10 m of aeolian sand sediment sequences covering this period (21–18 ka) have that mostly accumulatedduring the Late Weichselian. been foundon the Pechora Lowlandandthe environ- Similar aeolian sediments have also been studied near mental conditions are therefore poorly constrained. A the Barents Sea coast (Astakhov andSvendsen,2002 ) pronouncedwarming startedaround13 ka when much andare recognizedin most areas of the Pechora Basin. of the permafrost melted, forming the numerous lakes In western Europe similar sediments described as that characterize the present-day landscape in the ‘‘coversands’’ were frequently deposited south of the Arctic. Scandinavian Ice Sheet during the Late Weichselian. This type of sediment reflects a considerably drier and 2.2.7. The northwestern Russian Plain windier climate than during the Middle Weichselian and In the valleys of Severnaya Dvina andVaga rivers Holocene periods. However, in most cases the dated south of Arkhangelsk (Locality 8, Fig. 1), marginal sequences with aeolian cover sandhave turnedout to be moraines from the Scandinavian Ice Sheet were depos- somewhat younger than 20 ka BP. Some observations itedduring the Late Weichselian. The maximum suggest that solifluction, rather than deposition of position was attainedsome 17 ka BP ago, anddeglacia- aeolian sediments, was a common process during the tion startedclose to 15 ka BP ago ( Larsen et al., 1999). LGM. The stratigraphy at Byzovaya may suggest that The Scandinavian Ice Sheet seems not to have reached the general cold and dry period during the Late the area of the Pyoza River, a tributary to the Mezen Weichselian was punctuatedby more humidevents with River northeast of Arkhangelsk (Houmark-Nielsen low-energy temporary streams (Fig. 13). et al., 2001; Lysa( et al., 2001). It is noteworthy that we have only foundone single The environmental changes from Middle to Late bone that has been radiocarbon dated to the period Weichselian in the area are illustratedin Fig. 14. The aroundLGM (21–18 ka BP), andthis findbelongs to the Middle Weichselian sediments were deposited in a unique locality Pymva-Shor with the warmest ground- fluvial environment from about 66 ka until the advance water spring in the Russian Arctic (Mangerudet al., of the Late Weichselian glacier (dates in Fig. 14). A peat 1999). It seems reasonable to assume that the general horizon found in the lower part of the Middle lack of bone finds from this interval reflects a decrease in Weichselian unit at the Pasva section (locatedon the the vegetation cover. Vaga River) suggests taiga vegetation anda flora ARTICLE IN PRESS H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 1349

Fig. 14. Composite Middle Weichselian to Holocene stratigraphy from inside and outside the LGM limit in the Arkhangelsk area. All dates are from Lysa( et al. (2001) (Dvina andVaga rivers) and Houmark-Nielsen et al. (2001) (Pyoza River).

indicative of permafrost development (Devyatova, cryoturbated. The plant remains indicate vegetation 1982). Towards the top of this unit, at several sites dominated by Dryas octopetala, S. polaris, andterres- along rivers Severnaya Dvina andVaga andabove the trial mosses. The gravelly and sandy fluvial sediments peat horizon at Pasva, incipient frost cracks and are characterizedby galleries of frost- andice-wedge syngenetic ice-wedge pseudomorphs are observable. pseudomorphs, confirming the periglacial conditions At one locality inside the LGM limit (Smotrakovka inferredfrom the vegetation. The periglacial sediments section, Lysa( et al., 2001) is a unit of large-scale inclined are dated to the Late Weichselian (20–10 ka) based on and trough-cross-bedded fluvial sand more than 23 m 10 luminescence dates (between 18 and 11 ka) and four thick. The fluvial sediments were probably deposited radiocarbon dates (between 13.1 and 14.9 ka cal BP) during a continuous rise of base level. As the top of this (Houmark-Nielsen et al., 2001). succession yielded luminescence ages of 19.3 and 20 ka, Our current understanding of the LGM climate in the the rise in base level was probably causedby isostatic area farther to the southwest is basedon a number of subsidence due to growth and advance of the Late new sequences investigatedin the southern Vaga valley Weichselian ice sheet. and the Volodga area inside and outside the LGM limit A northwards drainage pattern prevailed throughout (Fig. 15) andby previously publisheddatafrom the the entire Middle and Late Weichselian period. Glacio- Puchka andTatischevo Lake sequences ( Arslanov et al., lacustrine sedimentation during the LGM occurred in 1970; Semenenko et al., 1981). At the Puchka section small ponds along the ice limit. As the Scandinavian Ice (59.70N, 39.33E) a peat horizon within the subtill Sheet advanced into the area from the northeast, main lacustrine formation has been radiocarbon dated to rivers Dvina and Vaga were ice-dammed, and glacio- 21 ka BP (Arslanov et al., 1970). Pollen andplant fluvial drainage was forced northwards along the ice macrofossils from this sequence reflect a treeless Arctic margin andinto the Barents/Kara Sea. andsubarctic vegetation duringthe early LGM. In the Pyoza area, glaciolacustrine deposition in Important information on the long-term climatic evolu- proglacial lakes causedby ice from the Barents–Kara tion has been obtainedfrom a sediment core from the Sea continueduntil about 60 ka ( Houmark-Nielsen et al., drained Tatischevo Lake (First of May Factory, 2001). After a periodof erosion andglacio-isostatic 56.37N, 37.19E), located300 km southeast of the uplift under subaerial conditions, wide periglacial flood- LGM ice-sheet limit. This core contains a nearly plains of rivers draining westwards appeared in the Late continuous lacustrine recordcovering the Eemian and Weichselian. Plant remains andpeat sporadically occur Weichselian periods (Semenenko et al., 1981). Miner- in muddy depression fillings, which are often strongly alogical, pollen, plant-macrofossil andfaunal datashow ARTICLE IN PRESS 1350 H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 for locations). Fig. 1 ye areas (see icate that glaciofluvial outwash was laid Fig. 15. Representative sediment logs inside and outside the LGM margin in the SE flank of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet in Nyandoma—Vaga and Lake Kubensko The topmost diamicton inside thedown LGM ca margin 19 ka represents BP. till deposited during the Late Weichselian. Two OSL dates in the distal part of Kirillov pit ind ARTICLE IN PRESS H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 1351 that between 27 and19 ka BP sedimentation occurred these core segments are characterizedby a very high under progressively cooling climatic conditions. How- content of non-arboreal pollen (Gey et al., 2001). The ever, the analysedpollen spectra also suggest that the upper part of the lacustrine sediments at the N7 and relatively aridenvironment duringthe Late Weichselian N8 sites contain only few pollen, which may reflect was interruptedby more humidconditionsaround19 ka severe glaciolacustrine conditions near the ice margin BP. The lake dried out completely after 19 ka BP during at the LGM ca 19–17 ka BP (Lunkka et al., 2001). the LGM, when a break in sedimentation is recorded. The pollen, however, indicates nearly open tundra According to Faustova (1984) a tundra–steppe land- with some patches of shrub birch during LGM time scape coveredthe NW Russian Plains duringthe LGM. (Gey et al., 2001). Beetle remains suggest that the climatic conditions were The data from sediment exposures and borehole similar to those of the Arctic tundra of western Taymyr material were usedto reconstruct the palaeoenviron- Peninsula at present (Nazarov, 1980). ments in front of the ice sheet at the southeastern flank As part of this study, we have investigated several of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet during the LGM (Fig. 16). sites andboreholes in the Tver, Volodga, andsouthern For example, in the Kubena Lake basin a lobe of the Arkhangelsk districts (Fig. 16). Three cores from the Scandinavian Ice Sheet advanced into a proglacial lake Vologda district can be biostratigraphically placed and deposited a till on top of glaciolacustrine sediments within the LGM period( Gey et al., 2001). Site N1 at % NW Russian Plain. During the LGM (19–17 ka BP) Maega is representedby a sediment core 40 m long in ice-dammed lakes filled the Mologa-Sheksnian and which lacustrine silt and14 m of clay in the upper part of Prisukhonian depressions, as well as the southern part the sequence are assumedto represent the Late of the Vaga River basin (Kvasov, 1979; Lunkka et al., Weichselian period. This is also the case in the lacustrine 2001). The water level of these lakes reachedca 130 m sediment cores from Davydkovo (Site N7) and Vyso- a.s.l. Although it is generally believedthat the climate kovo (Site N8) (Fig. 16). The pollen diagrams from was extremely aridduringthe LGM, relatively large glacial lakes existedat this time next to the ice front. On higher ground, the aeolian cover sand is wide- spreadon higher terrains of the NW Russian Plain, as discussed also by Velichko et al. (1984). In sections studied in the Tver, Vologda, and southern Arkhangelsk areas cover sands with fossil ice-wedge casts were frequently encountered. Since ice wedges probably only form when the annual temperature is below 6C(Pew! e! et al., 1969), they provide information on the climate next to the LGM ice limit. Basedon OSL datedhorizons where the ice-wedge casts occur, the annual temperature was well below 6C in extra-marginal areas of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet from ca 18 ka BP (Kirillov section) to at least 15 ka BP (Vaga section). The fossil ice wedges are larger in the Vaga valley area than in the more southern sites in Tver andVologda. The conclusions are that Arctic andsubarctic vegeta- tion dominated the landscape in the NW Russian plains during the LGM. Even though it has previously been suggestedthat the climate was very dryin this region, large ice-dammed lakes did form in front of the ice sheet. These lakes suggest that melting of ice during summers was not unimportant even at that time. The existence of ice wedges indicates that the average annual temperature next to the ice margin was well below 6C at 18–15 ka BP.

Fig. 16. A palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of the SE flank of the 3. Summary and discussion Scandinavian Ice Sheet during the LGM time. The ice margin at the LGM time, ice-dammed and extra-marginal lakes (Lake Vaga, Lake Sukhona, andLake Mologa-Sheksna) andtheir drainagetowardsthe Our overview of the palaeoenvironment andclimate Volga drainage system are shown as well as borehole sites N1, N7, N8 during the Late Weichselian has been achieved by discussed in text. combining various data from different regions of ARTICLE IN PRESS 1352 H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 northern Eurasia. The findings have then been com- from the Palaeolithic sites Mamontovaya Kurya and paredwith climate parameters obtainedthrough model- Byzovaya. All over the Eurasian Arctic numerous and ling experiments. Even though all different proxy data variedlarge mammals were roaming the landscapes, are not directly comparable, the records indicate that the including mammoth, horse, bison, woolly rhinoceros, environmental conditions changed dramatically before reindeer, musk-ox, bear, and several other species. Solid and/or parallel with the growth of ice sheets between 25 permafrost did, however, prevail throughout the Middle and 20 ka, resulting in a generally colder and drier Weichselian interstadial, at least in Siberia. This implies environment. However, this climate change may not that even though the summers were relatively warm, the have been synchronous from east to west, andthe winters were much colder than today. environmental responses were apparently not identical in all regions. 3.2. Late Weichselian climate

3.1. Middle Weichselian climate The proxy data from European Russia and Siberia indicate that a progressive cooling started around 30 ka Various lines of proxy evidence from the Bykovsky BP, or around35 ka BP in the east (Laptev Sea region). Peninsula near the Lena Delta (pollen, seeds, beetles, In spite of a very coldclimate, reducedprecipitation ice-wedge isotopes, etc.) suggest that the climate in the preventedglacier growth in the Siberian Arctic. The Laptev Sea region during the Middle Weichselian was of continental climate in the east was enhancedalso by the extremely continental type. It was characterizedby low northwards shift in the position of the coastline due to precipitation throughout the year anda thin snow cover. the falling global sea level. Later, during the LGM, the Winters were very cold, but summers were warmer than shoreline was locatednear the shelf margin at the present, especially between 45 and35 ka BP. A clear present 80–100 m b.s.l., some 500 km to the north of the trendto cooler summers duringthe late part of the present coastline (Romanovskii et al., 2001). In the Middle Weichselian (35–24 ka BP) is well documented Laptev Sea region, the late Middle Weichselian trend to by fossil-insect assemblages as well as by palaeobotani- cooler summers progressed, and by 22 ka BP (beginning cal records (Andreev et al., 2002a, b; Kienast, 2002; Sher of the LGM) resultedin the total elimination of steppe et al., in preparation). A few spells of lower summer insects anda notable reduction of mammoth popula- temperature during the Middle Weichselian are still to tions. Mammoths in the Laptev Sea area reachedlowest be verified by more detailed studies. Minor variations in numbers by about 16 ka BP. However, due to the high the composition of the insect andpollen spectra may continentality, the summer heat supply to the ground reflect changes in available moisture but couldbe of remainedrelatively good,andsummer temperature, local significance. The continuous sequence from the though lower than before, was probably still higher than Bykovsky Peninsula so far does not support the existing today. Grass/herb vegetation became less dense (cold model of the ‘‘Karginsky interglacial’’, with three warm tundra–steppe), but could still support the grazers, and andtwo coldintervals ( Kind, 1974), which was probably even included some thermophilic plants (Sher et al., in inferred from too young radiocarbon dates obtained on preparation; Kienast, 2002). Thus, even at the peak of Eemian sediments (Astakhov, 2001). It also gives no the LGM, mammoths andother grazers were still able indication of a significant northwards advance of forest, to survive all over the exposedshelf land.The plant- or even forest-tundra, during the Middle Weichselian, as macrofossil andpollen recordsalso indicatethat the recognizedin Siberian regions farther to the east and Taymyr Peninsula was affectedby a change to a more southeast (Anderson and Lozhkin, 2001). continental climate at this time. Temperatures up to 5 A relatively warm summer climate is inferredalso for colder than today and annual precipitation ca 100 mm the regions farther to the west. On central Taymyr the less than at present during the LGM were reconstructed pollen andplant macrofossils reflect a tundra–steppe from the northern Taymyr Peninsula palynological vegetation whereas a forest-tundra environment may records (Andreev et al., 2003). have existedon the southern part of the North Siberian With the exception of the Laptev Sea region, the Plain. Even the high Arctic areas of Severnaya Zemlya, climate during the early stage of the Late Weichselian which today are mostly covered by glaciers, seem to was not very dry. On Severnaya Zemlya the data from have been vegetated during this period, presumably by a Changeable Lake suggest that relative humidconditions kindof tundra–steppe vegetation. Open spruce forests prevaileduntil about 23 ka BP. In West Siberia, the with larch trees were growing along the middle courses Middle Weichselian interstadial was followed by a cool of the Yenisei River on the West Siberian Plain, whereas but relatively humidperiodbetween 24 and20 ka BP. In the landscape in northernmost European Russia was a the Pechora Lowlandthe generally treeless, tundra– sparsely inhabited wind-swept semi-desert. In the steppe landscape was humid enough to support fertile Pechora Lowlandhumans were present around36 ka river valleys with almost the same water discharge as BP and around 29–28 ka BP, as demonstrated by finds today until at least 24–23 ka BP. During this period a ARTICLE IN PRESS H.W. Hubberten et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1333–1357 1353 rapidbuild-up of the ice sheets occurredalong the implies that the Scandinavian Ice Sheet was affected by eastern margin of the Norwegian Sea. considerable surface ablation, and the documented The currently available data indicate that during the existence of proglacial lakes along the Fennioscandian LGM the Barents–Kara Sea Ice Sheet terminated ice margin here seems to confirm this. seawardoff the present-daycoastline, on the Barents A sharp climatic turnover to warmer summers andKara Sea shelves ( Gataullin et al., 2001). Only the startedin the east as early as around15 ka BP. In the northwesternmost fringe of the Taymyr Peninsula was Laptev Sea area, it is markedby the recovery of steppe probably inundated by a thin and probably short-lived insects andthe establishment of the more productive ice tongue, probably emanating from the higher variants of tundra–steppe, which resulted in a short but Barents–Kara Sea Ice Sheet farther west (Alexanderson high peak in mammoth numbers (Sher et al., in et al., 2002; Svendsen et al., 2004b). However, it is preparation). The climate, however, remainedvery noteworthy that the glaciers on Severnaya Zemlya were dry, with cold winters. This rather short phase of not significantly larger than today and that only short increasedbiological productivity(15–12.5 ka BP) evi- mountain glaciers couldexist in the Polar Urals. dently predated the interval of favourable climate As inferredby the numerical modelexperiments, the recorded farther west as the B^lling–Aller^dinterstadial geological recordconfirms that the climate became (ca 13–11 ka BP). The endWeichselian increase in extremely dry and cold in all areas of the Eurasian summer temperature couldhave triggeredinitial ther- Arctic at the peak of the LGM glaciation. From the mokarst processes in the eastern shelf lands. But it was period20–15 ka BP a widespreaddeposition of inor- not until 12.5 ka BP, when the climate became more ganic aeolian sediments was recorded in both Siberia humid, that a general degradation of permafrost started, andEuropean Russia. Results from General Circulation accompaniedby a dramaticchange in vegetation from Modelling (GCM) suggest that the European part of tundra–steppe to wet tundra and forest tundra, which northern Russia andSiberia were affectedby a flow of greatly contributedto the virtual extinction of the cold and dry winds coming off the Barents–Kara Sea megafauna. andScandinavian Ice Sheets andresulting in polar The revealedclimatic change around15–13 ka BP is desert conditions across the landmasses adjacent to the consistent with the documented timing of general Kara Sea. It is interesting to note that the GCM results deglaciation, and with the flooding of the Laptev Sea are supportedby the spatial pattern of aeolian deposits, shelf (Hubberten andRomanovskii, 2001 ). A major showing predominantwinddirectionsfrom W andN in deglaciation of the central Barents Sea shelf took place the central parts of the plain andfrom WSW in the S of at this time, andnorthwestern Taymyr rapidlybecame West Siberia (Astakhov, 1992). ice-free. Extremely low winter temperatures across the Eur- asian continent during the LGM are suggested by the occurrence of ice-wedge casts as far south as 52Nin 4. Conclusions West Siberia. At this time the Arctic landscapes were vegetated by discontinuous tundra–steppe plant com- The last (LGM) glaciation in northern Eurasia was munities. On the basis of pollen data, it has been initiatedby a progressive cooling that startedat around inferredthat the mean-annual temperatures in the 30 ka BP. The ice growth in Scandinavia and the western central part of the West Siberian Plain were 8–10C Barents Sea region was enhancedby a maritime type of lower than present (Arkhipov et al., 1980), andoxygen- climate, causing relatively high precipitation rates along isotope values from ice wedges on Yamal suggest that the western flank of the developing ice sheets. The ice- winter temperatures in this part of the Arctic were 6–9 sheet modelling experiments calculate rates of ice lower than today (Vasilchuk, 1992). The distribution of accumulation in the order 100–200 mm yr1 around ice wedges on the NW Russian Plain tell us that the the western margin of the Barents Sea, increasing to mean-annual temperature along the eastern margin of over 600 mm yr1 along the western margin of Scandi- the Scandinavian Ice Sheet was well below 6C navia. between 18 and15 ka BP. Basedon pollen data it In the Eurasian Arctic, the climate became extremely has been calculatedthat the winter andsummer dry and cold during the period 20–15 ka BP when the ice temperatures in this region were depressed by as much sheets there reachedtheir maximum LGM positions. It as 20–29 and5–11 , respectively, andthat the precipi- is inferredthat the precipitation rates in the Siberian tation rates were only a thirdof the present values Arctic along the Kara Sea were less than 50 mm yr1 (Tarasov et al., 1999). during the LGM, which is similar to the present The numerical model experiments suggest signifi- conditions in central East Antarctica. In the whole cantly higher LGM temperatures for the NW Russian Eurasian Arctic, the LGM glaciation was considerably Plain along the southeastern margin of the Scandinavian less extensive than it had been during the early Middle Ice Sheet, as comparedto the Siberian Arctic. This Weichselian glacial events. ARTICLE IN PRESS 1354 H.W. 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In the eastern part of the region (the Laptev Sea area) Siberia reconstructedfrom pollen records.Quaternary Research due to the extensive recession northwards of the 57, 138–150. shoreline (loweredsea level), the summer effect of Andreev, A.A., Schirrmeister, L., Siegert, Ch., Bobrov, A.A., Demske, D., Seiffert, D., Hubberten, H.-W., 2002b. Paleoenvironmental climatic continentality overrode the general cooling of changes in Northeastern Siberia during the Late Quaternary— climate during the LGM and provided more favourable evidences from pollen records of the Bykovsky Peninsula. biotic conditions in high latitudes. The LGM periglacial Polarforschung 70, 13–25. environment on the eastern shelf lands was character- Andreev, A.A., Tarasov, P.E., Siegert, Ch., Ebel, T., Klimanov, V.A., izedby a higher summer temperature, but much lower Melles, M., Bobrov, A.A., Dereviagin, A.Yu., Lubinski, D.J., winter temperature, than at present. Hubberten, H.-W., 2003. Late Pleistocene andHolocene vegetation andclimate on the northern Taymyr Peninsula, Arctic Russia. The latest Weichselian climatic change around15 ka Boreas 32, 484–505. BP occurredin all areas of the Eurasian Arctic, but the Arkhipov, S.A., Astakhov, V.I., Volkov, I.A., Volkova, V.S., 1980. dynamics of climate warming and increasing humidity Paleogeography of the West Siberian Plain at the Late Zyryanka were different in the western (glacially affected) and glaciation maximum (Paleogeografia Zapadno-Sibirskoi ravniny v eastern (periglacial) areas. maximum pozdnezyryanskogo oledeneniya). Nauka, Novosibirsk, 109pp. (in Russian). Arslanov, Kh.A., Auslender, V.G., Gromova, L.I., Zubkov, A.I., Khomutova, V.I., 1970. Paleogeography andabsolute age of the Acknowledgements Valday glacial maximum near lake Kubena. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 195, 1395–1398 (in Russian). This paper was compiledby participants of the Arslanov, Kh.A., Lavrov, A.S., Potapenko, L.M., Tertychnaya, T.V., ‘‘Eurasian Ice Sheet’’ project which was funded by the Chernov, S.B., 1987. New data on geochronology and paleogeo- graphy of the Late Pleistocene andEarly Holocene in the northern European Union (EU), Contract No. ENV4-CT97- Pechora Lowland. In: Punning, J.M., et al. (Ed.), Novye Dannye 0563. This project was a major contribution to the Po Geokhronologii Chetvertichnogo Perioda. Nauka, Moscow, pp. European Science Foundation (ESF) programme 101–111 (in Russian). ‘‘QUEEN’’ (Quaternary Environment of the Eurasian Astakhov, V.I., 1989. Late Pleistocene Sedimentary Environments in North). In addition, major funding was obtained the Center of West Siberia, Vol. 657. Trudy Instituta Geologii Geofisiki, Nauka, Novosibirsk, pp. 118–126 (in Russian). through national founding agencies like the German Astakhov, V.I., 1992. The last glaciation in West Siberia. Sveriges Ministry of Science andTechnology (Projects: ‘‘Tay- Geologiska Undersokning,. Ser. Ca 81, Uppsala, pp. 21–30. myr’’ and‘‘System Laptev Sea 2000’’), the Russian Astakhov, V., 1998. The last ice sheet of the Kara Sea: terrestrial Ministry for Technology andResearch, the Russian constraints on its age. Quaternary International 45/46, 19–29. Foundation for Basic Research, the research council of Astakhov, V.I., 2001. Stratigraphic framework for the Upper Norway (PECHORA project), the Swedish Natural Pleistocene of the Russian Arctic: changing paradigms. Global andPlanetary Change 31 (1–4), 281–293. Sciences Research Council andthe Swedish Polar Astakhov, V.I., Isayeva, L.L., 1988. The ‘Ice Hill’: an example of Research Secretariat. Guido Grosse (AWI Potsdam) retarded deglaciation in Siberia. Quaternary Science Reviews 7, has redrawn most of the figures. We thank all 29–40. institutions and individuals who made this investigation Astakhov, V.I., Svendsen, J.I., 2002. 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