mirrored the actual journey the tourist had taken. Some famous photographers, for example Kusakabe 5 Souvenir Albums Kimbei, took a number of years to build a truly representative portfolio which covered the four - Number List and main islands. In the meantime, Kusakabe and others solved this problem by acquiring prints and Attribution Issues negatives from other studios, effectively filling in the gaps in their own catalogues. This was perhaps Throughout the whole of the Meiji period and to be expected: a Yokohama-based studio might beyond, it was possible for Japan’s foreign visitors, well decide it was impractical, or impracticable, and of course local residents to acquire souvenir to obtain a representative range of views from as photographs of scenic views and portraits. These far away as Nagasaki or Hakodate. Kusakabe, in photographs were usually mounted in albums whose fact, advertised his business as a photographic boards were decorated with attractive lacquer work dealership in the early years of his studio and it was or Japanese silk cloth. The photos themselves were only later that he styled himself as a photographer. invariably hand coloured, but some customers Most Meiji-era studios included work from other favoured them in their original sepia tones. photographers in their souvenir albums, and The albums are sometimes today referred to as arrangements between studios to buy or exchange Yokohama Albums since most of the studios which negatives must have been commonplace. Do not produced them, at least in the early years, were expect, therefore, a souvenir album to necessarily based in that town. After the 1880s, however, an contain the work of just one artist. Photographers increasing number were compiled and distributed were businessmen. Not all of them would be through Tokyo, Kobe and Nagasaki. More will be concerned about selling albums that contained said on this later, but as the albums were purchased photographs from studios other than their own. throughout Japan and the terminology is important, In fact, from the 1890s onwards, there was the writer prefers the term souvenir albums. a growing industry which centered on dealing in The albums were issued by various photo photographs, rather than taking them. Of course, studios, both Japanese and Western. Sometimes many of these dealers maintained and operated their the studio can be identified by a photographic own portrait studios for “off-the-street” trade but frontispiece, photographer’s stamp, or other they did not attempt to compete with the famous markings, but usually there is no way of doing so. studios such as Kusakabe, Tamamura, or Farsari. In those situations we need to fall back upon the Many albums sold by such photographic dealers numbers and printed captions which invariably will therefore disappoint, and contain a mixture appear on the face of each photograph. The of studios which render stylistic comparisons and extensive list of numbers below will enable the identification a futile exercise—or certainly of less user, in most cases, to determine which photo studio importance. Tamemasa, Ryo-Un-Do, Shin-E-Do, a particular album belonged to. However, that and Okamoto are examples of such dealerships. does not necessarily mean being able to attribute In fact, it is more useful to distinguish between a particular photographer to particular images. studio souvenir albums and composite souvenir The writer believes that it is usually impossible albums. The former would be issued by the major to say who took a particular photograph: studio studios such as Kusakabe, Tamamura, Farsari and assistants or apprentices could easily have been Enami, be expensively bound with fine photograph the actual authors of an image—with or without colouring and usually have consistent captioning the presence of the Master. However, being able to on the photographs themselves. Most, if not all attribute the studio is a major step forward. There of the photographs in these studio albums would are a number of other issues to be borne in mind have been photographed and printed by the issuing and the following notes should help to explain why studio. Composite albums, however, would be the list below should be used with caution and why cheaper, sold mainly by dealers, have indifferent attributions of authorship can never be guaranteed. and inconsistent colouring and captioning and Customers of souvenir albums (primarily contain the work of up to several different foreign tourists) would often ask for scenic photographers. One further complication here is photographs which represented the key regions that the major studios themselves did not want to and tourist venues throughout Japan—or perhaps turn away the cost-conscious or less discerning 122 OLD JAPANESE PHOTOGRAPHS OJP-Quaritch-final.indd 122 16/10/2006 3:06:47 PM customers, and a number of them also offered dealers as they could. Meanwhile, the dealers composite alternatives. themselves were focusing on selling quantities of What were the economic dynamics behind the photographs and the overall quality, as a result, fell emergence of dealers and composite albums? off. Margins for them too would have been under Foreign tourists arrived in Japan at Nagasaki pressure and the customer was definitely more or Yokohama, before setting out on their tours. important than the suppliers—the original artists. If Quite when and where in Japan these visitors would a dealer in Nagasaki felt, for example, that Enami decide to buy photographic souvenirs was not easy was not able to supply a sufficiently comprehensive to predict. Not all tourists were inclined or able to range of local images (and given the distance meet the expense of purchasing a studio souvenir between Yokohama and Nagasaki that would not album or albums. Indeed, some customers would be an unlikely scenario) then he would have no buy a few photographs here and there as they compunction or esthetic qualms in supplementing travelled throughout the country and, upon returning his stock with images from other studios—be they home, might combine these with images from other local or otherwise. countries which they had passed through on their Consider also the temptations open to dealers ‘world tours’. They did, in effect, create their own who were, from the 1890s, obtaining unprecedented composite albums. In themselves, these albums access to cheaper images for a number of reasons: today create confusion for anyone trying to identify they might have been copying images because a particular studio. of Japan’s relatively weak copyright regulations, By the 1890s, the market for souvenir obtaining stocks of images and negatives from photography was becoming increasingly studios such as Kajima Seibei’s that had failed, or commoditized. In the heady days of the 1880s, simply buying unwanted images from other studios. many studios had sprung up to meet the demand The dealers would then decide which images would created by the ever-increasing numbers of foreign go into the souvenir albums—or, more likely, tourists. By the 1890s, however, supply had allow the customer himself to make this choice on overtaken demand and many studios closed as they a ‘pick and mix’ basis. The result, of course, either were forced to confront the commercial realities of way, would be an increasing number of composite the marketplace. The effect of this was to saturate albums being sold. the already competitive market with unwanted It is worth a brief look at the copyright stock and negatives and competition became protection available for photographers which, cut-throat. The established studios could still find by international standards, was not particularly customers for their quality studio albums but strong—even following the revised 1887 they, too, increasingly offered composite albums. regulations. To obtain copyright, two photographs Furthermore, the Yokohama and Tokyo-based from the original plate had to be submitted to the studios were becoming increasingly reliant upon the authorities, together with a fee representing the provincial dealers for distribution of their images in retail sale price for six photographs. Copyright for key towns such as Kobe and Nagasaki. that image then extended for ten years only. The In so far as the sale of souvenir photography first set of regulations in 1876 granted just five was concerned, the economic power was shifting years’ protection. It follows that the superb work of away from the studios (manufacturers) and towards Uchida Kuichi, who died in 1875, was not subject the dealers (distributors). These dealers, such to copyright and this explains why his photographs as Shin-E-Do and Tamemasa in faraway Kobe appear in the albums of Kusakabe, Stillfried, and and Nagasaki respectively were, from the 1890s others. The revised copyright legislation of 1887 onwards, in a strong position to negotiate terms only secured protection if the photographer applied with the main studios back in Yokohama and Tokyo. for copyright before publishing an image. Bearing They no doubt bought images wholesale and would, in mind the cost, one doubts that many images were crucially, have the final word on which images they actually copyrighted. In any case, after ten years would sell. a competitor was free to make a good copy of a Of course there was nothing to prevent studios desired image and then sell it as though it were one such as Kusakabe’s and Enami’s from opening of his own. Part 4(iii) contains the actual copyright branches in these towns. But the market was in regulations and a more detailed discussion of these decline and the economics were against that. The issues. best solution was to sell as many images to the Another point worth making is that studios OLD JAPANESE PHOTOGRAPHS 123 OJP-Quaritch-final.indd 123 16/10/2006 3:06:47 PM in Japan often suffered from numerous fires, a Dubois who, beginning some fifteen years ago, constant threat to native and foreign studios alike.