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『英米文化』48, 33–46 (2018) ISSN: 0917–3536

Honour or Defamation in Chastity and Fertility: The Paradoxical Effects of Erotic Conversation in Henry VIII

NIWA Saki

Abstract

In this paper, I examine the connection between Katherine’s and Anne’s honour in Henry VIII as reflected in portrayals of their chastity and fertility and how descriptions of the two women ironically reflect the ‘truth’ of this historical play. As the audience was familiar with the real historical situation of these two women, they could discern where the truth ran counter to their dramatic depiction. My paper addresses that women’s worth was evaluated in Shakespearean England based on their chastity, but that maintaining their chastity and faithfulness did not ultimately protect noblewomen within the contract of marriage, as is evident in the cases of both Katherine and Anne.

Introduction

In early modern English drama, the patriarchal view of morality meant that women’s hon- our was strongly connected to their chastity or faithfulness. Even when exposed to grave danger, heroines almost always maintained their chastity until the end of the play, which, in consequence, contributed to denouements involving marital harmony, reconciliation after perception, or heroic death as a result of losing their chastity. Examples include Hermione in Shakespeare’s The Winter’s Tale (1610), Desdemona in Othello (1604) and Lucrece in The Rape of Lucrece (1594). On the one hand, the dramatic patterns of these plays demon- strate the high value placed on preserving chastity in Shakespeare’s time and how these heroines could symbolise the ideal woman, even if their chastity and fidelity ultimately cost them their lives;1 on the other hand, however, as Keir Elam points out, many of the early Jacobean playwrights dealt with the theme of chastity in the opposite way to meet ‘the demand for sensationalism, especially blood and sex’ (Marrapodi, 235).2 Playwrights of this period, such as Thomas Middleton and John Webster, vividly described not only courtesans 34 『英米文化』48 (2018) but also ordinary women living everyday lives, particularly in cities like London, and how they lived as they pleased by outwitting their husbands or controlling their gallants in the patriarchal society of the time.3 It should be noted that chastity was thus ever a central theme of the plays at various levels in this period, and playwrights raised for the audience the question of how chastity was or should be defined. All the above plays were fundamen- tally written based on the moralistic view of chastity at that time: It should be protected as women’s honour and if they abused it, they must be prepared to lose everything they were expected to possess in society and consequently lose the mutual trust of their relationship with other people. However, we should observe that the description of losing chastity could sometimes be interpreted as having other aspects in the plays. This means that the theme of ‘chastity’ in the plays functions not only as proof of women’s honour or the trigger for defamation, but also as a hint of an alternative source of fame, both of which highlight the destiny of heroines and hint to the audience the hidden and complex manoeuvring of the female situation at that time. This paper focuses on two female characters in Henry VIII, Katherine and Anne, to explore how chastity was intermingled with honour and defamation for royal women in the period when the play was written. By ‘defamation’, I mean not only the act of insulting someone directly but also acts or words that elicit mocking laughter and thereby serve to ridicule someone. In this context, the erotic wordplay between Anne and the Old Lady and the rumours between courtiers in Henry VIII can be interpreted according to whether they include defamatory or derisive terms. I also clarify how the descriptions of the two women reflect the ‘truth’ of the play by comparing honour with defamation in that period when scan- dalous news of celebrities helped to spread libel in the city and fuelled the imagination of playwrights (Bellany, ‘The Court’, 121).

Katherine’s Chastity and The Honour that She Deserves

In Henry VIII, Queen Katherine’s honour is enhanced by her ‘truth’ or fidelity to her hus- band. ‘Truth’ is the key word in this play as the Prologue proclaims the play’s truthfulness to the story of noble people. Truth refers here not only to the plausibility of the words or phrases spoken by each character and the credibility of their personalities, but also to the unspoken aspects pertinent to each scene that the audience is expected to use to interpret the NIWA Saki Honour or Defamation in Chastity and Fertility 35 deeper meaning of the play.4 Katherine is portrayed as a typically idealised woman of Renaissance England, in which chastity and purity were, as Berry notes, often connected with both the Virgin Mary and Sophia in Christian thought (11–17).5 Most of Katherine’s words are based on Holinshed’s Chronicles, which Shakespeare, like other playwrights, was thought to have used very often to expand his knowledge of historical characters. Chronicles was first published in 1577 and later became one of the major sources for history plays, although any chronological writings were themselves ‘subject to heavy castration at the command of the Privy Council’ (McMullan, 163). As McMullan says, Holinshed wrote ‘a kind of history which aims to encourage independent critical thinking on the part of the reader’ (162). Playwrights who wrote history plays treated ‘the audience as readers of history, responsive to the possibility of a range of political nuance in the ways in which chronicle history could be represented’, so it is plausible that the audience of Henry VIII should have recognised how the description of Katherine’s words was rearranged and expanded to include wider and more dramatic expressions (166). In Chronicles, the judgment procedure in the court scene is described in a comparatively moderate and restricted tone. The facts are sequenced, and Katherine’s behaviour before and after her confession sounds calm and controlled. This mode of description is effective, on the one hand because readers can imagine how she stands up against her predicament by her calm tone. After her confession, the scene continues as follows:

The king being advertised that shee was readie to go out of the house, commanded the crier to call hir againe, who called hir by these words; Katherine queene of England, come into the court. With that (quoth maister Griffith) Madame, you be called againe. On on (quoth she) it maketh no matter, I will not tarrie, go on your waies. And thus she departed, without anie further answer at that time, or anie other, and never would appear after in anie court. (Bullough, IV, 468)

Here, readers are only told the facts, but the facts show her feelings effectively. Shakespeare also cites Katherine’s words, but he sets this scene just after the scene of erotic conversation between Anne and the Old Lady. In addition, Katherine’s plea to the King on stage is a dramatic monologue, while Anne’s mode of speaking sounds comical. Consequently, compared with the descriptions in Chronicles, the contrast between these two 36 『英米文化』48 (2018) women becomes clearer to the audience, and the scene simultaneously depicts Katherine’s miserable situation and her solemn attitude. Her virtuous image is effectively enhanced by her dignified and resolute words at the trial in Act 2, Scene 4, in which she holds her com- posure, stating as follows:

Katherine: Sir, call to mind That I have been your wife in this obedience Upward of twenty years, and have been blessed With many children by you. If, in the course And process of this time, you can report, And prove it too, against mine honour aught, My bond to wedlock, or my love and duty Against your sacred person, in God’s name Turn me away and let the foulest contempt Shut door upon me, and so give me up To sharpest kind of justice. (2.4.32–42)6

Bullough mentions that, despite the fact that her words at the court mimic those from the Chronicles, Shakespeare develops them beyond a mere ‘refusal to attend the court . . . into the portrait of a noble, long-suffering, indignant and determined woman’ (Bullough, IV, 446). This helps assure the audience that Katherine deserves honour not only as a queen but also as a woman who knows what she is doing. The dramatization of Katherine’s words is elaborately harmonised with the dramatization of both Lord Buckingham’s words in Act 2, Scene 1 and Wolsey’s words in Act 3, Scene 2. As ‘the prisoner’ (2.1.4), Lord Buckingham declares, ‘My vows and prayers / Yet are the King’s and, till my soul forsake, / Shall cry for blessing on him’ (2.1.88–90). He even says, ‘I forgive all’ (2.1.83). Wolsey also speaks to Cromwell, his secretary, after noticing that he has already lost the ‘princes’ favours’ (3.2.367) as follows:

Wolsey: I know myself now, and I feel within me A peace above all earthly dignities, A still and quiet conscience. The King has cured me, I humbly thank his grace, and from these shoulders, NIWA Saki Honour or Defamation in Chastity and Fertility 37

These ruined pillars, out of pity, taken A load would sink a navy—too much honour. (3.2.378–83)

Wolsey speaks of the vanity of ‘dignities’ and ‘honour’ at the very time when he most attracts sympathy and thus creates that atmosphere of dignity and honour within himself. These dra- matic monologues contribute to the appeal for Katherine’s chastity, because their glimpse of enlightenment on the brink of their death evokes within them the truthfulness and sincerity, which the audience already sees in Katherine. When Lord Buckingham and Wolsey confess how their lives were full of intrigue and how they learnt what they should prioritise, their words resonate with Katherine’s words in the ears of the audience. Further, the coincidence of their words and consecutive deaths create an aura of divinity in the play, which makes Katherine’s situation even more dignified and honourable because of her martyr-like resoluteness. The transcendental scene also has the effect of imbuing Katherine’s chastity with a mysti- cal meaning. In Act 4, Scene 2, the audience is shown the spectacle of Katherine’s vision in which ‘spirits of peace’ (4.2.83) surround her with ‘branches of bays or palm in their hands’ (4.2.82.5). McMullan, the editor of The Arden Shakespeare, explains that the divine image portrayed in this scene has prompted many directors to interpret specific connotations of her deathbed dream, particularly connecting it with the biblical scene of Revelation (382.n). It is also possible for the audience to connect this scene with more mythological aspects or with the miracle plays of medieval times.7 Katherine was of Catholic origin, so the ritualistic dancing of these spirits around her could embody her own incarnation in an alternate shape and symbolises the ‘miracle’ phenomenon of Catholic faith. Consequently, her optical illu- sion adds even more solemnity to her solitude. Introducing ritualistic scenes was relatively popular in Jacobean theatre, but this scene is particularly noteworthy due to its rather ironic contrast with other ritualistic scenes, such as Anne’s coronation in Act 4, Scene 1. As mentioned, both the refrain of the phrases by which she tries to prove her fidelity to the King and the visual images of her dream contribute to accentuating the audience’s com- passion for Katherine and raising awareness of her solemnity. This is why her description inevitably enhances the honour that she deserves as the queen of chastity. 38 『英米文化』48 (2018)

The Truth about Katherine and Dishonour

The previous section focused on Katherine’s chastity, for which she receives honour as a devoted wife. However, we should also observe that her devotion to her husband empha- sises the relentless fact that, although chastity is her final anchorage, she falls out of the King’s favour and is therefore defamed in her marriage life:

Katherine: Put my sick cause into his hands that hates me? Alas, ’has banished me his bed already; His love, too, long ago. (3.1.118–20)

The first thing that should be expected to come to the audience’s mind here is Katherine’s inability to bear a son, which we hear given as the king’s lame justification in Act 2, Scene 4. Strangely, however, her lamentation shows us another and the ‘true’ reason that has prompted the King’s reversal of heart and thereby tarnished her status as queen. Her straightforwardness in explaining the King’s recent attitude towards her can easily be linked to the scandalous conversation of the two gentlemen in Act 2, Scene 1, who discuss the lat- est gossip they have heard as follows:

First Gentleman: Yes, but it held not, For when the King once heard it, out of anger He sent command to the Lord Mayor straight To stop the rumour and allay those tongues That durst disperse it. Second Gentleman: But that slander, sir, Is found a truth now, for it grows again Fresher then e’er it was, and held for certain The King will venture at it. (2.1.148–55)

Katherine’s desperate devotion to her husband and exculpatory statements throughout the play help not only to evoke sympathy for her due to her inherent dignity, which enables her to bear her alienation, but also to reveal her disgraced position in the English court, in which she is obliged to continue to behave as the queen while exposed to public curiosity about NIWA Saki Honour or Defamation in Chastity and Fertility 39 her inability to bear a son. Another scene in which Katherine’s honour is defamed occurs at Act 2, Scene 2, when we hear the following conversation between the Lord Chamberlain and the Duke of Suffolk:

Chamberlain: It seems the marriage with his brother’s wife Has crept too near his conscience. Suffolk: No, his conscience Has crept too near another lady. (2.2.15–17)

This conversation reveals the superficiality of the King’s following words:

King: Prove but our marriage lawful, by my life And kingly dignity, we are contented To wear our mortal state to come with her, Katherine, our Queen, before the primest creature That’s paragoned o’th’ world. (2.4.223–27)

The conversation between the two gentlemen based on scandalous rumour helps to show the King’s true feelings to the audience. In his work, Ingram introduces various cases of mar- riage breakdown from the end of the sixteenth century to the beginning of the seventeenth century, explaining how the church courts regarded marriage breakdown at that time:

Since marriage were usually very stable at this social level [middling rank of society], and since the most the courts could do to relieve marital unhappiness was to license a separation with no right of remarriage, it is not surprising to find that suits were not very common . . . . The marital problems of aristocrats and gentry were probably for the most part discreetly ignored . . . . (186)

Ingram’s explanation shows how the King’s justification or that his marriage was infertile would sound strange and confusing to the judges and courtiers even if it should rightly be considered a public matter of succession. The rise of this rumour amongst the courtiers would easily become the foundation for Katherine’s defamation due to its oddness. England in the early 1600s saw the spread of several types of court scandal or gossip not only among 40 『英米文化』48 (2018) courtiers but also amongst ordinary people. As Bellany says, Londoners at that time had the opportunity to see or hear a great deal of news from various sources, including ‘humble pub- lic commercial assemblies, such as the markets, fairs and shops of the City and the semi- public spaces of the tavern and the ordinary (dining establishments)’ (83). Bellany also says that ‘oral communication was spreading news across socio-economic classes in the capital’ (83). In a sense, theatre was one of the best places for people to discuss and spread the news in which they were most interested. The playwrights could thus use the newest topics as material to attract an audience. The Prologue of Henry VIII states the following: ‘full of state and woe, / Such noble scenes as draw the eye to flow’ (Prologue. 3–4). This reflects the fact that, in a sense, Katherine’s patience as an abandoned queen meets the expectations of the curious audience to some extent, because her solemn words directly show what interested the ordinary people at that time. The conversations between the two gentlemen therefore hint at the people’s curiosity about their monarch and the King’s obvious change in affection, rather than his anguish regarding the issue of succession.

Anne as an Immature Lady

Having discussed the themes of honour and defamation in relation to Katherine, I will now discuss those themes in relation to Anne and show how her conversation with the Old Lady in Act 2, Scene 3, seems to give a dual impression of female honour. The sexual con- notations of the Old Lady’s teasing words and Anne’s buoyant denial of the Cinderella story create the impression of a rather capricious, immature woman whose sincerity still depends on the temporary fascination of romantic love. The Old Lady says, ‘You would not be a queen? / . . . What think you of a duchess? Have you limbs / To bear that load of title?’ (2.3.35–39). The Old Lady urges Anne to accede to the King’s offer to become his mistress, even though this might destroy her chastity. Anne answers, ‘I swear again, I would not be a queen / For all the world’ (2.3.45–46). Anne’s response to the Old Lady also serves to defame her image, because it is shown to be a lie when she becomes queen soon after this conversation, despite her closeness to Katherine, whom Anne knows to still love the King. Furthermore, McMullan points out the punning in their conversation by linking the word ‘queen’ to the early modern word ‘quean’, which means whore (292.n). Thus, this scene serves to emphasise Anne’s false modesty, which should be contrasted with Katherine’s NIWA Saki Honour or Defamation in Chastity and Fertility 41 chastity. The contemporary audience would already have known who Anne was: the mother of Elizabeth I, the queen who was later to earn great fame by establishing the Protestant kingdom to which King James succeeded. Anne’s apparent humility in conversation with the Old Lady therefore contradicts the historical ‘truth’ as it was known to the audience. This begs the following questions: Was it possible for the audience to acknowledge the wanton atmosphere of the sexual conversation in the play’s ‘noble scenes’ (Prologue. 4) and to laugh at Anne’s feigned chastity? Or, alternatively, does Anne’s conversation give her honour, just as her impudence enables her to become the mother of Elizabeth I, and thus symbolises her fertility? As McMullan notes, this scene is thought to be original to Shakespeare, who presumably intended to highlight the contrast between Katherine and Anne, and in this way to accentu- ate the changing fortunes of the nobility. It is plausible to link the Old Lady’s sexual persua- sion to the ideal of women’s honour. We should remember that this scene parallels the erotic conversation between Juliet and the Nurse in Romeo and Juliet. In this play, Capulet’s Wife and the Nurse persuade Juliet to marry Count Paris for his stable status and secure future:

Capulet’s Wife: How stands your disposition to be married? Juliet: It is an honour that I dream not of. Nurse: An honour! Were not I thine only nurse, I would say thou hadst sucked wisdom from thy teat. (Romeo and Juliet, 1.3.66–69)

The patriarchal background to Romeo and Juliet becomes apparent when Juliet’s father forces her to accept Paris’s proposal: the acceptance of a marriage proposal was connected with women’s honour, for it is, from the patriarchal perspective, consistent with an ideal type of virtuous woman who serves both her father and husband. Juliet rejects their advice, however, and elopes with Romeo, as a result of which she meets her death. One of the source books for Romeo and Juliet, The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet (1562) by Arthur Brook, conveys the cautionary message that daughters should obey their fathers to avoid facing terrible consequences (Bullough, I, 284). According to Weis, ‘the moralizing tone of the preface [in Romeo and Juliet] is finally overwhelmed by the power and drive of the narrative and the pervasive eroticism of the poem’ (46). In Henry VIII, Anne’s words remind the audience of the possibility that she is already 42 『英米文化』48 (2018) familiar with the various interactions between the sexes, for she responds in a sophisticated manner to Lord Sandy’s erotic compliment at the masquerade ball in the York Place scene. The description of her attractiveness makes the King utter, ‘O Beauty, / Till now I never knew thee’ (1.4.75–76). Her eroticism ignites the King’s passion and while diminishing her humility, simultaneously leads her to the throne. This means that both her honour and defa- mation are simultaneously implicated in her eroticism. The very setting of the masquerade has a mystic effect on her eroticism. Curran introduces Thomas Campion’s The Lord Hay’s Masque (1607) and Ben Jonson’s The Haddington Masque (1608) as typical masques that ‘situate the theme of erotic desire at the centre of their fictions and use this theme to commu- nicate a monarchically gratifying vision of British nationhood’ (58). James I eagerly pursued Anglo-Scottish marriage and used these masques to relate individual sexual desire to the body politic of an ideal monarchy in England. This clarifies how Anne’s attractiveness exerts maximum effect on the King in this play. The fact that Anne gives birth to a baby girl, not a boy, also indicates the dual aspects of honour and defamation when we hear the word ‘truth’ in this play. It is true that she was the mother of the future queen (or, for the contemporary audience, the late queen), which was an honour for her, but it was also true that she was destined to lose the King’s favour and be executed, making the word ‘truth’ sound defamatory. In When You See Me, You Know Me (1605) by Samuel Rowley, a play that was relatively popular with Jacobean audiences, it can be seen that having a son was highly valued at this time. In this play, Henry immedi- ately asks Jane to have ‘a chopping boy’ (9), while the Fool says, ‘let her be sure to say the child’s like his father, or else she shall have nothing’ (10).4 This reflects the fact that Henry wants Jane to have a healthy son just like himself and that other options are meaningless. As the queen mother, Anne should have been honoured, but she was not, and while we do not directly find words that dishonour or defame her in Henry VIII, it is quite possible that the audience understood what the Old Lady meant when she told the king that ‘’tis a girl / Prom- ises boys hereafter’ (5.1.65–66). To better understand the extent to which the sexual allusions to a noble person interested audiences in the early seventeenth century, it is helpful to present a specific example from some gossip that would have been well known to audiences at that time. Bellany introduces various cases of verse libel in the early Stuart court, one of which was ‘the Overbury murder scandal of 1615–16’ (121), in which political intrigue and adulterous relationships between nobles are intricately mingled. NIWA Saki Honour or Defamation in Chastity and Fertility 43

The Overbury scandal crystallized a horrifying image of court corruption. The crowds who packed the murder trials and gathered to witness the executions of the condemned heard fantastic stories of lust, betrayal, and murder; of ambitious men and ungoverned women; of witchcraft and poison; of pride and dissimulation; of popery, treason, and political assassination (121).

This demonstrates how the scandalous reputation of the nobles may have attracted audi- ences to the theatre and therefore inspired playwrights to incorporate risqué statements into their plays. It also indicates that the description of the ‘truth’ evoked in the audience not only ‘Elizabethan nostalgia’, as Curran says, but sometimes led to a person’s defamation (91).

Anne and Baby Elizabeth

As mentioned above, the ‘truth’ in Henry VIII is to some extent revealed through gossip, which plays an important role in connecting scenes. Furthermore, this gossip probably over- lapped with the real rumours that abounded at that time and thus elicited the interest of the audience. The audience of Henry VIII knew who Anne was, and her image inevitably conjures up the image of Elizabeth I, as we see the latter described by Cranmer in the final part of the play as ‘the maiden phoenix’ (5.4.40). In this scene, the reminiscence about Elizabeth I through his celebratory words has a dramatic effect on the sequence of ‘truth’ by which the audience recognises Anne as a mother of the Protestant queen. Her honour is also enhanced by Cranmer’s celebration of monarchical succession, because it is closely linked to the his- toric event for which this play was said to be written. The wedding of Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and Princess Elizabeth was held on February 14, 1613, and this play was to be per- formed in front of James I, though there is no record of the play actually being performed in court.8 The final scene of the play, in which the audience hears the solemn evocation of the succession of the Protestant kingdom, helps to honour Anne.9 As a history play, Henry VIII needed to be true to fact but also dramatic and entertaining enough to meet the approval of contemporary audiences. Consequently, the themes of hon- our and defamation are intermingled and reciprocally performed in the play and in the depictions of Katherine and Anne. 44 『英米文化』48 (2018)

Conclusion

In this article, I have focused on the honour and defamation of two royal women in Shakespeare’s Henry VIII and how they coincide in relation to the value placed on chastity and fertility in that period. The dual aspects of their descriptions become the foundation by which the audience receives a certain message about the meaning of ‘truth’ in the play. It is clear from the paradoxical descriptions of honour and defamation that the word ‘truth’ does not always guarantee solidity in a court and that it sometimes betrays the faithfulness or reliability of individuals. In the play, Katherine loses the King’s affection just because of her chastity, while her fidelity illuminates the true reason for the annulment. However, the audi- ence is shown how the contrast between Katherine’s agony and Anne’s innocuous words leads to another aspect of honour. It is often said that ‘truth’ in Henry VIII is related to the religious and political background in England during this period. The influence of Shake- speare’s religious background on his plays remains controversial, but the honouring and defamation of Katherine and Anne imply that women’s chastity greatly influences the rise and fall of monarchical succession and the English court is no exception.

(This paper is a revised version of my presentation given at ‘Martin Ingram Seminar at Keio University’, held at Keio University on October 11, 2016. I would like to thank Martin Ingram, Emeritus Fellow in History at Brasenose College, University of Oxford, and the colleagues for their helpful comments and advice at the seminar.)

Notes

1 Aughterson introduces various readings of the discourses concerning gender constructions and their relationship with Christian thinking about chastity in this period. These include Henry Bullinger’s The Christian State of Matrimony (1541), in which he teaches ‘how daughters and maidens must be kept’, and Alexander Niccholes’ A Discourse of Marriage and Wiving (1615) and other materials (103–32). 2 I use the word ‘Jacobean’ specifically to refer to the early seventeenth century which saw the change of monarchy. 3 Elam distinguishes ‘courtesan’ from ‘whore’ in that the latter includes a wider range of women who simply desire to tempt the men around them. He also mentions that courtesans or female charac- NIWA Saki Honour or Defamation in Chastity and Fertility 45

ters whose names conjure up an image of courtesans to the audience are often described as Italian. 4 It is generally believed that when Shakespeare wrote Henry VIII, he was conscious of another popular play at that time by Sir Thomas Rowley, When You See Me, You Know It. It is thought that he intended to uphold a disapproving attitude toward Rowley’s play because it distorted the facts to such an extent that noble characters are dishonoured. The fact is that although Shakespeare relied on Holinshed for the description of the truth about historic events in most of his play, the audience may observe that many scenes are original to him and help to make this play more vivid and unique. 5 We can observe a systematic analysis of chastity in Renaissance women in Aughterson’s Renais- sance Woman: Construction of Femininity in England. 6 All further citations of the text are from The Arden Shakespeare version. 7 McMullan compares this scene with more ‘sensual festivity we have already seen in 1.4’ (380n). If we suppose this comparison to be correct, this vision also has the effect of simultaneously enhancing Katherine’s chastity and the powerlessness of her situation in the secular world. 8 The details of the background of the royal wedding from the religious point of view, particularly of the situations that Frederick V had to bear, are explained in MacCulloch’s Reformation: Europe’s House Divided 1490–1700 (485–96). 9 Heller introduces some critical theories about Shakespeare’s religion, but fundamentally admits his ‘intentional self-effacement’ (182).

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