An Assessment of the Impact of Livestock Grazing on Riparian Ecosystem Along Gongola River, Dadin Kowa Yamaltu/Deba Local Government Area, Gombe State, Nigeria

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 An Assessment of the Impact of Livestock Grazing on Riparian Ecosystem along Gongola River, Dadin Kowa Yamaltu/Deba Local Government Area, Gombe State, Nigeria

Lazarus A. Mbaya and Oruonye E. D. Department of Geography, Gombe State University, Gombe, Nigeria Department of Geography, Taraba State University, Jalingo, Nigeria E-mail Address: [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract Grazing of livestock is the most widespread land-use practice in Northern part of Nigeria, occupying about 60% of the land surface. These activities are usually carried out along river channels and therefore, impact to a considerable extent on the riparian ecosystem. This study assesses the effects of livestock grazing on riparian ecosystem along Gongola River at Dadin Kowa, Yamaltu Deba LGA, Gombe State, Nigeria. Water samples and laboratory test, field measurements and observation of vegetation species were employed in the study. Descriptive and inferential statistics i.e. T-test was used to analyze the data. The findings revealed that, shrubs are the dominant plant species with 23.17%, followed by neem (Azadiractha indica) 18.30%, Herbs dominating 17.07%, and Mango (magnifera indica) 13.41%. A t-test analysis reveals that there is significant difference in the height and diameter of trees with t-value of 9.087. Plant species that are palatable to animals have witnessed degradation through looping and trampling hence their survivals are at risks. While the largest livestock composition are mainly cows constituting about 52.72%, followed by sheep 40%. Apart from polluting the water, the livestock routes and riparian corridors are characterized by erosion thereby increasing to the siltation/sedimentation of the Gongola River valley. Also, result of water quality analysis revealed an uneven distribution in all the selected parameters. Mean pH value obtained was 8.22, while calcium, magnesium, chloride, turbidity, Biochemical Oxygen Demand were 10.88 mg/L, 0.23 mg/L, 21.26 mg/L, 564.00NTU and 11.29mg/L, respectively. This implies that the water quality is not safe for human consumption and to a larger extent the livestock. The study, therefore, recommends the need for creation of ranches in the area by the Federal or State Government to preserve the natural environment from biodiversity lost. Keywords: Dadin Kowa, Ecosystem, Gongola, River, Livestock and Riparian. Introduction Riparian ecosystem is said to be the plant life that exists along a water way. The surrounding areas of rivers, ponds, lakes, marshes and streams are all considered riparian in nature (Belsky and Blumenthal, 1997). Plants and trees along water margins and banks are called riparian vegetation. Campbell and Franklin (1979) defined riparian vegetation

An Assessment of the Impact of Livestock Grazing on Riparian Ecosystem along Gongola River, Dadin Kowa Yamaltu/Deba Local Government Area, Gombe State, Nigeria . Lazarus A. Mbaya and Oruonye, E. D. as vegetation that is rooted at the edge of water (stream or lake). Often times, the stream influences vegetation well beyond the water line. Hence, riparian ecosystem can be defined as those areas associated with streams, lakes and wet areas where vegetative communities are predominantly influenced by their association with water (Carter 1978). Riparian vegetation provides shade, prevent adverse water temperature fluctuations (Meehan, Swanson, and Sedell, 1977). The roots of trees, shrubs and herbaceous vegetation stabilize streambanks providing cover in the form of overhanging banks (Marcuson 1977; Meehan et al., 1977). Streamside vegetation acts as a "filter" to prevent sediment and debris from man’s activities from entering the stream (Meehan, Swanson and Sedell, 1977). Riparian vegetation also directly controls the food chain of the ecosystem by shading the stream and providing organic detritus and insects for the stream organisms (Cummins, 1974 and Meehan et al, 1977). Riparian ecosystem or landscape are among the most diverse and productive habitats and perform several critical ecological functions. The variety of plants such as hedges, grasses, trees, with other shrubs form the riparian ecosystem (Mubi, 2008). Riparian flora and fauna are often distinctly different from those found in adjacent communities because of the water and rich soils found in the riparian zones. Livestock, particularly, cattle exhibit a strong preference for riparian ecosystem for a number of the same reasons other animals prefer and use these areas. The main attributes that attract and hold cattle to riparian areas are the availability of water, shade and thermal cover, and the quality and variety of forage (Ames 1977, Severson and Boldt 1978). However, livestock grazing affects watershed hydrology, stream channel morphology, soils, vegetation, wildlife, fish and other riparian-dependent species, and water quality at both local and landscape scales. Riparian zones provide key services for all ecosystems, but are especially important in dry regions, where they provide the main source of moisture for plants and wildlife, and the main source of water for downstream plant, animal, and human communities (Rob and Stephane, 2001; Armour, Duff and Elmore, 2008). These services are highly dependent on stream banks and flood plains, being a vegetated and relatively undisturbed land. Rooted stream side plants retard stream bank erosion, filter sediments out of the water, build up and stabilize stream banks and streambeds, and provide shade, food, and nutrients for aquatic and riparian organisms (Belsky, Matzke and Uselman, 1999). Riparian habitat is an ecosystem with extraordinary biodiversity richness. Riparian ecosystem is unique with continual disturbances related to inundation, transport of sediments, and the abrasive and erosive forces of water and ice movement that, in turn, create habitat complexity and variability, resulting in ecologically diverse communities’ (Theresa and Saied, 2006). The rapid population explosion of the Third World countries has put the riparian ecosystem under stress of over exploitation and unsustainable use. Biodiversity resources of riparian ecosystem include vegetation community, which in most cases are hydrophilic. Conserving riparian areas is one of the most effective ways of maintaining high quality

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 aquatic habitats (Parkyn et al., 2004; US Army, 2012). Although grasslands limit sediment, nutrient, and pathogen loading of surface water resources (Zoheir, 2001), cattle congregating near pastures around streams to meet their need for thirst, hunger, and thermoregulation reduce stream bank stability and increase soil erosion in pastures and rangelands. Additional pressure is also put on pasture resources by livestock from neighbouring countries, notably Republics of Cameroon, Chad and Niger respectively. The frontline states as well as the buffer zone are located along two of the pastoral corridors of Nigeria. The corridors are: the Northwest corridor, running from Niger/Benin Republics through Sokoto/Kebbi/Zamfara /Katsina, Niger and Kwara state axis, and terminating in Oyo State. The Northeast corridor emanating from Niger/Chad Republics and running through Adamawa, Borno, Jigawa, Kano, Plateau, Yobe and Gombe States and terminating in the Niger/Benue river basins. Both corridors form parts of Sahel eco- zone and run through Sudan Savannah zone, terminating at the Guinea savanna vegetation zone of the Middle-Belt and some Southern States. These corridors carry millions of heads of cattle annually (Lazarus et al, 2012). The main source or point where these livestock drink water and browsed plant are the few primal streams or rivers especially during the dry season. The river Gongola at Dadin Kowa Dam and lake area are among many rivers/streams in Nigeria that provide forage and water points to livestock’s in the country. Thousands of cattle, sheep and goats depends daily on the water point in these area most especially during the dry season, for browsing and drinking water. This has led to trampling and overgrazing of stream banks, leading to soil erosion, loss of stream bank stability and declining water quality. Despite these impacts, not much has been done by way of research along the Gongola River in Dadin Kowa area to assess the effects of livestock grazing on the riparian ecosystem. It is against this background that this study sought to find out the effect of livestock grazing on the riparian ecosystem. Aim and objectives The aim of this research is to assess the impact of livestock grazing on the riparian ecosystem along the Gongola River in Dadin Kowa area. This is to be achieved through the following specific objectives; i. To identify types of vegetation in the study area. ii. To identify the types and number of livestock in the study area iii. To assess the effect of grazing on the vegetation, soil structure and water quality in the study areas Materials and Methods Description of Study Area River Gongola is a tributary of River Benue. The River Gongola takes its source from the Jos plateau area. The study area is located between latitude 10o18’N to 10o 30’N and

An Assessment of the Impact of Livestock Grazing on Riparian Ecosystem along Gongola River, Dadin Kowa Yamaltu/Deba Local Government Area, Gombe State, Nigeria . Lazarus A. Mbaya and Oruonye, E. D. longitude 11o 20E to 11o 40’E (Fig.1). It shares common boundaries with Gombe LGA in the West, Kwami LGA to the North, Akko LGA to the Southwest, Balanga LGA to the North and Borno State to the Northeast. The climate of the study area is part of the tropical continental type of climate in Nigeria. One of the basic characteristics of this climate zone is relatively short rainy season and a comparatively long dry season which fluctuates from year to year. Rainfall usually begins in late April or early May and ends in early October. The rainfall last between five (5) to six (6) months. The maximum rainfall is usually experienced in the months of July and August. The annual rainfall amount ranges between 800 - 1000mm3. The dry season last between October to late May. The mean annual temperature of the study area is about 30oC, with highest temperature experienced in the month of April.

Source: GIS Lab Gombe State University Figure1: Gongola River at Dadin Kowa dam (Study Area).

The vegetation of Dadin Kowa can be described as the Sudan savannah type. The natural vegetation cover consists of scattered trees, shrubs and grasses. These includes;

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Adansonia digitata (kuka), Annona Senegalensis (Gwandandaji), Magnifera indica (mango), Ficusthonningii (Baure), Parkia biglobosa (Doruwa), Azadiractha indica (Dogonyaro) and water lily among others. The population of Yamaltu Deba LGA, according to 2006 National population census, was 255,726 which consist of 133,246 males and 122,480 females (NPC 2007). The major economic activity in the LGA is farming which is the mainly subsistence. Most of the people engage in irrigation farming along the Gongola River valley. Farm produce include maize, sorghum, groundnut, millet, vegetables and beans. Other activities include livestock grazing, poultry and fishing. Material and Methods Both primary and secondary sources of data were employed in this study. Primary data were sourced through field measurement and reconnaissance survey, where measurement and observations of the types of vegetation, quality of vegetation, status of soil erosion through the roots, number of animals that graze in the study area were made. Water quality analyses were also carried out to determine the pH level, faecal contamination and other physio – chemical parameters. The water quality analysis was conducted in the Federal Ministry of water resources’ laboratory in Gombe town. The secondary data was sourced from relevant published and unpublished materials such as text books, journals and past projects and thesis. Sampling techniques includes: I. Livestock grazing sites were identified through field observation using the GPS. II. Soil degradation were identified and measured using measuring tapes and ranging poles, field book, abney level and GPS. III. Five samples of water were collected and analyzed in order to determine the amount of faecal contamination, E coli, coliform, odour, pH, electrical conductance, turbidity, chloride, iron, temperature, oxygen demand, chemical and biological, total and suspended solid, total dissolved solid, calcium and magnesium. Five samples of water at different points where livestock drink water were collected in 1 litre measuring container, labeled and then taken to the laboratory for analysis according to WHO standard. IV. Vegetation compositions were sampled via water points where livestock browse and drink water. Five areas along the river were sampled and available plants species frequency, dominance and height were determined. This was achieved through the following hypothesis: H0= There is a significant difference in the height and diameter of vegetation between the sampled areas.

An Assessment of the Impact of Livestock Grazing on Riparian Ecosystem along Gongola River, Dadin Kowa Yamaltu/Deba Local Government Area, Gombe State, Nigeria . Lazarus A. Mbaya and Oruonye, E. D.

H1= There is no significant difference in the height and diameter of vegetation between the sampled areas.

Source: Fieldwork, 2018 Fig. 2: Location of water sample collection Points

Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data collected. Descriptive statistics used include tabulations, pie chart, bar chart, and histogram. It was used to present data on the percentage of dominance and frequency of plant species observed in the study area. In terms of inferential statistics, the t-test was used to test the hypothesis on the differences in the height and diameter of vegetation between the sampled areas. Result of Findings Vegetation Composition of the Study Area Table 1, presents the distribution of plant species along the Gongola River at Dadin Kowa dam area. Nine (9) dominant species were identified during the study and they include; Acacia nilotica, Zizphus spina-christi, Azadirachta indica (Neem tree), Psidiumguajava (guava), Musa acuminata (banana), Carica papaya (Pawpaw) and other shrubs and herbs. The findings (Table 1) revealed that, shrubs are the dominant plant species and make up 23.17% composition of the riparian vegetation in the Dadin-kowa

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 dam area. Azadiractha indica constitute about 18.30% as a result of man’s activities (afforestation). Herbs constitutes 17.07%, magnifera indica constitute 13.41%, Carica papaya (Pawpaw) 7.31%, Acacia nilotica (Gum Arabic) and musa acuminata (banana) constitutes 6.17% respectively; shrubs have 3.46%, herbs have 17.28% and Zizphus spina-christi and Psidiumguajava (guava) constitutes 3.70% respectively.

Table 1: Composition of Riparian Vegetation in the Study Area S/no. Plant species Families Frequency Percentage 1 Acacia nilotica (Gum Arabic) Fabicere 5 6.17 2 Zizphus spina-chisti (magarya) Rhemnaceal 3 3.70 3 Azadirachta indica (Neem tree) Meliaceare 15 18.52 4 Magnifera indica (mango) Anacardiacear 11 13.58 5 Psidiumguajava (guava) Myrfacear 3 3.70 6 Musa acuminata (banana Musacear 5 6.17 7 Shrubs Fatsia, 19 23.46 8 Herbs 14 17.28 9 Pawpaw Carica papaya Caricacear 6 7.41 Total 81 100 Source: Fieldwork, 2018

Distribution of Livestock along Gongola River at Dadin Kowa Figure 3 present the analysis on the distribution of livestock along the Gongola River. Result indicated that about 1227 (57.38%) of the livestock that graze along the river channel are cows, followed by Sheep’s 317 (25.84%) and goats 206 (16.79%). This result is obvious given the complexity of areas by which majority of the rural dwellers are farmers and therefore take advantage of the River and Dadin kowa dam in order to graze their animals. The all year round flow of the channel is a contributing factors that attract animals along the channel because of the presence of pasture all years round. The month of April and May has the highest frequency of animal grazing along the Gongola tributary. This result is evident because of early rain expectancy that marked the end of dry season and beginning of rainy seasons.

An Assessment of the Impact of Livestock Grazing on Riparian Ecosystem along Gongola River, Dadin Kowa Yamaltu/Deba Local Government Area, Gombe State, Nigeria . Lazarus A. Mbaya and Oruonye, E. D.

Fig. 3: Mean monthly distribution of Livestock Grazing along Gongola River Riparian Vegetation condition Fig.4 shows that the maximum height of tree was 15.8metres, minimum height 3.2metre, given an average height of 7.84metres and a standard deviation value of 3.65metres. Also, diameter at breast height measurement of the vegetation revealed that maximum diameter is 1.97metres, minimum value of 0.4metres and mean of 1.08metres and a standard deviation value of 0.55metres. This is attributed to continuous grazing of livestock more especially during the long period of dry season. Through seasonal pruning, trampling and other forms of destruction might have contributed to current vegetation heights and diameter at breast height. Grazing pressure by unregulated livestock has contributed to the current vegetation degradation along the river. The remains of native vegetation are under continuous browsing and trampling by livestock and this affects the vegetation growth and reduce regeneration of plants. These plants are often in poor condition owing to microclimate exposure. Browsing by cattle is probably more damaging to trees and shrubs than that by sheep and goats possibly due to their number and feeding system. One of the most damaging results of the destruction of remnant vegetation and pasture in the riparian zone is severe microclimatic exposure of the stream and its banks. This

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 microclimate exposure combined with dense growth of light tolerant, often alien species (such as grasses) discourages regeneration of forest plants, resulting in further increases in number and dominance of alien species. This has the potential of impacting negatively on terrestrial wildlife habitat causing a subsequent decrease in wildlife species and numbers (Ames 1977 and Tubbs 1980) and decline of various species of birds (Townsend and Smith 1977).

Source: Fieldwork, 2018 Fig. 4: Diameter and Height of Vegetation along Gongola River

The result of the t-test analysis (Table 2) shows a t-value of 9.240 for vegetation height and 8.449 for vegetation diameter. This is more than the expected value of 2.093. The result shows that there is statistically significant difference in the height and diameter of vegetation between sampled points. The study therefore rejects the Null hypothesis that ‘‘there is no significant difference in the height and diameter of vegetation between the sampled points’’, and accept the alternative that ‘‘there is significant difference in the height and diameter of vegetation between the sampled points’’. This is justifiable given the result in Table 2 with range values of 1.57m and 12.58m for diameter and tree height respectively.

An Assessment of the Impact of Livestock Grazing on Riparian Ecosystem along Gongola River, Dadin Kowa Yamaltu/Deba Local Government Area, Gombe State, Nigeria . Lazarus A. Mbaya and Oruonye, E. D. Table 2. Result of student t-test analysis One-Sample Test Test Value = 0 95% Confidence Interval Sig. (2- Mean of the Difference T Df tailed) Difference Lower Upper Diameter 8.449 19 .000 1.03050 .7752 1.2858 Tree 9.240 19 .000 7.53950 5.8317 9.2473 height Source: SPSS Analysis v.23, 2018

H1= There is a significant difference in the height and diameter of vegetation between the sampled points.

H0= There is no significant difference in the height and diameter of vegetation between the sampled points. Water Quality Analyzed Livestock damage to riparian vegetation and soils, destabilizes the banks and leads to mobilization of fine sediment that in turn causes sedimentation in the channel and turbidity. In addition, more runoff of sediment occurs from soils disturbed and compacted by livestock trampling. The resulting increased sediment load and accompanying particulate nutrients may contribute to eutrophication and sedimentation. Fig. 5 and 6 shows results of water quality analysis. The results revealed that it poses some perceived odour. The occurrence of odour might probably be associated with the presence of inorganic or organic contaminants in the water. Related to taste, a strong odour from water for consumption will obviously cause rejection which causes offensive taste. The mean odour value as obtained from the water quality test result ranges from 21.62 to 16.70 and 32.30 mg/l respectively. The total suspended solid content depends on the amount of suspended particles, soil and silt directly associated with water turbidity. The total suspended solids (TSS) content of the sampled water ranges between 4.01, 6.03mg/L, 6.31mg/L, 7.80mg/L and 11.2mg/L respectively. The effect of the concentration of iron can be evident also from the colour of the water (plate 2). The result for iron test is observed to range between 0.00mg/l to 0.40mg/l. This might be as a result of deposition of nutrients directly to streams and riparian areas in form of dung and urine. Naturally water bodies’ shows changes in temperature daily and seasonally due to different activities that can contribute to change in the surface water temperature. The temperature of sampled water in the study area is steady with mean of 29oC. Livestock

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 damage to riparian vegetation leads to reduced shade and, consequently, increased solar heating of the stream water surface. Analysis of pH concentration along the Gongola river channel in the riparian vegetation reveals that there is a significantly high concentration of alkalinity ranges between pH 7.6 – 8.5 (Fig. 5). The degree of Alkalinity can be observed having an uneven distribution pattern though increased in the Gongola river channel. This result can be attributed to the grazing activities in the area.

Source: Fieldwork, 2018 Fig. 5: Distribution of pH values in Study Area.

An Assessment of the Impact of Livestock Grazing on Riparian Ecosystem along Gongola River, Dadin Kowa Yamaltu/Deba Local Government Area, Gombe State, Nigeria . Lazarus A. Mbaya and Oruonye, E. D. Turbidity means water hardness. The variation in water hardness is high and ranges between 200mg/L to 960mg/L. The significant difference in the occurrence of this parameter is high with mean value of 564 NTU. Chloride exists in all natural waters and its concentration varying widely and reaching a maximum in sea levels, chloride does not pose a health hazard to humans and the principal consideration is in relation to palatability. This parameter is found to be high in regions closer to the sea. The Chloride content of the water samples analyzed ranges between 31.90mg/L to 17.70 mg/L. The mean value for this parameter is 21.26 mg/L. Calcium and Magnesium are among the most common ingredients found in natural water and their salts are an important contributor to the hardness of water. For calcium, the mean concentration is 10.88mg/L and 0.29mg/L.

Source: Laboratory Analysis Fig. 6 Distribution of Water Quality Test

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019

Table 3: Physico – Chemical properties of water analyze

Odour TDS TURB Fe Cl CaH MgH COD BOD Name EC TEMP PH pt-t mg/l NTU mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L S1 19.30 96.00 48.00 29.60 640.00 7.60 0.40 17.70 12.00 0.00 50.10 8.90 S2 20.00 94.00 47.00 29.20 500.00 8.40 0.35 31.90 9.60 0.49 48.00 8.80 100.0 S3 16.70 50.00 29.20 200.00 8.50 0.00 21.30 9.60 0.97 90.00 16.45 0 S4 19.80 99.00 50.00 29.20 520.00 8.20 0.15 17.70 11.20 0.00 51.20 8.70 102.0 S5 32.30 51.00 29.20 960.00 8.40 0.25 17.70 12.00 0.00 75.00 13.60 0 mean 21.62 98.20 49.20 29.28 564.00 8.22 0.23 21.26 10.88 0.29 62.86 11.29 Std 6.12 3.19 1.64 0.18 274.37 0.36 0.16 6.15 1.21 0.43 18.73 3.56 Varian 75280. 37.40 10.20 2.70 0.03 0.13 0.03 37.81 1.47 0.19 350.89 12.65 ce 00 Key: Iron (Fe), Chlorine (Cl), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Turbidity (TURB), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Dissolved Solid(TDS) Source: Federal Ministry of water resources, Gombe Office

Plate 3a: Brownish Colour of surface water in the study Area Plate 3b Soil degradation by livestock Soil Degradation Livestock damage the underlying riparian soils by trampling hence compaction and break-down of soil aggregates that has resulted to reduced infiltration and increased contaminant runoff. In addition, soil erosion is wide spread and rapid as a result of

An Assessment of the Impact of Livestock Grazing on Riparian Ecosystem along Gongola River, Dadin Kowa Yamaltu/Deba Local Government Area, Gombe State, Nigeria . Lazarus A. Mbaya and Oruonye, E. D. livestock pressure in the riparian zones more especially along their routes and hence becoming a source of sediment and other pollutants. Degradation of riparian soils and bank slumping through livestock grazing increased siltation of the sediment bed of the river by fine sediment (clay, silt, sand). This results in increased suspended sediment in the substrate and increased concentration of coarse grains, sediment yield and turbidity of the waters. Stream life The degree of catchment development to pastoral land use, water temperature and level of nutrient enrichment were identified as the most important factors affecting invertebrate community. Direct impacts on biota of livestock entering streams are difficult to separate from those of general pastoral land use such as deforestation and nutrient inputs from overland flow. For instance, increased light levels from tree removal can facilitate the growth of algae, but nutrients found in animal wastes also stimulate algal and aquatic plant growth, and these may be deposited directly by animals or washed in from overland flow of grazed zones. The main potential impacts of livestock trampling of stream banks or browsing of streamside vegetation includes benthic invertebrate biodiversity and fishes among others. Conclusion This study has examined the impact of livestock grazing on riparian ecosystem in Dadin Kowa dam area along the Gongola river. From the findings of the study, it can be deduced that livestock grazing has significantly affected the growth of vegetation, increased land degradation and contaminated the surface water in the study area, thereby negatively affecting the stream organisms and possibly human lives that use the water.

Recommendation Based on findings of this study the following suggestions are made; i. Ranching method of cattle rearing should be encouraged by the Federal Government of Nigerian especially in settlements living along river channels so as to reduce the level of water population as well as preserve the soil and water quality of the environment. ii. Modern varieties of tree/vegetation species suitable for alkaline soils should be introduced and planted along river channel by the state ministry of agriculture and water resources so that to encourage afforestation/climate change control. iii. Community leaders, state ministry of agriculture and water resources should mobilize and sensitize its people on the importance of preserving the natural vegetation

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 especially those living along river channels for it minimizes the threat of flood as well as absorb carbon dioxides and releases good oxygen.

An Assessment of the Impact of Livestock Grazing on Riparian Ecosystem along Gongola River, Dadin Kowa Yamaltu/Deba Local Government Area, Gombe State, Nigeria . Lazarus A. Mbaya and Oruonye, E. D. References Ames, C. R. (1977). Wildlife conflicts in riparian management: Grazing. In: Importance, Preservation and Management of Riparian Habitat. USDA For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-43:39-5l.

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Campbell, A. G. and Franklin, J. F. (1979). Riparian vegetation in Oregon's western Cascade Mountains: composition, biomass, and autumn phenoloav. Coni- ferous Forest Biome, Ecosystem Analysis Studies, U.S. I.B.P. Prog. Bull. N. 14. 89 p.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Mubi, A.M. (2008). Species Distributions within Riparian Landscape along Mayo Kam of Gashaka Taraba State, Nigeria. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management Vol. 5 No.1 2012

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Theresa, W. and Saied, M. (2006). Effects of Vegetation and Soil types on Stream Bank Erosion, South western Virginia, USA, Journal of the American water resources Association.

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The Influence of Drainage Basin Morphometry and Runoff Rate on Vulnerability to Gully Erosion in Wadata Catchment Area, Makurdi Local Government, Benue State. Godwin Akaayar Songu The Influence of Drainage Basin Morphometry and Runoff Rate on Vulnerability to Gully Erosion in Wadata Catchment Area, Makurdi Local Government, Benue State

1 2 Godwin Akaayar Songu , Salemkaan Aloysius Iorkua , Ph.D, Emmanuel Efobe Ndoma and Samaila Buba1 1Department of Geography, Federal University of Kashere, Gombe State. 2Department of Geography, Benue State University, Makurdi. Correspondence Email: [email protected]

Abstract Gully erosion is one of the world’s biggest environmental problems which results in the destruction of buildings, roads, farmlands, human death among others. This paper, therefore, assesses the influence of Demekpe Drainage Basin morphometry and runoff rate on vulnerability to gully erosion in Wadata catchment area, Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State, Nigeria with a view to aiding the design of soil erosion control structures. The square method was used to delineate topographic maps of the study area at intervals of 5cm for extraction of drainage basin parameters. Parameters measured include stream density, stream frequency, stream intensity, stream length, stream area, stream order, bifurcation ratio and length of over land flow. Also Erdas Imagine, ArcGIS, and Surfer 9.0 Softwares were used to generate a Digital Elevation Model of Wadata catchment area to depict spatial vulnerability to gully erosion and determine size of the catchment area for estimation of peak rate of runoff in the study area using the rational method. The Digital Elevation Model shows that Old Government Reservation Area and Benue Crescent Area in Makurdi have moderate drainage intensity (≥ 0.5) and are relatively more vulnerable to gully erosion as compared to other areas like New Garage Area and Wadata Area with lower drainage intensities of ≤ 0.2 and ≤ 0.3 respectively. The results also show that Demekpe Drainage Basin has moderate drainage density (0.78km-1), drainage intensity (0.63) and overland flow of (1.68km) with tendency of influencing the extent to which the earth surface is being lowered by agents of denudation in the area, predicting the likelihood of gully incision by runoff. Wadata catchment area has a high peak rate of runoff (83.05 m3/sec), which is capable of influencing gully development in the area. The paper, therefore, recommends that a storm drain with size of 60m embankment and reservoir capacity of 4,000 m3 should be designed and constructed to help contain excess runoff in Wadata catchment area for atleast ten years; and contour trenches can also be dug and rubble used to reduce channelised flow and sediment entrainment along slopes for controlled gully development in the area.

Keywords: Basin morphometry, gully erosion, runoff rate, vulnerability, Wadata catchment area.

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Introduction Drainage basin is the entire area providing run-off to, and sustaining part or all of the stream flow of the main stream and its tributaries (Gregory and Walling, 1973). The drainage basin morphometry in terms of density, intensity, frequency, bifurcation ratio among others, have influence on how a catchment area yields to the process of gullying (Udosen, 2008). According to Soufi (2015) morphometry is the measurement and quantitative analysis of the configuration of the earth's surface, shape and dimension of its landforms. Hence, there is a relationship between drainage basin morphometric parameters and gully erosion potentials. This is based on the fact that drainage basin parameters influence the amount of discharge in a catchment area as well as, the amount of runoff that can be channelised, capable of initiating gully erosion. For instance, it has been discovered that the higher the drainage density, the faster the runoff and the more significant the degree of channel abrasion is likely to be, for a given quantity of rainfall (Soufi, 2015). Also, drainage density provides a link between the form attributes (morphometry) of the basin and its erosional process (Udosen, 2008). Surface runoff is one of the most critical factors influencing the rate of gully development in the humid tropical environments where rainfall intensities and frequencies are often high. It is on this basis that Poesena, Nachtergaelea, Verstraetena and Valentinb, (2013) considered gully erosion as a process whereby runoff water accumulates and often reoccurs in narrow channels, and over short periods, removes the soil from this narrow area to considerable depths. Gully erosion is a destroyer of farmlands, buildings, roads and soil depletion, which culminates in environmental degradation as also observed in the study area. Because of the effects of gully erosion on the environment, literature on gully erosion globally, is replete with studies on the causes, effects, morphology, growth mechanisms and rates of gully erosion (Udosen, 1991; Iorkua,1999 and 2006; Adediji, Ibitoye and Ekanade, 2009; Songu, Oyatayo and Iorkua, 2015). Different geographical environments produce different assemblage of geomorphologic processes and mechanisms of soil erosion, especially accelerated erosion in form of gullies. Thus, studies relating to impact of drainage basin and runoff rate on soil erosion initiation and sustenance have been reported in different parts of the world. See for instance Udosen (2000) in Akwa Ibom State, Mc Mahom and Cuffney (2016) in United States of America, Eze and Effiong (2010) in Calabar, Essien and Okon (2011) in Uyo, Kavvas and Govindargu (2017) in India, Pareta and Pareta (2017) in India. However, literature review indicates deficiency with regards to the influence of drainage basin parameters and runoff rate, on vulnerability to gully erosion in an urban settings of Benue State. This specifically involves the quantification of peak rate of runoff or maximum discharge, overland flow and the intensity of drainage dissection employing Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) within the framework of Geographic Information System (GIS). This study therefore, examined the influence of drainage basin morphometry and runoff rate on vulnerability to gully erosion in Wadata catchment area,

The Influence of Drainage Basin Morphometry and Runoff Rate on Vulnerability to Gully Erosion in Wadata Catchment Area, Makurdi Local Government, Benue State. Godwin Akaayar Songu within the Demekpe Drainage Basin as input measures; capable of initiating and sustaining gully erosion in the area. The Study Area The study was conducted in the Demekpe Drainage Basin, in Wadata catchment Area, South bank of Makurdi LGA, Benue State, Nigeria. The study area is located between longitude 8o 36’ 0’’ E and 8o 36’ 12’’ E, as well as between latitude 7o 47’ 02’’N and7o 47’ 15’’ N (Ministry of Lands and Survey Makurdi, 2017). The study area experiences wet and dry climate, classified as “Aw” by Koppen’s climatic classification scheme (Tyubee, 2005). This type of climate is also called the tropical humid savanna climate. The wet season which last for seven months, usually starts in April and ends in October. Conversely, the dry season starts from November and ends in March. The climate is usually associated with torrential rainfall and high temperature. The annual total rainfall ranges from 900mm to 1800mm, with an average annual intensity of 44.85mm/hr (NIMET, 2017). In terms of geomorphologic processes, the most important feature of the climate is the long duration and intensity of rainfall. Soil type in the area is predominantly sandy loam with high percentage of sand particles. Temperatures are high throughout the year, averaging 27oC to 31oC; though, it may occasionally rise to 37oC in some days in March and April (Tyubee, 2005). It is important to note that, high temperatures harden the exposed soil and enhance surface run-off. In terms of relief and drainage, the study area has an undulating terrain with slope angle hardly exceeding 10o. The general topography in the study area varies between 65m – 125m within the Wadata catchment area (Songu, Oyatayo and Iorkua, 2015). The River Benue is the major drainage system. The Demekpe Drainage Basin is a 3rd order drainage basin, with a total of eight 1st order streams, five 2nd order streams and one 3rd order stream. The Demekpe Drainage Basin has an average bifurcation ratio of 3.3. The moderate bifurcation ratio could be attributed to the sedimentary rock which underlies the basin and moderate rainfall intensities in the study area. Materials and Methods Data for this paper were sourced from GIS, field observation and map-based analysis. The morphometric properties of the Demekpe Drainage Basin namely: stream length, drainage density, drainage intensity, drainage frequency, stream order, bifurcation ratio and length of overland flow were measured from topographic maps of the study area (Makurdi 251 NE, 251 SE and 251 SW). The Demekpe Drainage Basin morphometry were determined as follows:

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019

o o 7 52 N 7 52 N o o 8 34 E GUMA LGA 8 38 E

To Lafia N

GWER WEST M balagh LGA A gan To Uni. Agric

N orth B ank 1 Nor th B ank 2 R iv e r

B e n u e 10 11 9 Waim ay o M ode rn M ar ket

To Naka

F iidi

River B ar

Road

Ward Boundary Note No. for Name LGA Boundary 9 Central South Mission 10 Ankpa/Wadata Study Area(Ankpa Wadata) GWER EAST LGA Kilometer 11 Clerk/Market

o o 7 38 N 0 3 6 9 7 38 N o o 8 34 E 8 38 E Fig. 1: Map of Makurdi Local Government Area showing study area Source: Ministry of Lands and Survey, Makurdi, 2017.

(i) Stream length. The length of streams was determined by dividing the topographic map of the study area into grid cells of 5cm interval. Thread was then used to measure the distance of each stream from headwaters to the mouth of the water way on the map to be converted to ground distance. The dimensions of the streams were then converted to ground distance in kilometer using the map scale. The formula used was: ………(1). Hence, stream lengths were expressed in kilometers (Gregory and Walling, 1973). (ii) Stream Area. The individual stream area was determined using the square method. The entire basin area was divided into series of squares, and individual stream area was computed and expressed in km2 using the map scale (Gregory and Walling, 1973). (iii) Stream frequency which is the number of stream segment per unit area was

determined using the formula: ……………… (2).

where Ds, is the stream frequency. Ns, is the number of stream segments per km2 in the basin. Ab, is the area of each stream segment (Gregory and Walling, 1973).

determined using the formula: ………………… (3).

where Dd is the drainage density. L, is length of stream and Ab is the basin area of each stream (Gregory and Walling, 1973). (v) Drainage intensity. It was determined as a product of drainage density and stream frequency in the studied basin (Gregory and Walling, 1973). (vi) Length of overland flow or runoff. The length of overland flow in the gully Catchment was determined as the reciprocal of drainage density using the formula:

…………….. (4).

where Lo, is the length of overland flow. Dd is the drainage density (Gregory and Walling, 1973). (vii) Generation of DEM. To generate a DEM of the study area to depict spatial vulnerability to soil erosion, the entire area of order 1 and 2 streams in the Demekpe Drainage Basin contributing to stream discharge in the Wadata catchment area were delineated on the topographic maps of the study area, and coordinates of the area were derived from the maps for GIS analysis. The Digital Elevation Model of the sub- catchment area was extracted from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) obtained from LANDSAT (MSS) with 25m resolution. The method of extracting the information was achieved using Erdas Imagine, ArcGIS, and Surfer 9.0 Software. The SRTM was imported into the Erdas Imagine; the study area was extracted using the sub setting tool. The contour was then created using the surfacing tool and saved in Tile File Format (TIFF). ArcGIS (Arcscene) and Surfer 9.0 Software were then used to obtain 3D display of the study area. The size of Wadata catchment area was measured from the DEM in ArcGIS (ArcMap) using the measuring tool (Pareta and Pareta, 2017; Ghaffari, 2013). The Area was calculated to be 76 hectares or 190 acres for determination of the maximum or peak rate of runoff in the study area using rational method.

(viii) Peak Rate of Runoff: The peak rate of runoff or discharge in the study area was determined using the rational method. The rational method is used to estimate the peak surface runoff rate for design of a variety of drainage structures, such as a length of storm sewer, a storm water inlet, or a storm water detention pond. It is most effective in urban areas with area of not more than 200 acres (Gregory and Walling, 1973). The

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 method is used to determine size of storm drains, detention basin and other drainage structures or to determine the size of the detention basin required for erosion and flood control. The peak rate of runoff was determined in the study area using the formula: ……………….. (5) where, Q is the peak rate of runoff in m3/sec. C, is an empirical coefficient representing a relationship between rainfall and run-off. i, is the average intensity of rainfall for the time of concentration(Tc) for a selected design storm. A, is the drainage area Z, is the metric conversion factor.

The rainfall intensity (i) in the study area was determined using the formula: ………………(6) where:

Pd = Depth of rainfall (mm) tc = drainage area time of concentration (hr.)

Moreso, tables were used to code the data and descriptive statistics (i.e. percentage, mean, standard deviation (S.D) and coefficient of variation were used to ascertain variation in the data set. Percentage was computed using the formula: ……………… (6). In the formula, n, is the value of each individual score and ∑N is the sum of the all the scores multiplied by 100. Mean was determined using the formula ………….. (7) where ∑N, is the sum of all the observation and n, is the number of observation. Standard deviation was determined using the formula:

S = ∑(x –M)2 n …………….. (8) where x, is individual observation, M, is the mean and n, is the number of observation. Coefficient of variation was determined by dividing mean by standard deviation and multiplying by 100 as thus: CV = M SD X 100 ……………………… (9)

Results and Discussion Demekpe Drainage Basin Morphometry and Vulnerability to Gully Erosion in Wadata Catchment Area.

The Demekpe Basin is a 3rd order basin that contributes significantly to water discharge in the study area. Catchment analysis was conducted to ascertain the extent to which the Demekpe drainage basin parameters have influenced spatial vulnerability to gully erosion in the area. The study shows some morphometric parameters of the Demekpe Drainage Basin as presented in Table 1. Table 1: Morphometric properties of the Demekpe Drainage Basin. Stream Stream Stream basin Stream Drainage Drainage Length of Order length (km) area(km2) frequency density (km- Intensity overland 1) flow(km). 1 5.73 9.50 0.31 0.60 0.17 1.67 1 6.22 15.10 0.87 0.41 0.36 2.44 2 6.31 16.2 0.40 0.39 0.16 2.56 2 9.55 5.90 1.13 1.61 1.81 0.62 2 7.74 8.30 0.72 0.89 0.64 1.12

Total 35.55 55.00 3.43 3.90 3.14 8.41 Mean 7.11 11.00 0.69 0.78 0.63 1.68 S.D 1.39 3.98 0.29 0.45 0.61 0.75 Source: Analysis in Topo Map, 2017

The mean length of streams in Wadata catchment area was 7.11 km, with a standard deviation (SD) of 1.39 and a coefficient of variation (CV) of 19.55%. The total area of Demekpe basin within Wadata catchment was 55km2, and a mean basin area of 11.0 km2 with SD of 3.98 and CV of 36.18%. The mean stream frequency was 0.69, with SD of 0.29 and a CV of 42.03%. The mean Drainage Density in the study area was 0.78 km-1, with a SD of 0.45 and CV of 57.69%. The average drainage intensity in the study area was 0.63, with a SD of 0.61 and CV of 96.83% (Table 1). The drainage intensity was moderately low, implying that the drainage density and frequency have effect on the extent to which the surface has been lowered by agents of denudation like surface runoff, which is capable of initiating gully erosion especially along steep slopes and impervious areas. This is because running water may not be quickly removed from the surface. The spatial pattern of erosion vulnerability in the study area as revealed in Figure 3 was largely influenced by the drainage density, drainage intensity, soil type and topography of the areas. Earlier studies by Udosen (2008) revealed a coarse drainage intensity of 0.52 in the Ikpa river basin, which was found to have influenced the pattern

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 of erosion in the area. Compare also the studies of Udosen and Essiet (2012) in South Eastern Nigeria; Onu et al, (2012) in Okigwe-Umuahia erosion belt and Mac Mahon and Cuffney (2016) in United States of America who discovered that the drainage density of 0.6km-1 was moderately high and influenced gully development in the study areas. The findings of this study confirmed those of Eze and Efiong (2010) in Calabar, Pareta and Pareta (2017) in MegaYamuna basin in India, who discovered that low drainage intensities influences soil erosion. The moderately coarse drainage intensity in the study area could be attributed to the permeable nature of the unconsolidated sandy soils and sandstone that forms the geology of the area, gently sloping relief with terrain heights averaging 65 meters in the study area. Like other coarse catchment areas, the Demekpe Drainage Basin which is moderately coarse with its permeable landscape is as well, prone to gully erosion especially along steep slopes and impervious areas due to poor drainage systems capable of initiating and sustaining gully development in the area (Mallo, 2015). This situation is exemplified in the study area where gullies have been incised especially along community secondary school road, Makurdi and this poses severe traffic hazard to nearby roads and dwellings. The mean length of overland flow in the Demekpe Drainage Basin was 1.68km, with an SD of 0.75 and CV of 44.64%. The mean length of overland flow (1.68km) in a permeable landscape, with drainage density of 0.78km-1 and moderately dissected catchment like the Demekpe Basin implies that surface runoff along stream channel will be moderately high and relatively faster on steep slopes and impervious areas downstream. It is apparent to note that, the mean length of over land flow influences both the shape of the drainage basin as well as time of the concentration of runoff on valley side slopes. The moderately high rate of overland flow observed in the study area was considered a major determinant factor influencing channelised flow and gully development in the area. Previous studies have also confirmed the influence of mean length of overland flow on basin form, channelised flow and time of concentration downstream (Udosen 2000; Mallo, 2009; Udosen and Essiet, 2012; Kavvas and Govindargu, 2017). Figures 2a and 2b provide further field evidence of a gully channel that has been incised along community secondary school road Makurdi, in the Wadata catchment area.

The Influence of Drainage Basin Morphometry and Runoff Rate on Vulnerability to Gully Erosion in Wadata Catchment Area, Makurdi Local Government, Benue State. Godwin Akaayar Songu

Fig. 2a: Culvert being destroyed by a gully Fig. 2b: Lateral expansion of the in Wadata area. gully due to mass wasting Source: Authors’ field work, 2017

Fig. 3: Digital elevation model of Wadata catchment area showing variation in drainage intensity and vulnerability to Soil erosion. Source: Authors’ field work, 2017

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Figure 3 is a DEM of the Wadata catchment area in the Demekpe Drainage Basin showing drainage intensity vis-à-vis erosion prone areas. The DEM displayed the physiographic attributes of the catchment area in terms of its gently steep gradient which hardly exceed 100 and topography of the area ranging from 65m to 125m above sea level. This section of the Demekpe Drainage Basin, a 3rd order basin drains in the south west part of Makurdi contributing to stream discharge in the watershed. The DEM revealed that Wadata catchment area is characterized with areas of moderate drainage intensity (≥ 0.5) and low drainage intensities (≤ 0.2, ≤ 0.3). The areas with moderate drainage intensity shaded orange colour covers part of Old Government Reservation area (GRA) and Benue crescent area in Makurdi and are fairly vulnerable to soil erosion (Fig. 3). The areas with low drainage intensities shaded purple and blue covers part of Ankpa ward area, New Garage area and Wadata area where a gully system has been incised. The areas with low drainage intensities are less prone to soil erosion, but highly prone to flooding; which can as well initiate the process of gullying, especially in times of intense rain storms in the study area due to runoff on steep slopes and impervious areas. This is because surface runoff may not be quickly removed from the watershed making it susceptible to flooding and erosion. The varying levels of vulnerability to soil erosion in Wadata catchment area could be attributed to the gently steep slope gradient in Old GRA and part of New Garage area which influenced high rate of runoff in those areas. The soil type which is predominantly sandy loam, the topography of the area and abandoned excavated gutters resulting from engineering works. Gully channels are mostly incised at the stream source points or areas that have steep slopes and high elevation enhancing downstream overland flow concentrated in channels, with the low lying areas highly prone to flooding. The gently steep slope in Old GRA and part of New Garage area is capable of initiating gully development especially on hill side slopes and abandoned excavated gutters by road sides. These factors have impacted on the initiation and development of the observed gully system in Wadata Area in the Demekpe Drainage Basin. The use of DEMs within the framework of Geographic Information Systems can assist planning authorities and environmentalists to identify the most vulnerable erosion- prone areas of a catchment as exemplified in the study area and select appropriate management practices. Also, hydrological modeling in river basin management commonly requires investigation of landscape and hydrological features such as terrain slope, drainage networks, basin area and catchments boundaries to model precisely the direction and magnitude of runoff (Ghaffari, 2013). The size of Wadata catchment area was measured from the DEM of the study area for determination of peak rate of runoff, which is seemingly the leading factor in gully incision and development in the study area.

The Influence of Drainage Basin Morphometry and Runoff Rate on Vulnerability to Gully Erosion in Wadata Catchment Area, Makurdi Local Government, Benue State. Godwin Akaayar Songu Runoff and Soil Erosion Estimation in the Wadata Catchment Area. The rational method was used to determine the peak rate of runoff in Wadata catchment area within the Demekpe Drainage Basin and it was determined using the formula: Q = The runoff coefficient (C) for the combination of land use and soil/surface types in the study area was determined as the ratio of the rate of runoff to the rate of rainfall at an average intensity using the runoff coefficient table and values are shown in Table 2. Table 2: Runoff coefficients of urban watershed in the study area.

Type of Drainage Area Runoff Coefficient ( C )

Residential area 0.33 Streets 0.42 Concrete pavements 0.97 Parks 0.10 Sandy loam soil 0.22 Roofs 0.75 Grass land 0.71 Total 3.5 Mean 0.5 S.D 0.3 C.V (%) 60 Source: Authors’ field work, 2017. The total runoff coefficient in the area was computed as thus: C = Cr + Cs + Cc + Cp + Csa + Crf + Cg……………. (1.1) where: C = total runoff coefficient in the watershed Cr = component of coefficient accounting for residential area Cs = component of coefficient accounting for streets Cc = component of coefficient accounting for concrete pavements Cp = component of coefficient accounting for parks Csa = component of coefficient accounting for sandy loam soil Crf = component of coefficient accounting for roofs Cg = component of coefficient accounting for grassland Therefore, the total runoff coefficient in the watershed = 3.5, with a SD of 0.3 and CV of 60%.

The rainfall intensity (i) in the study area was determined using the formula: i = Pd/tc where: Pd = Depth of rainfall (mm); tc = drainage area time of concentration (hr.)

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Table 3 shows computed annual rainfall intensity for selected storms with time concentration of not less than ten minutes for a period of ten years in the study area. Table 3: Annual rainfall intensity in the study area from 2007-2016.

Year Rainfall Amount(mm) Rainfall Duration (hr) Rainfall Intensity (mm/hr). 2007 1335.9 39.69 33.66 2008 1556.9 35.42 43.95 2009 1618.0 29.01 55.77 2010 1173.7 30.95 37.92 2011 1532.5 31.09 49.29 2012 1584.0 33.90 46.72 2013 1470.5 44.94 32.72 2014 1343.0 26.36 50.94 2015 1375.6 30.11 45.69 2016 1594.8 30.12 52.95 Mean 1458.49 33.16 44.96 S.D 138.3 55.27 7.53 C.V (%) 9.49 15.89 16.75

Source: NIMET, 2017

The mean rainfall amount in the study area was 1458.49mm, with an SD of 138.49 and CV of 9.49%. Mean rainfall duration was 33.16hr, with an SD of 5.27 and CV of 15.89%. The mean rainfall intensity was 44.96mm/hr, with an SD of 7.53 and CV of 16.75%. Hence, the mean rainfall intensity (i) in the study area used in the rational method for determination of peak rate of runoff = 44.96mm/hr. The area (A) of Wadata catchment determined from the Digital Elevation Model of the study area (Fig. 3) using ArcGIS is 190 acres (76 hectares). Hence, the maximum or peak rate of runoff in the study area was determined using the formula: Q = CiA/Z C = 3.5 i = 44.96 mm/hr, A = 190 acres Z = 360 (metric conversion factor)

Q = (3.5)(44.96)(190) / 360 Q = 83.05 m3/sec The peak rate of runoff in the study area as determined from selected storms of not less than 10 minutes for a period of ten years was 83.05m3/sec; implying an average annual peak rate of 8.305m3/sec. This meant that averagely an annual peak rate of 8.305 m3/sec

The Influence of Drainage Basin Morphometry and Runoff Rate on Vulnerability to Gully Erosion in Wadata Catchment Area, Makurdi Local Government, Benue State. Godwin Akaayar Songu is envisaged from storms that last for 10 minutes and above. With the determined peak rate of runoff in the study area, erosion control structures like storm drains or detention basin can be designed to help control excess overland flow in the study area. Pertinently, runoff is the leading factor in the incision and development of gullies and flood disasters. The implication is that a designed storm drain in the area is expected to control erosion and flooding at least for a period of ten years before a new design can be sought. To control soil erosion and flooding using the estimated runoff rate in the study area, a storm drain or detention basin can be designed with size of 60m embankment and reservoir capacity of 4,000m3, which could be effective for at least ten years. The fairly high peak rate of runoff (83.05m3/sec) in the study area has a significant impact on hydrological characteristics of the watershed especially in terms of erosion and flooding, if not properly contained.

Conclusion The influence of Demekpe basin morphometry and runoff rate on vulnerability to gully erosion in Wadata catchment area was examined in this study. It was observed that high rate of runoff (83.05m3/sec) in the study area has significant impact on the initiation and development of gullies especially along hillside slopes. It was also inferred that due to the moderate drainage density (0.78km-1) and drainage intensity (0.63) in the gully catchment, which influenced a considerable amount of overland flow (1.68km), gully channels are likely incised and developed in the study area; if control measures are not adopted. The study, therefore, concludes that landform development especially the incision and growth of gullies in the study area are largely influenced by the high rate of runoff, moderately coarse drainage density and intensity in the study area.

Recommendations The following recommendations based on findings of the study, are hereby made: (i) Soil erosion development in Wadata catchment area could be controlled by designing a storm drain with size of 60m embankment and reservoir capacity of 4,000 m3 which will be used to contain excess runoff in the study area. (ii) Contour trenches can be dug and rubble used to reduce channelised flow and sediment entrainment along slopes in Wadata catchment area for controlled gully development in the area. (iii)There should be well connected drainage network in form of gutters in the study area to help channel overland flow downstream and reduce its effect on erosion initiation and sustenance, especially in concentrated channels. (iv) There should be a refocus on watershed management in the area, especially a reduced interest in concreted surfaces that rather influences runoff, but more of green areas which enhance infiltration.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Udosen, C.E. and Essiet, A. A. (2012). Digital Elevation Models as a Tool for Monitoring and Evaluating Gully Development in a Humid Tropical Environment. Online Journal of Earth Sciences, 6(2):6-14.

Analysis of Gully Erosion in Tumfure, Gombe Urban, Gombe State, Nigeria. John Abdullahi Analysis of Gully Erosion in Tumfure, Gombe Urban, Gombe State, Nigeria

John Abdullahi and Nggada, S.T. Department of Geography, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Maiduguri, PMB 1069, Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria. Email: [email protected], Phone No: 08036821438, 08026497508 Email: [email protected], Phone No: 07033788880

Abstract This paper analyzed gully erosion in Tumfure, Gombe Urban, Gombe State Nigeria. The specific objectives are: to identify and map out the areas affected, analyze the nature of the terrain, factors that influences the gully, its morphology, and the effects of the gully erosion in the study area. Data used in this paper were generated through field observation and measurements and satellite imageries. The data were analyzed through the use of ArcGIS10.2 software. The findings from the interpretation of satellite imageries of (2005) and (2016) as well as the results from field measurements showed that gully variables such as (length, depth and widths) have significantly changed in the last 12 years. The satellite image of 2005 revealed that urban growth in terms of settlement, market and administrative/offices was 0.14km2 of the total land area. The 2016 image analyzed, revealed change in the urban expansion from 0.14km2 to 4.26km2 in 2016. This implied an increase of 4.13km2 over 12 years. These infrastructures which were developed over the years are linked by footpaths along which runoff took advantage to in development of gullies. The finding further revealed that all the concrete surfaces and iron roofs increase runoff and consequent gully development. Falling of trees, cracks and falling of buildings into gullies are common features in the gully prone areas and several people are at the risk of losing their houses and livelihood to gully erosion if no holistic control measures are taken. The study therefore, recommended among others, that proper enlightenment campaign and educating the populace on the real causes of gully erosion, effective methods of controlling as well as preventing gully erosion be put in place by the government. Similarly, reforestation of catchment areas and eroded lands can be effective at reclaiming and controlling gully corridors in the affected areas.

Keywords: Gully erosion, GIS Software, Gombe urban, Tumfure, Nigeria

Introduction Gully erosion is a dynamic geomorphic process operating on the landscape. It is defined as the process leading to the general degradation of the ground surfaces (Knapp, 1979; Morgan, 1980 and Blum, 1985). Similarly, Faniran and Areola (1980) defined soil erosion as a situation in which soil is removed at a rate faster than that at which new soil

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 is formed. Jimoh (1999) defined soil erosion as the removal of soil materials and/or soil nutrients by surface run-off from different points of origin to other locations. The earth’s landforms are closely inter-related and some of the observation which has been made with the passing of time shows that these landforms are acted upon by the processes of erosion causing the landforms to undergo a progressive change from initial forms sequentially to ultimate forms (Sparks 1995). This geomorphic process may degenerate into sheet, rill or gully types of erosion (Cooke and Doornkamp, 1974 and Jimoh, 1999). Sheet erosion is essentially a process that involves the uniform removal of soil surfaces, which is when the soil surface is undergoing a uniform degradation. Rills are parallel grooves of little depth Scovering the land surface which can easily be filled through normal cultivation. Formation of rills is one of the consequences of flow water. Sheet and rill erosion are the fore runners of gully erosion, representing the incipient stage of the development of gully erosion. Gully erosion is any erosional channel that is so deep that it cannot be crossed by a wheeled vehicle or eliminated by ploughing, unlike rills which can easily be filled through normal cultivation. In spite of technological advancement, erosion menace still remains a major problem in Nigeria. The annual heavy rainfall has very adverse impacts, altering existing landscape and forms. Such landforms create deep gullies that cut into the soil. The gullies spread and grow until the soil is removed from the sloping ground. Gullies when formed, expand rapidly, coupled with exceptional storm or torrential rainfall downstream by head ward erosion, gulping up arable lands, economic trees, infrastructures, lives, sacking of families, (Umudu, 2008) and valuable properties that are worth millions of naira. An endemic problem in Gombe town is gully erosion, some measuring up to 15meters in depth (Mbaya, 2012). Vast tracts of arable land, buildings and roads have been destroyed by the gully erosion. The town is fast becoming hazardous for human habitation. Hundreds of people are directly affected every year and have to be re-located. Large areas of lands are becoming unsuitable for human settlements (Mbaya, 2012). The infrastructural development coupled with population increase, have heightened the problems of gully erosion in the State capital particularly in the study area (Tumfure) where there is a rapid physical growth of infrastructural facilities over the recent years. People have observed, some small rills, which were crossed with one-footstep, that have now developed into big gullies and those that have their houses at reasonable distances from such rills some years back are now helplessly observing their houses collapsing or with exposed foundations. This is also applicable to roads and other structures. When most available land in an urban area is built-up, increase pressure on land might lead to extension of urban land use to the stream channels, flood plains and restriction of streams to artificial channels. This is the situation being experienced in Tumfure.

Analysis of Gully Erosion in Tumfure, Gombe Urban, Gombe State, Nigeria. John Abdullahi However, despite the several studies reported in literatures such as study of gully phenomenon in Gombe town (Orazulike 1987), gully erosion master plan for Gombe town, interdependent mechanism between several factors that contribute to gully erosion, (Mbaya 2012) and rise in value of urban land due to population increase (Danladi and Ray 2014), there is still the need for more study on gully erosion in the study area, since there is no study carried out specifically in Tumfure and gully erosion is dynamic; every year new sites develop or existing ones increase. Mbaya (2012) carried out similar study; but then Tumfure was yet to be developed, as such it was not captured in his study. Therefore, considering the rapid physical development in the area, particularly with the emergence of the two recently built housing estates; Labour quarters and Investment quarters, there is the need for appraisal of the gully erosion problem in Tumfure, Gombe urban, Gombe State, Nigeria. Aim and Objectives The aim of this paper is to assess gully erosion in Tumfure in order to suggest adequate mitigation measures especially in the context of achieving sustainable development. Specifically, the paper has the following objectives: to identify and map out the gully erosion sites; analyze the nature of the terrain in the study area; measure the physical dimension of the gullies; and assess the effects of gully erosion in the study area. Literature Review Challenges of Gully Erosion Gully erosion is a world-wide phenomenon. It is an enormous type of environmental degradation which leads to loss of valuable land used for agricultural, domestic, industrial and aesthetic purposes, as well as loss of property and even human lives (Obiadi, Nwosu, Ajaegwu, Anakwuba, Onuigbo, Akpunonu and Ezim, 2011). Over the last decade, there has been a growing interest in studying gully erosion and a lot of progress has been made with respect to understanding the soil degradation process and its controlling factors (Umudu, 2008). However, there are still several aspects of gully erosion that need to be studied more extensively. A few of these aspects are gully initiation, development and infilling, how hydrological and other soil degradation processes interact with gully erosion and measures for preventing and controlling gully erosion (Poesen, 2011). In the early stages of settlement development of an area, the land is cleared of vegetation cover to make room for human occupancy. This leads to reduced infiltration capacity of the land (Sagua, 1988). As human settlement development progresses and construction work goes on, the landscape becomes more compacted, reduces infiltration capacity of the land, thereby increasing surface runoff. In the advanced stage of urban growth, much of the land is covered by man-made structures such as commercial, industrial, houses, pavement of street network, and building of gutters. When most of the available land in urban area is built-up, increased pressure on land might lead to extension of urban

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 landuse to stream channels, flood plains and restriction of streams to artificial channels (Okoye, 1998). Another factor in the development of gully is overgrazing. It removes much of the soil's protective vegetal cover and trampling, compact the soil; thus the infiltration capacity of the land is reduced. The increased run-off, caused by the insufficient water holding capacity of the soil, produces new gullies or enlarges old ones (Mbaya, Ayuba and Abdullahi, 2012). The role of vegetative cover is to intercept rainfall, to keep the soil covered with litter, to maintain soil structure and pore spaces, and to create openings and cavities by root penetration. This is best achieved under an undisturbed multistory forest cover. Under special conditions, however, a well-protected, dense grass cover may also provide the necessary protection to the soil. The relevance of plants in protecting the soil against fluvial processes on slopes lie in their ability to cover the surface and not their density. Nyanganji (1994) observed that apart from protecting the slope against the impact of raindrops and runoff erosion on slopes, it also opens up the soil for effective absorption of water into the ground thereby reducing runoff volume and energy on the slope; soil erodibility; slop angle, height and percent of vegetation cover explain the rate of soil wash. Therefore, the concept been adopted in this study is the concept of fluvial erosion. Factors Affecting Soil Erosion The rate of erosion depends on many physical and human factors. Physical factors include climate, geology, landform (slope), soil and vegetation. The amount and intensity of precipitation, the average temperature, as well as the temperature range, the wind speed, and storm frequency are some climatic elements that correlate with erosion (Ziebell and Leongtha, 1999) and (Cooke and Doornkamp, 1974). The geologic factors include the rock type; its porosity and permeability, the slope (gradient) of the land, and the rock structure such as are tilt, fault and weathered mantle. The biological factors include the ground cover by vegetation and the type of organisms inhabiting the area, and the land use. Mapping of Gully Erosion Gullies are mapped by extracting information from an image such as size, shape, shadow, tone and colour (reflectance), texture, pattern, and features (Zhang and Goodchild, 2002). In cases where the outline of the gully is not clear (i.e. vegetation cover) ground-truthing and stereographic viewing using air photographs or certain satellite imagery (e.g. SPOT) can minimize the problem because gullies are visualized from different perspectives. Gullies are delineated on a transparent plastic overlay over an air photo or digitized within a GIS (using air photos and satellite imagery), annotated and printed off as a map. Aerial photos are the most commonly applied instrument for mapping gully erosion because most gullies are visible using stereoscopic aerial photography (Thwaites, 1986;

Analysis of Gully Erosion in Tumfure, Gombe Urban, Gombe State, Nigeria. John Abdullahi Watson, 1997). Using 1:10,000 and 1:20,000 air photographs, Thwaites (1986) digitized gullies in the BRAR catchment (372 km²) in South Africa, based on grey tones and feature. Morgan et al, (1997) identified gullies as linear features with a clearly defined depth. Most of the gully erosion research in southern Africa has used air photos to map gullies in Zimbabwe. Jones and Keech (1966) used air photo interpretation to measure gully size and therefore assess the severity of gully erosion at a scale of 1:25,000. In South Africa, Flugel, Marker, Moretti, Rodolfi and Sindorchuk, (2003) and Sindorchuk (2003) used air photos to map gully erosion based on the homogeneity of the erosion response and the heterogeneity of the structure, a concept called erosion response units (ERU). These studies were slight modifications of the proposed method of terrain analysis which also extracts information from an image such as tone, texture, geometry and so on. This procedure enabled mapping of six different ERU, ranging from slightly eroded (1) to severely eroded (6), at a scale of 1:50,000. More recently and with relevance to the current study area, the study by Sonnevelds (2005) focused on digitizing gullies at the sub-catchment level, delineated as linear erosion features with confined flow. Many erosion studies applied in developing countries have used satellite imagery to digitize gullies (Dwivedi and Ramana, 2003;). Satellite imagery offers much broader spatial coverage than individual aerial photos and can be used to map gullies in remote areas due to additional spectral bands that help the interpreter distinguish gullies. Gullies are digitized based on tone, shape, pattern and their high reflectance in all. In Tanzania, Kiusi and Meadows (2006) delineated gullies based on colour, texture and pattern, using Landsat TM images at a scale of 1:100 000. In India, Dwivedi and Ramana (2003) delineated three categories for gully erosion (shallow, medium and deep) using a false colour image from the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite. This imagery can improve on traditional methods of gully mapping at a local scale because major (>2.5 m) and minor (2.5 m) gullies are visible in the panchromatic band of SPOT-5 (2.5 m). In addition, SPOT imagery can improve on traditional mapping methods in South Africa on a regional scale by offering a seamless coverage. ERUs are defined as “distributed three-dimensional terrain units, which are heterogeneously structured and have homogeneous erosion process dynamics characterized by a slight variance within the unit, if compared with neighboring ones.” (Flugel et al, 2003). Although digitization of gullies from an air photo or satellite image has been used extensively, the method is limited to expert knowledge, its inconsistent, lacks quantitative information and can be a very time consuming and costly process as such for this paper, both the digitization and that of field investigation techniques are both adopted to and supplement the digitization method. This was considered more appropriate because through ground trothing, quantitative information about the coordinates of the gullies are obtained.

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Description of Study Area Tunfure is located in Akko Local Government Area which forms part of Gombe town and also the capital of Gombe State. It is located between latitudes 10o16’N to 10o17’N and longitude 11o 4’E and 11o 7’E (Fig. 1). It shares boundary with Wuro Billiri to the South, Shango to the North, Gombe town to the East and Lafiyawo to the West. It forms part of the capital city of Gombe State and occupies an area of about 12km2 (Ministry of Lands and Survey, Gombe, 2008). Tumfure town is well linked by road to other regional centres like Gombe town, Kano road, Bauchi /Jos road and Yola /Jalingo road. Tumfure is located at the outskirt of Gombe urban as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig.1: Akko LGA showing Tumfure (study area) Source: Modified from Quick Bird Satellite Imagery (2018)

Analysis of Gully Erosion in Tumfure, Gombe Urban, Gombe State, Nigeria. John Abdullahi Materials and Methods The study used google earth satellite imageries 2016, digital elevation data set from Shuttle Radar Topographical Mission (SRTM) with a special resolution of 90 meters, topo map sheet 152 of Gombe 2017. Thematic map of Gombe town was generated through creation module of ArcGIS software using digital elevation data set from SRTM obtained online, DEM image of the study area. Gully morphological characteristics including; length, width, depth and side slopes and data on the effects of gully erosion on the livelihood of the people in Tumfure was obtained from field investigations. Three procedures were adopted in the data collection exercise. These included: generation and interpretation of satellite imageries; (which includes, relief and drainage, elevation of the terrain, profile and slope of the stream and also the digital elevation model of the study area), fieldwork involving measurement of gully elements (length, width and breadth) as ground truth information and field investigations so as to ascertain the effects of gully erosion. The Satellite imagery was obtained from google earth, landsat and archive, where the study area was downloaded and the image was exported to ArcGIS 10.3 and it was georeferenced and subsequently the affected areas were digitized and calculated from the attribute table using the field geometry in metres. The features were processed from DEM image and subsequent analysis. The data were analyzed through the use of ArcGIS software. Results and Discussion Identification and Mapping of Gully Erosion Sites in the Study Area Table 1 presents the GPS coordinates of the locations of the areas affected by gully erosion in Tumfure. From Fig 2. it is pertinent to note that the main gully site is the Tumfure stream, which includes, parts of Farin-kasa, reservoir (adjacent labour quarters), Kasuwan gwari, (across Bauchi road), Longel and Hamma Idrissa. The gully is a second order gully with numerous first order gullies. The total length of the gully is 3.1km. The devastated areas can be seen from the imageries in Fig. 2. This continuous increase in gully development is mainly as a result of the observed human activities in the study area that ranges from the improper channeling of runoff water, haphazard erection of buildings on the undulating terrain and water ways, to dumping of refuse on waterways as observed by Danladi and Ray (2014). Other factors include, poor construction as evident by excessive runoff generated due to poor design of roads without drainages to channel the runoff into the nearby streams. The red colours in Fig. 5 shows areas affected and that are vulnerable to the gully erosion. The figure shows that many buildings, trees, open space as well as access roads falling within the perimeter marked by red colours are under threat of gully erosion. The total area affected by the gully as shown in Table 1 and calculated using ArcGIS software is 354405.8m2 (0.354406km2). Many buildings and

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 vital infrastructure stand the risk of been destroyed within a short period of time if nothing serious is done. Table 1: Coordinates of the Areas Affected by Gully Erosion in Tumfure

S/N Latitude Longitude 1 10017’12.219’’N 011005’37.462’’E 2 10017’18.405’’N 011005’39.174’’E 3 10017’28.097’’N 011005’55.073’’E 4 10017’14.841’’N 011005’57.090’’E 5 10017’13.173’’N 011006’05.515’’E 6 10017’20.383’’N 011006’02.954’’E 7 10017’28.744’’N 011006’13.264’’E 8 10017’17.338’’N 011006’11.960’’E 9 10017’17.729’’N 011006’13.651’’E 10 10017’19.868’’N 011006’20.317’’E 11 10017’12.691’’N 011006’18.723’’E 12 10017’19.056’’N 011006’42.235’’E 13 10017’14.268’’N 011006’45.515’’E 14 10017’27.315’’N 011006’45.564’’E 15 10017’42.095’’N 011006’38.838’’E 16 10017’44.687’’N 011006’10.101’’E 17 10017’49.039’’N 011006’08.360’’E 18 10017’56.060’’N 011006’05.150’’E 19 10017’41.218’’N 011006’06.798’’E 20 10017’34.704’’N 011006’00.427’’E 21 10017’48.319’’N 011005’55.159’’E Source: Fieldwork, 2018

Analysis of Gully Erosion in Tumfure, Gombe Urban, Gombe State, Nigeria. John Abdullahi

Source: Google Earth Image 2018 Fig. 2: Tumfure showing the areas affected by gully erosion

Influence of Relief and Drainage on Gully Erosion Fig. 3 depicts the relief and drainage of the study area, where the different colours represents the elevation at different places within the study area. The area is generally undulating in nature. The lower part of the south-west (adjacent Labour quarters) represent the highest point in the study area (662m-674m) which is also close to where the Tumfure stream was initiated. Similarly, the lowest area (598m-605m) is in the northern part where the Tumfure stream continues to the outer part of Tumfure as all surface water flow down slope. As for the drainage, the area is mainly drained by seasonal streams flowing from south to north together with its tributaries. These water ways gradually transformed into gullies partly due to rapid demographic pressure on land and has affected the study area especially the infrastructures located close to the gully sites. The entire land is drained by the head waters of the River Dadin-Kowa which is a tributary of Gongola River (Balzerek, Werner, Jurgen, Klaus-martin, and Markus, 2003).

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019

Source: Author’s Analysis, 2017 Fig.3 Relief and drainage of the study area

Elevation and Stream Flow Direction From fig. 4, one can easily deduce reasons why the stream is heavily subjected to gully erosion. The figure shows that the general topographic configuration of the area and how it influences the direction of flow of the runoff which is all directed towards the Tumfure stream. However, they are of different elevation (598m-674m) due to the undulating nature of the area as indicated from the legend, but they are all directed towards the Tumfure stream, as all water flows down slope.

Analysis of Gully Erosion in Tumfure, Gombe Urban, Gombe State, Nigeria. John Abdullahi

Source: Author’s Analysis, 2018 Fig. 4: Elevation of the terrain and the direction of flow of the stream.

The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Area The DEM and the 3-Dimensional view of Tumfure as shown in Fig. 5 depict the general topography of the study area. Tumfure which also form part of Gombe town is generally a low lying area. The portrayed image on fig. 5 conforms to the description given by Max Lock, (1976) as an undulating area which comprises of a pronounced low lands which aid the high velocity of runoff water and hence encourages the gully erosion process in the area.

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0.5 0.25 0 0.5 1 Kilometers Source: Author’s Analysis, 2018 Fig. 5: Three (3)-Dimensional view of the study area

Conclusion This paper has analyzed the gully erosion in Tumfure. One of the major environmental problems in Tumfure is gully erosion. This is due to the complex interdependent mechanisms between rainfall pattern, soil erodibility, landuse and topography has reduced infiltration, which is generating higher runoff. This has increased deep cutting and has taken up valuable land. The situation is further worsened by rise in value of urban landuse due to population increase. These have forced people to erect buildings on floodplains, consequently increase in both magnitude and frequency of gully in response to high storm water runoff and channel concentration. The satellite imagery of the study area shows that the main gully site cut across Bauchi - Gombe road and was purposively used for the assessment of gully properties using satellite images of the year 2005 and 2016; topography and effects of gully erosion on residential and plants in the study area. The analyzed satellite image of 2005 shows that urban growth in terms of settlement, market and administrative/offices was 0.14km2 of the total land area. The 2016 image analyzed, revealed change in the urban expansion from 0.14km2 to 4.26km2 in 2016. This implied an increase of 4.13km2 over the 12 years. The impact of gully erosion in the study area includes destruction of roads, bridges; plots of land, houses, trees, and lowering of underground water. The incidence and existence of gully erosion in Tumfure

Analysis of Gully Erosion in Tumfure, Gombe Urban, Gombe State, Nigeria. John Abdullahi therefore could be explained in terms of geological formations, deforestation and poor landuse practices in the area. There is need to protect the land from further degradation and continuous vulnerability without delay by appropriate counter measures.

Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were suggested Firstly, construction of drainages should be adequate and implemented according to drainage sub-basin; the implementation should be performed from downstream to upstream. Secondly, reforestation of catchment areas and eroded lands can be effective at reclaiming and controlling gully corridors in the affected areas. Thirdly, planting deep-rooted perennial pastures, trees, or an appropriate mixture of both, such as pitadeniastrum africanum, can help maintain healthy and vigorous levels of vegetation.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Ziebel, D. and Leongatha, P. R. (1999). Gully Erosion Control. http://www.dpi.vic.au/dpi/nreinf/Childdocs 17/2/2009

Causes and Impact of Farmers-Pastoralist’ Conflict in Fika Local Government Area of Yobe State, North Eastern Region, Nigeria Adamu Saleh Usman Causes and Impact of Farmers-Pastoralist’ Conflict in Fika Local Government Area of Yobe State, North Eastern Region, Nigeria

Adamu Saleh Usman, Ali Umaru and Abdullahi Mele Katuzu, Department of History, Umar Suleiman College of Education, Gashua, Yobe State. Email: [email protected]

Abstract This paper examines the nature of conflict between pastoralists and farmers in Fika Local Government Area, Yobe State, North-East Nigeria.It also examines how itinerant grazing by pastoralists in the area has created significant problems to farmers resulting into constant skirmishes and conflicts that more often than not, escalate into violence with people on both sides killed and properties worth millions of naira destroyed leading to reduction in revenue of the State. The paper identifies climate change, government inaction and population growth as the push factors behind the conflict. Findings in the study revealed that some of the issues that underpin conflicts between the two groups emanate directly from the way and manner the pastoralists carry out grazing activities in the communities in the Local Government Area. The work finally recommends that state government should demarcate all grazing reserves in the state and register all the pastoralists, that a special tribunal should be formed for summary trial of encroachers on farm land. Keyword: Climate Change, Eco-violence, Grazing Reserve, Pastoralists, Resource Conflict

Introduction Many countries around the world including Nigeria currently face development challenges relating to the unsustainable use of natural resources and the allocation of natural wealth (Abbas, 2012). Generally, there is bound to be tension when people or groups compete against each other for natural but scarce resources. The exploitation of natural resources and the related complications can become significant drivers of violence (Shettima and Tar, 2008). Natural resources endowments for any country as potential sources of wealth are invariably becoming serious sources of conflicts, especially when not properly managed or regulated (UNEP, 2009). Conflict is said to be unavoidable in any human society and has become a subject of controversy today among the various inhabitants of many countries, including Nigeria. Access to natural resources is essential for livelihood production in rural areas of Africa. The most vulnerable tends to be people with poor access to natural resources upon which to build their livelihood strategies (Pasteur, 2017 as cited in Young and Sing Oei, 2011).

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Subsistence farmers and pastoralists depend on the availability of usable land and pasture for their livelihood. Many aspects of rural livelihood continue to be at conflicts with each other and the natural ecosystem. The question of ownership and right of access to natural resources may become more critical in areas where livelihood and food security are substantially tied to these resources. Resource conflict is therefore detrimental to individual and groups’ livelihood, food security, and social co-existence. This appears to be the challenge in the Yobe State. Although across time and space, interaction between crops cultivators and pastoralists has been in existence, this relationship is at times cordial and complementary, while at other times, the relationship is antagonistic and hostile. However, in the contemporary time, population increase coupled with increased farming and the drying up of the Sahel region, especially the northern part of Nigeria (Blench, 2010), has brought about an unhealthy competition for available arable land for grazing animals and farming between farmers and pastoralists, which more often than not, has resulted to violence in many parts of Nigeria. This situation as it plays out in Nigeria is a direct reflection of what is obtained in other part of Africa. In the East African Region, for instance, incidences are recorded where nomadic pastoralists had been having clashes with local farming communities around the Embroi Murtangosi Forest Reserve for decades (IPSN, 2017). Similarly, in the Central African Region, conflict between sedentary farmers and pastoralists has gone beyond national boarders because the migration of Peul Mbororo pastoralists from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Central African Republic has recorded more conflict situations than cooperation. Indeed, the situation in these regions parallels what is obtained in Nigeria. It cannot be overemphasized that in Nigeria, and in the North-East region in particular, the conflict has been witnessed in several parts of the region especially in Adamawa, Bornu and Yobe states mostly as a result of the high level of pastoral activities that take place in them. In Yobe State where the present study is located, the Fika Local Government Area is among the epicentre and hotspots of the conflict. This is not to say that other parts of the State have not had their fair share of the conflict. The other local government areas in the State too have experienced the conflict in one way or other. This unending cycle of violence has continued to characterize relations among the two groups without any solution in sight. Indeed, it was as a result of these killings and destructions that human right activist in Nigeria, Femi Falana, out of frustration once said that if the Federal Government fails to do the needful by discharging its constitutional duty of stopping the continued killings and destruction of properties caused by the conflict and approach the court to compel the Federal Government to act responsibly in the ensuing circumstance (Falana, 2018).In a similar vein, Roger Blench, a leading scholar in conflict studies with bias in pastoralist-farmers conflict, had pointed out that though bloody conflicts between crops cultivators and nomadic pastoralists are reported

Causes and Impact of Farmers-Pastoralist’ Conflict in Fika Local Government Area of Yobe State, North Eastern Region, Nigeria Adamu Saleh Usman in the newspapers almost on a daily basis, no effective action is ever taken by the government to analyze or remedy the cause(s) of the conflict (Blench, 2010). The conflict between farmers and pastoralists in Fika Local Government Area has actually brought about decrease in farming and pastoral activities in the area. This is due primarily to attacks by pastoral groups on one hand and reprisal attacks by the farming communities on the other hand. The development has generally affected farming and pastoral activities in the local government area thereby affecting revenue drive in the area, and Yobe State in general. This is why the paper deems it necessary to assess its impact on the revenue of the State.

Theoretical Framework Various scholars have attempted to theorize conflict in different perspectives. However, in the context of this study, the theory of eco-violence is adopted as its analytical framework. The theory of eco-violence is an emerging theoretical construct that seeks to elucidate the relationship between environmental factors and violent conflicts. Developed by Homer-Dixon, the theory holds that a decrease in the quality and quantity of renewable resources, population growth, and resource access act singly or in various combinations to increase the scarcity, for certain population groups, of cropland, water, forests, and fish (Hormer-Dixton, 1999). This can reduce economic productivity both for the local groups experiencing the scarcity and for the larger regional and national economies. The affected people may migrate or be expelled to new lands. Migrating groups often trigger ethnic conflicts when they move to new areas, while decreases in wealth can cause deprivation conflicts (Hormer-Dixon, 1999). Implicit in the eco-violence theory is the assumption that competition over scarce ecological resources engenders violent conflict. This trend has been aggravated in contemporary times owing to the impacts of climate change, which has exacerbated ecological scarcity across the world (Blench, 2004). In effect, ecological scarcity raises the competitive stakes and the premium that the various societal groups may place on available ecological resources. This condition tends to precipitate violent conflicts. Applied to the present discourse, the theory of eco-violence offers insights into the nature and dynamics of the herdsmen-farmers conflicts in Nigeria. In this regard, it is to be observed that the conflicts have been driven by the desperation of the affected groups to protect and advance their livelihood interests in the context of an ever shrinking ecological space, characterized by resource-scarcity, a livelihood crisis, population explosion, and resource competition. The crux of the theory of eco-violence is that the desperate quest for survival by groups in a competitive and resource-scarce ecological sphere (eco-survivalism) is likely to precipitate violent conflict. The theory and its analytical framework help to understand the rising militancy of herders. Militancy is the belief in, and resort to the use of aggression in the pursuit of a group cause. The manifest militant posture of pastoralists must be understood with

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 reference to their individual and collective worldviews vis-à-vis group subsistence and survival; this has a lot to do with pastoralism. For the average herdsman, pastoralism is a way of living, which is reckoned with as a mark of common heritage. In effect, any threat to his herd amounts to a threat, not only to his survival but also to his common destiny. This way of thinking is encapsulated in the following citation that is credited to a Fulani- nomad: Our herd is our life because, to every nomad, life is worthless without his cattle. What do you expect from us when our source of existence is threatened? The encroachment of grazing field and routes by farmers is a call to war (Abbas, 2012, p. 331).

The implication of the preceding citation is that to a typical Fulani-pastoralist, life will be worthless if the survival and sustenance of his herd come under serious threat. This explains the magnitude of aggression and vindictive violence that the Fulani pastoralists often manifest in their disputes with settled farming communities (Pasteur, as cited in Young and Sing Oei, 2011). The point being emphasized here is that the rising wave of militancy among the Fulani herdsmen in Nigeria is principally driven by a dire struggle for survival in an environment that is competitive and hostile to their collective sustainable livelihood. Applying eco-violence theory to this study reveals that attempt by any of the two groups to displace, disinherit, victimize, or marginalize the others common ecological domain has been adjudged by the other as an invitation to war. The inevitable outcome of this pattern of inter-group relations in Nigeria has been a vicious cycle of eco-violence and vendetta (Chukwuma and Atelhe, 2014). In respect to the conflicts between farmers and pastoralists in Fika local government of Yobe State, the theory of eco-violence has been adopted as it best explains the issues as they play out in between the two conflicting groups.

Causes of Farmers-pastoralists Conflict in Yobe State Yobe State is located in the tropic with definite wet and dry seasons. The wet and dry seasons are characterized with frequent dry continental Northeast trade wind that originates from Sahara Desert, and the moist maritime South-westerly monsoon that originates from the Atlantic Ocean (Reader, 1997 as cited in Abubakar, 2018). The rainy season in Yobe spans between May and October with peak rainfall in August, and the dry season last between November and April.The mean annual rainfall is about 500mm with highest ambient temperature of about 40oC in the hottest month of April and May. The average daily temperature ranges between 27 – 31oC. The vegetation of Yobe State is characterized by sparse shrubs, grasses and trees such as Acacia albida (Gum Arabic shrub), Acacia nilotica (Gum Arabic shrub),Pennisetum maximum (Guinea grass), Cenchrus ciliaris (Buffel grass),Cynodon nlemfuensis (Star grass), Pennisetum purpureum (Elephant grass), Andropogon gayanus

Causes and Impact of Farmers-Pastoralist’ Conflict in Fika Local Government Area of Yobe State, North Eastern Region, Nigeria Adamu Saleh Usman (Gamba grass),Andosonia digitata (baobab tree), Butyrospermum parkii (Shea tree, Kadanya in Hausa), and Azadiractha indica (Neem tree). The area has seasonal grasses that dry up completely during the dry season(Oruonye and Abubakar, 2008). Agriculture and pastoralism are the main occupational activities of the people of Yobe State, even though there are other mineral resources present. The sustainability of agriculture and pastoralism in Yobe economy requires a strategic balance in the ecological and socio-economic activities as well as political considerations. In this region, rainfall occurs seasonally with a pronounced dry season. The seasonal rainfall and prolonged dry season bring about dynamics in the ecosystem and sour relationships resulting in a sharp division between the Fulani pastoralists and farmers. The implications of the conflicts have brought about high degrees of loss of human, animal and material resources. North-East Pastoral corridors are replete with conflicts of survival between farmers and Fulani pastoralists. Almost every November as harvest season approaches, Yobe State government would organize an interactive stakeholders’ forum between the leadership of Fulani pastoralists and farmers in the State in order to prevent or at least reduce the annual conflicts between the two parties. The meeting is usually called to arrest the looming conflict between pastoralists and farmers over complaints that some local and migrant Fulani pastoralists go into farms with their cattle thereby destroying the crops. Regrettably, these meetings have always achieved little to arrest the conflict. When one examines the geography of Yobe State, it is likely that the first impression one will have is that there is more than enough arable land for crop cultivation and animal grazing. However, more often than not, this resource is at the heart of conflict between both the farmers and pastoralists because of climate change, drought, etc. Unfortunately, these conflicts, more recently, have dislocated communities hitherto living in peace. As earlier explained, some of the arguments advanced are that farmers versus pastoralists conflict in Nigeria or elsewhere occurs because of resource scarcity primarily due to climate change (Ibrahim and Mohammed,2017). Reader captures this scenario thus: Where climatic change is an important factor, it operates through competition. Climatic change will alter the nature, abundance and distribution of environments and resources within those environments. This will lead to changes in competitive relationship between and within the species, and it is this competitive relationship that is likely to lead to evolutionary consequences. The consequences might be extinction of populations as the most direct effect, or speciation as a less direct one arising either out of reduced intra-community competition or the opening up of new ecological opportunities (Reader, 2017, p.41).

Change in Nigeria's climatic conditions, especially in the Northern part of the country concerning the distribution of rainfall patterns, is a major catalyst for the conflict

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 between herders and farmers in the North and Yobe State in particular. Drought, increasing desertification of the Sahel-Savannah and land degradation compel pastoralists to continuously be on the move in search of greener pastures for their livestock. As the desert encroaches, clashes between these two groups are inevitable. In the desperate search for water, pastoralists trespass on farmlands to feed their cattle. Very often, the farmer may confront a herdsman whose animals are eating up his crops but the pastoralists may challenge the farmer's authority over the land instead of seeking peaceful settlement. This more often than not, results in violence. Another cause of pastoralists and farmers’ rift is the increasing population growth rate in the region that has continued to exert pressure on available land resources with varying environmental and socio- economic implications. With dwindling land resources for both the herds and crops, tensions and struggle for the limited resources are inevitable. In fairness, the Central and Southern parts of Nigeria provide comparatively more conducive environment for grazing than the North-East zone and hence the downward movement in search of pasture. It is, therefore, not surprising that the country has witnessed these bloody clashes in these areas. (Baba,1986). Land administration and ownership is also another major catalyst for conflicts. Pattern of land ownership administration in local government areas of Yobe State, like in many other parts of Northern Nigeria, is a case in point. This has generated conflicts between farmers and pastoralists. Scholars have traced this problem to the feudal land system that had existed in the North and later exacerbated by the colonial policy to appropriate all the cultivable lands using the emirate system (Ochefu, 2003). In addition, the defunct Northern Region once demarcated some land strips as passage corridors for trade, cattle and/or transhumance purposes. With the current population increase, however, most of such strips of land have long disappeared as the initial traditional family owners have unilaterally repossessed them. In some instances, though, it may be some local potentates from the community that acquired such strips of land for modern large-scale farming, this has continued to be the source of frustration and tension for the pastoralists who were used to such strips before. Farming and pastoralism, which were hitherto, twin occupations existing side by side nose-dived into competition for space due to the colonial pasture and forestry policies. For instance, Farmers and pastoralists have co-existed in the area and their relationship was seen as cordial. However, this policy triggered the first phase of conflicts. The colonial administrators acquired large portions of land and declared these as forest reserves. The immediate impact of this was that it made the pastoralists and farmers to compete over land that had shrunk as a result of colonial forestry policy. Cattle routes were taken over and cultivated by sedentary farmers. Population pressure also increased with a resultant upsurge in violent clashes in many places (Mshelia, 2007). this is caused mostly by high competition over the available ecological resources in the area, for example, water and land.

Causes and Impact of Farmers-Pastoralist’ Conflict in Fika Local Government Area of Yobe State, North Eastern Region, Nigeria Adamu Saleh Usman Before the year 1999 usually after harvest period, farmers used to leave their crop remains, corn stalks and straws in the farm for grazers to use and there were also Government provided grazing reserves and available dams for pastoral use. However, now people are into farming for commercial reasons, likewise looking at the side of the pastoralists too, they have started practicing sedentary life a little nowadays. Consequently, both parties do not understand the nature of changes that are going on with regards to climate changes, population pressure and other factors that are leading to high competition over the available ecological resources within their localities, but instead they regard one another as enemy. In Yobe State, specifically the study area, there were grazing reserves established by the local government councils and grazing areas provided by local government councils in 1978.The grazing reserves in the study area are; Janga, Lampo, Chana, Darim, Gurjiyaye, Janga Siri, Ngeji, all under Fika Local Government Area, and of all the grazing reserves mentioned above, were attached a with wells or ponds for watering of animals.

Contestation for Land Based Resources in Fika Local Government Area In Darin, Ngalda, Fika Town, Ngeji, Gadaka and Chana villages the contest for access and utilization of land based resources - principally water and pasture - between the farmers and pastoralists takes place in the context of the peasant and nomadic economic production systems adopted by both groups. The farmers whose livelihood is rooted in agricultural practices see land as the major source of their food for survival. Population expansion that put pressure on available land, making accessibility to land even among farmers difficult, has affected the production level in the study area.Declining soil fertility, erosion, climate change and modernity have collectively influenced traditional agricultural practices in a way that challenges the very livelihood of both groups in the study area. The pastoralists whose system of production revolves around cattle rearing use mobility as a strategy of production as well as consumption. A number of factors have conspired to challenge their economic livelihood, including the clash of modernism with traditionalism. The pastoralists have resisted modernity and hence their system of production and consumption has remained largely unaltered in the face of population growth and modernization. Environmental factors constitute a major set of issues affecting the pastoralists’ economy, including the pattern of rainfall, its distribution and seasonality, and the extent to which this affects land utilization. Closely related to this is the pattern of vegetation, compartmentalized into arid areas. This vegetation pattern determines pasture availability, accessibility, and insects’ predation. Vegetation pattern therefore explains pastoral migration. The disappearance of grazing routes and reserves due to farming activities thus set the tone for contemporary conflicts between the pastoralists and the farmers.

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Government Inaction In the face of growing hostility between farmers and pastoralists, both Yobe state government and local government council of the study area seem not to be making any proactive attempt to take action that will bring an end to the conflict. There have been reports from forest guards and veterinary officers to the State government on either encroachment on grazing lands or cutting down of forest trees or pastoral attacks on farming communities. Unfortunately, government would often, not take any action till when the conflict has started or when the encroachers have damaged the reserves before government would come to take some form, of action. Very worrisomely, it is the government that usually allocates the grazing reserves to farmers temporarily to farm on, and without renewal of certificates thereby making the farmers keep the farms as their property for life. Sometimes, because of politics, politicians would defend the encroachers just not to lose their votes during elections as it is the case in Ngalda and Ngeji reserves. In some cases, Police personnel are blamed for corruption, for taking bribe to refuse to do justice to cases reported to them. This accusation is commonly given by both pastoralists and farmers alike. Similarly, judicial officials are also accused of corruption, for always taking money to twist justice in favour of those that have the moneyto bribe them. In similar manner, the refusal on the part of government to pay compensation to those whose lands were taken as reserves, always compel the later to re-occupy their lands thereby resulting in conflict. The foregoing phenomenon corresponds withthe views of many whoargue that the issues fueling conflicts between the two groups revolves round the fact that much of the passage corridors that were demarcated as cattle routes has been reclaimed by farming communities. According to this group, the defunct Northern Region once demarcated some land strips as passage corridors to serve as cattle routes. With the current population increase, however, most of such strips of land have long disappeared as the initial traditional family owners have unilaterally repossessed them. But this usually leads to frustration and tension for the herdsmen who were used to such routes before now.

Resource Constraints to Livestock Management The main resource constraint to livestock management in Fika Local Government Area is accessibility to dry season grazing land and watering points. This constraint has become more pronounced with the Fadama dry season farming that people practice in some villages of Fika LGA. The State government and some NGOs have been assisting some farmers to use some wetlands as Fadama lands and some of those wetlands are presently being utilized for dry season farming. The practice of irrigation farming has forced the pastoralists to relocate to previously less watery and productive places or sometimes resist to move. This has placed a lot of stress and uncertainty on the pastoralists. The pastoralist may not be familiar with the traditions and customs of the new area. Thus, a process of acculturation will have to be undergone by the relocating pastoralist to understand the changing dynamics.

Causes and Impact of Farmers-Pastoralist’ Conflict in Fika Local Government Area of Yobe State, North Eastern Region, Nigeria Adamu Saleh Usman The Impact of the Conflict on Yobe State’s Economy The people of Yobe State and particularly Fika Local Government Area are basically agriculturalists either engaged in animal pastoralism, crop farming or a combination of both. Indeed, over eighty (80) per cent of the people in the area areengaged in either of the two occupations on full time or on part time basis to sustain their livelihood. Food and meat is produced for both local consumption and for sale to other parts of the country. It is not contestable that a large percentage of the food and meat that is transported from the North to the Southern part of the country, especially products like beans, maize, cattle and goats, are produced in the State. This suggests that if anything significantly disrupts the production chain, the effect will be felt not just within the communities of Fika LGA alone but the State as a whole. Obviously, business activities, especially trade in agricultural produce, have been significantly affected in the study area because of farmers-herders conflict. This is because most people in the area depend on farming. Invariably, the highest loss of foodstuffs in the area is essentially blamed on incessant conflict between farmers and pastoralists. With this situation not abating, food security is no longer guaranteed. As food shortage increases, there is high cost of foodstuff, it means the worst is yet to come. This is because farmers have abandoned some farming areas for fear of animals eating up their crops before harvesting. Similarly, the situation is not in any way different with the pastoralists because the conflict has also impacted negatively on their productivity as can be seen in the recent hikes in the prices of livestock in the markets within the study area. This has forced youth to leave their villages to cities for menial jobs. Generally, the situation has greatly affected the revenue and economy of Yobe State in general and Fika Local Government Area in particular.

Conclusion and Way Forward

This study has examined the conflict between the farmers and Pastoralists in Yobe State with particular reference to Fika LGAlocated in the North Eastern Nigeria. In doing this, the study made concerted attempt to interrogate the conflict within the context of a resource conflict in the region for the purpose of establishing the causes and impact of the conflict. The study has shown how the interactions between farmers and pastoralists have in recent times deteriorated and become strained due to natural and man-made factors. The periodical struggle for scarce resources between farmers and pastoralists has degenerated into violent conflicts in Yobe State, specifically in Fika Local Government Area. These conflicts have become more intense, widespread and destructive. The incidence of ecological factor, climate change and, of course, government policies on agriculture, especially the all-year round fadama farming, are further threats to pastoralists activities. Specifically, additional farms and encroachments on traditional cattle routes have drastically reduced the grazing space and watering points available for

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 livestock grazing. Furthermore, non-demarcation of grazing lands, government inaction and corruption by security operatives and judicial officers have been major factors that make the conflict to continue.

To check the incessant farmers-pastoralists conflicts in the study area, the following recommendations are proffered. i. Government should compensate traditional land owners whose lands have been used in the establishment of either grazing reserves or grazing routes. ii. There is need for government to reconsider demarcation of all grazing reserves and routes, as well as banning farmers from encroaching on such grazing reserves and routes. iii. Taxing users of grazing reserves as source of revenues for maintenance of the reserves. iv. Establishment of mobile courts for summary trial of offenders or perpetrators of violence. The mobile courts are required to mitigate the effects of prolonged justice delay in the area.

Causes and Impact of Farmers-Pastoralist’ Conflict in Fika Local Government Area of Yobe State, North Eastern Region, Nigeria Adamu Saleh Usman Reference

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A Historical Account of the Scourge of Kidnapping in Nigeria: Implication on National Security. Ahmed Tanimu Mahmoud A Historical Account of the Scourge of Kidnapping in Nigeria: Implication on National Security

1Ahmed Tanimu Mahmoud, PhD, 2Zubairu Ibrahim and3Aliyu Mustapha 1Department of Sociology, Federal University, Kashere, Gombe State [email protected]: +2348038034912 2School of General Education, Department of General Studies and EducationFederal College of Education, Kano. [email protected]: +2348039394847 3Department of SociologyFederal University, Kashere, Gombe State [email protected]: +2348033864622

Abstract Kidnapping has become a menace and one of the security challenges in Nigeria. It is an illicit practice in which human-beings are forcefully abducted to an unknown destination for the purpose of payment of ransom by relatives. The predominance of this illicit practice has given the country a bad reputation. As a result of this, Nigeria was ranked in the global index as one of the worst place to dwell, especially in the current administration of President Muhammadu Buhari. Many factors account for this development, prominent among which include criminal source of money, elimination of political opponents, human sacrifice or for performance of rituals etc. Kidnapping has now become a generic word both in public and private discourse going by its prevalence in the country. This paper attempt to examine the general causes and effects of kidnapping on the Nigerian society especially in the area of insecurity. Among the major causes identified is the spate of unemployment in Nigeria. In view of this, the paper concludes that unemployment has been one of the major problems in Nigeria. Nigeria, as a developing country is witnessing high rate of youth unemployment which has become one of the major threats to its national security. Recommendations have been made on how this wave of crime can be tackled. Prominent among the recommendations is forall levels to make policies that will attract both local and foreign investors which will create employment opportunities for the youths, especially the vulnerable ones among others.

Keywords: Abduction, Crime, Hostage, Kidnapping, Ransom, and Security

Introduction Kidnapping of all manner of persons has gained ascendancy in Nigeria. A malady previously unknown to the people has rapidly become domesticated. In the last ten years, the volatile oil rich regions of the Niger Delta witnessed this phenomenon on a large scale with the target being mostly expatriates and Nigerians in the oil business. It has spread throughout the country extending to places as far as Kano and Kaduna in the far Northern part of Nigeria. South-East and South-South Nigeria have become known as the kidnappers’ playgrounds of Nigeria.

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 The widening scale of insecurity in Nigeria is a cause for concern as all are affected by it. Churches, mosques, markets, schools, homes and the highway, all are susceptible to this menace. The abductees and their families are traumatised by the ordeal of kidnapping. Foreign investors are scared away from Nigeria. Nigerians are paying the price of poor governance and failures of leadership. Davidson (2010) points out that the general state of insecurity in some parts of the country has no doubt reached a stage where virtually everybody is now worried the direction the region is going. Presently, hardly can people sleep because of the fear of being robbed or kidnapped. Businessmen have taken flight with their businesses for fear of being kidnapped or robbed. Asuquo (2009) notes that the term “kidnapping” is difficult to define with precision, because it varies from State to State and jurisdiction to jurisdiction. It is the forceful seizure, taking away and unlawful detention of a person against his/her will. According to him, kidnapping is a common law offence and the key part is that it is an unwanted act on the part of the victim. It is a restriction of someone else’s liberty which violates the provision of freedom of movement as enshrined in the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, where every other law takes its cue from. For this reason, Siegel (2002) sees it as a serious offence. Abraham (2010) defines kidnapping as an act of seizing, taking away and keeping a person in custody either by force or fraud. It includes snatching and seizing of a person in order to collect a ransom in return or to settle some scores of disagreement among people. No one is spared by the scourge. Both government officials and traditional rulers are not spared. Kidnapper’s target members of the executive, legislative, and the judicial arms of the government, including even security personnel and their family members. Today, kidnapping is among the vices that are currently plaguing the country’s peace and stability. It has become even a sort of political terrorism aimed at clamping down on dissenting groups. Criminologists see it as terrorism or a political crime which emphasises violence as a mechanism to promote change. Today, the concept has assumed different forms which range from revolutionary, state-sponsored, political to nationalistic terrorism. Though each may not be neatly demarcated from the other, some regard it as a criminal act whereas others see it as a violent political activity the purpose which is to achieve a set goal – systemic change.

Conceptual Framework

Kidnapping consists of unlawfully or intentionally depriving a person of his liberty of movement or, in the case of a minor, depriving a parent or recognised guardian control over the child. The emphasis is on the individual’s right to personal freedom and the violation of this right through force, threats or fraud. Robertson (1968), views kidnapping as a crime of seizing, confining, abducting or carrying away of persons by force or fraud often subjecting him or her to involuntary servitude in an attempt to

A Historical Account of the Scourge of Kidnapping in Nigeria: Implication on National Security. Ahmed Tanimu Mahmoud demand a ransom or in furtherance of another crime. In criminal law, kidnapping is defined as taking away of a person by force, threat or deceit with intent to cause him/her to be detained against his or her will (Asuquo, 2009). Thomas and Nta (2009) define kidnapping as robbery of the highest rank. According to them, it is an organized and systematic robbery which is not as deadly as armed-robbery, but more profitable than the former. The profitability has encouraged those that indulged in it to carry on with the act although there is a law prohibiting it. Goldberg (2000) argues that kidnapping is a criminal act involving seizure, confinement, abduction, subjection, forcefulness, acts of threats, acts of terror and servitude. Similarly, Ngwama (2014) defines kidnapping as false imprisonment in the sense that it involves the illegal confinement of individuals against his or her own will by another individual in such a way as to violate the confined individual’s right to be free from the restraint of movement. According to Ottuh and Aituf (2014) kidnapping is the wholesale taking away or transportation of a person against the person’s will usually to confine the person in false imprisonment without legal authority. They state that this act may be done principally to extract ransom or in connection with a child custody as a fall out of marital dispute. Such kidnapping or abduction of a child is often labeled “child stealing” and “parental kidnapping”, particularly when the act is carried with the intention of keeping the child permanently as against collecting a ransom or other things the ‘child stealer’ is agitating for. Types of Kidnapping There basically two main types of kidnapping, namely: 1. Criminal kidnapping: This is where the main motive is to obtain a ransom from the family or business of victims. This category also includes instances where criminals take hostages as a shield to help them escape from the scene of a crime, or use them to obtain money or valuables, or the keys or secret codes needed to access areas where these are stored (Siegel, 1992). 2. Political kidnapping: This is the type of kidnapping, where the foremost objective is to further the political aims of a particular political group or movement. In this case, a ransom is usually demanded to obtain money for the group to fund their. Such kidnappings are distinct from emotional or pathological kidnapping, which involves, for instance, the kidnapping of children by estranged parents or relatives or, in the case of the latter, kidnappings motivated by individual pathologies, such as kidnapping for the purposes of rape or other sexual aberration. They also differ from unlawful detentions, where people are held illegally by law enforcement personnel; or political blackmail, which involves holding individuals against political ends, such as the release of comrades from prison (Siegel, 1992).

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Casual Factors of Kidnapping and Security Challenges in Nigeria

1. Proliferation of dangerous weapons: The proliferation of arms as a result of political patronage of miscreant who were dumped after elections may indirectly encourage and enhance kidnapping (Marshal, 1998). Such miscreants who no longer have access to their political masters may resort to using the arms at their disposal to take to kidnapping as an alternative source of livelihood. 2. Social Injustice: Many people today who are desperate in economic and social needs are often the ones who commit kidnappings. So, where the gap between the rich and the poor is constantly widening and where the possibilities to earn money in an honest way are often difficult to attain kidnapping turns out be a lucrative means to fall back on and to draw attention to what is considered an intolerable situation (Chidi and Uche, 2015). 3. Indiscipline and Moral Decadence: The issue of “moral decadence” and the “quest to get rich quick” syndrome have been identified as some of the causative factors of kidnapping. Nobody asks questions on how people make their wealth. According to Inyang, (2009), a poor person today can show up with an expensive car tomorrow and nobody dare to question the sudden wealth. Also, people who have donated money to develop their communities are rewarded with chieftaincy titles thereby creating a wrong impression in the minds of Nigerian youths who thereafter take to kidnapping (Inyang (2009). 4. Poverty: The impoverished life-style of people has prompted many have-not to involve in kidnapping activities so as to use the ransom fees to cater for their basic needs. Our society has been riddled with poverty to the extent that citizens are seriously hungry with pauperised and subjected to penury as a way of life (Inyang (2009). 5. Corruption and Insecurity: Corruption within the law enforcement agencies sometimes thwarts serious effort in crime prevention. Nwaorah (2009) notes that, in a situation where government officials, especially top ranking persons in civil services who are custodian of government resources spend recklessly or loot, it could automatically encourage few of the dissatisfied persons to vent their anger on them and their relatives. 6. Youth Unemployment: The problem of kidnapping in Nigeria is often associated with youth unemployment (Inyang, 2009). Inyang uses the widely acknowledged adage-, which says that “an idle man is the devil’s workshop” to present the problem of kidnapping in Nigeria. He notes that there are uncountable able-bodied men and women in Nigeria roaming the streets in search of non-existing jobs. Out of frustration together with mounting responsibilities to tackle, many idle young persons have ventured into criminal activities prominent which is kidnapping.

A Historical Account of the Scourge of Kidnapping in Nigeria: Implication on National Security. Ahmed Tanimu Mahmoud The Scourge of Kidnapping in Nigeria Kidnapping in Nigeria is a serious national security challenge. It takes various forms and adopts violence, terror, coerciveness, intimidation and aggression. These acts are performed with the intent to receive ransom with forceful threats. The politicians and disgruntled individuals seize the opportunity to perpetuate criminality. The miscreants use this criminal model as the easiest method for intimidating human beings for easy access to cash. Osumah and Aghedo (2011,p.227) argues that kidnapping is “an engagement for economic survival, securing political and business advantage over rivals and co-competitors. The crime of kidnapping has grown over the years as an industry. It has been adopted as an industry for abducting political rivals, village rivals, and financially advantaged calibers in society. Emewu and Anyanwu (2009) attest that the former Governor of Anambra State was kidnapped in July 10, 2003 by members of his political party who opposed his visionary scheme. The politicians are not the only victims, the nation in general is victimized and this has engulfed the country into senseless insecurity. Kidnapping and terrorism are twin demons eating up the nation’s sense of identity and security, as it affects virtually everybody. The crime of kidnapping has created serious security challenges for the nation as it affects foreign expatriates, oil industries, and create negative image for the country. The security of the nation is at stake with series of incidence of kidnapping activities in many parts of the country. The perpetrators of kidnapping choose their victims based on their ability to cough out the money (Tzanelli, 2006). The problem of unemployment has become a national ‘thorn in the flesh’ in Nigeria. Ejimabo (2013,p.12) argues that “Nigeria needs problem-solving skills of leaders to help fight fraud and corruption in the country”. Otherwise, issues such as job creation and worsening political crisis would continue to be impediments to the control of crimes and delinquencies in the country. Job creation, along with other economic incentives would magnetize the youths’ interest to abandon the illegal commercialization of human commodity (Persson, 2014; Dode, 2007). Kidnapping has been commercialized, whereby, even the most revered clerics and clergies of religious bodies have fallen victims to the crime. The root of kidnapping in Nigeria, according to Townsend (2008), can be traced to “natural resources nationalism” – the tendency for an ethnic nationality to seek bigger shares of the returns from natural resources found in their locality. For instance, the clamour by aborigines of the oil producing Niger Delta region to better and bigger share of the fortune made from the resources gotten from their land (Essien and Ema, 2013). This problem is worsened by accumulation politics characterised by the tendency of the ruling class to engage in endless accumulation of natural resources and rents accruing from the region, in the face of deliberate acts of marginalization and deprivation of the people (Akpan, 2010). Some analysts believe that the high level of unemployment and poverty in the Niger Delta region which is above the natural average is one of the

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 precipitating factors that pushed some Niger Delta Youths into Kidnapping and Hostage taking (UNDP, 2006). This is because, ironically, while not justifiable by any means, the growing spates of criminal kidnappings has its root in the inequity, unemployment and break down of the educational and social structures, and value system in Nigeria. It is also emblematic of the disequilibrium in resource sharing. Furthermore, one can link the kidnappings and overall growth in the national crime rate and under development. In a country where the middle class has but all disappeared, kidnapping may be a low culture habit meant to target and open the high society and elite, especially in such restive regions like the Niger Delta (Okaba and Nte, 2008). Turner (2008) opined that the phenomenon of kidnapping and hostage taking began in the Niger Delta region as a freedom fight by militants protesting the degradation of their environment by oil industrial activities. Demola (2011) argues that it soon turned into a money making avenue through kidnapping of expatriate oil workers for huge ransoms. Since then, kidnapping has become a daily occurrence and it has spread throughout the South-South states of Edo, Bayelsa, Rivers, Cross Rivers, Akwa Ibom and the South-East States of Abia, Imo, Ebonyi, Enugu and Anambra. The South-West has not been left out. Kidnapping is also common in Lagos and other Western States. Many Youths have taken to the business of kidnapping with some godfathers working behind the scene. Generally, kidnapping and security challenges in Nigeria have hampered economic growth as the youth unemployment escalates. The horror of kidnapping has impacted the economy negatively in the sense that it has created a state of insecurity in all the four walls of the nation. This is evident in the Boko Haram episode in the north, the insurgences of the militants in the south, the kidnapping waves in the southeast, middle belt and ritualism in the Midwest.

Trends and Issues of Kidnapping and Security Challenges in Nigeria

Kidnapping is the offspring of terrorism and social vices that spread all over the world. It is an endemic disease that cut-across all the States in Nigeria. The word Kidnap was derived from two English words “Kid” meaning (Infant) and “Nap” meaning (Sleep). Literarily, it is a process of abduction of people as hostages for ransom payment. Historically, kidnapping is traceable to 1874 around 17th century as child abduction in Britain when the kids of the rich families were being abducted for “ransom while asleep (nap)” (Tzanelli, 2009). Kidnapping is a notorious and nefarious behaviour orchestrated by criminal elements with the mind-set of abducting or taking people hostage for ransom package. Kidnapping is a nefarious, villainous, terrible and seasonal crime that portends security challenges in Nigeria. The perpetrators include: unemployed youth, gangsters,

A Historical Account of the Scourge of Kidnapping in Nigeria: Implication on National Security. Ahmed Tanimu Mahmoud community hooligans a.k.a (Badoo), Land grabbers, terrorists, ritualists, spiritual fathers of different religious associations etc. Historically, Kidnapping gained momentum in Lagos metropolis as a response to unemployment, poverty, corruption, inflation, moral decadence, hopelessness and frustration among the youths. The perpetrators of kidnapping choose their victims based on their ability to cough out the money (Tzanelli, 2006). According to Turner (2008), the phenomenon began in the Niger Delta region as a freedom fight by militants protesting the degradation of their environment by oil industry activities. According to Demola (2011), it soon turned into a money making avenue through kidnapping of expatriate oil workers for huge ransoms. Since then, kidnapping has become a daily occurrence and it has spread throughout the South-South states of Edo, Bayelsa, Rivers, Cross Rivers, Akwa Ibom and the South-East States of Abia, Imo and Anambra. The South-West has not been left out. Today, kidnapping is all over Nigeria and it is a national problem that has eaten so deep into the tissues of the nation. It is a problem that must be tackled nationally. Kidnapping is growing daily in Nigeria. This criminal commerce paints an ugly picture of the already battered image of Nigeria. By and large, the survival and security of life holds a very important place in the life of every living being. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) (1999) specifically states that “the security and welfare of the people shall be the primary purpose of the government.” Consequently, the government spends a considerable amount of the nations’ funds on securing lives and property against all forms of internal and external threat. Unfortunately, the achievement of this primary purpose of the government has become more and more challenging with the ascendancy of several insecurity threats such as: militancy, armed robbery, ritual killing, insurgency, hostage taking and kidnapping, among others. In the case of the Niger Delta area, with a pervasive regime of poverty, an increasing army of unemployed youths, a ready pool of employable youths for political thuggery, the national result is militancy, which has found expression in all sorts of violence, including kidnapping and hostage taking in the Niger Delta. It is therefore a mismanaged negative fall outs of the ill feelings in the Niger Delta which the political elite tapped to capture power in 1999 and consolidate their grip on power in 2003. According to Edede, the politicians of the Niger Delta armed jobless educated youths of the region with Ak-47 rifles in their desperation to stay in power. This gave the youths an occupation: the politics of AK-47 gave birth to the economics of AK-47 and the Kalashnikov became an economic variable as the Niger Delta youths look to the creeks to engage their tormentors in a macabre dance of molten lead. The result of this is the current militancy, Kidnapping and hostage taking in Nigeria (Edede, 2006; Nte, 2008; Mitte, 2009). As stated in the preceding sections of this work, no region is immune from this social problem. What differs is the intensity and perhaps the motive. Northern Nigerian cities of Abuja, Kaduna and Kano have recorded cases of kidnappings for ransom. What

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 is worrisome here is the possible hijack of this tool by extremists who can introduce new dimensions to the kidnap saga in Nigeria by engaging on terror based kidnappings and hostage taking in a world that is presently being haunted by ideological primitivism and religious extremism (News Watch, 2009). The reality of this threat cannot be over emphasized if one considers the Abdul Mutallab case and the Boko Haram uprising in Northern Nigeria. Indeed, this region poses the greatest threat to both national and sub- regional security.

A Panoramic Survey of Kidnapping Incidents Across Nigeria

A panoramic survey of incidents of kidnapping across Nigeria shows an alarming increase in the phenomena. This is confirmed by the series of Police reports. For instance, in December, 2009, Police Affairs Minister, disclosed that 512 cases of kidnapping had been recorded from January 2008 to June 2009. The rundown of the statistics indicates that Abia State led the pack with a total of 110 kidnapping incidents: Imo: 58,109 arrests, and Akwa Ibom recorded 40 kidnap cases. The same Police report added that between July/September 2008 and July 2009, over 600 million naira was lost to kidnappers. Beyond statistics being available, Onovo (2010) states that it is a known fact that most kidnap cases are not always reported to the police authority for the fear of murder of the victims. Most families always prefer to pay ransom than to lose one of their own. Onovo gives the following instances, in Kano, N80 million ransom was allegedly paid to kidnappers for the release of a Kano-based multi-millionaire businessman without a recourse to the police authorities; an industrialist in Nnewi paid 70 million to regain his freedom from his captors; another multi-millionaire businessman was kidnapped and released after he allegedly paid a ransom without recourse from the police. In a similar vein, the Associated Press in its report of August 27, 2008 stated that “more than 200 foreigners have been kidnapped in two years of heightened violence across Nigeria.” Even though kidnapped victims are normally released unharmed after a ransom is paid, several have been killed during botched seizures or rescue attempts. According to Collier and Hoeffler (2002) “victims are maimed, raped and manhandled in such a manner that the stigma remains almost perpetually. The families and associates are knocked down by intractable trauma.’’ Another Police source states that on Sunday, July 11, 2010 four journalists and a driver travelling in a convoy of buses from a conference in Uyo, Akwa-Ibom State, were kidnapped in Abia State on their way back to Lagos. From their hideout, the abductors demanded a ransom of N250 million, and later reduced it to N30 million. A torrent of protests, condemnations and threats, greeted the action of the kidnappers and they were forced to let go of their victims. However, the police did not make a clear statement whether a ransom was paid or not. By and large, kidnapping and security threats are some of the social problems that have remained recurrent in the annals of a multi ethnic nation of Nigeria. The social

A Historical Account of the Scourge of Kidnapping in Nigeria: Implication on National Security. Ahmed Tanimu Mahmoud malaise has become so pervasive that it has been underscored by the Federal Government as one of the greatest challenges the country is facing in its current era.

Conclusion

The paper is of the view that Nigeria has turned to a playing ground of carnage, restiveness, religious violence, security challenges, and incessant kidnappings which discourage many people to have hope in better Nigeria or to have belief in the promised changed. This paper also discovers that apart from kidnappers targeting highly influential people in order to attract huge ransom, other factors include elimination of political opponents, religious and opinion leaders. In some cases, it is just to instil fear into the society as a weapon of intimidation. Unfortunately, the main actors in this illicit practice are the youth who are supposed to be the leaders of tomorrow. One of the major causes of the scourge of kidnapping activities is unemployment, poverty, corruption, injustice, general increase in crime rate and possession of small arms by illegal hands. Kidnapping activities have adverse consequences. Apart from discouraging internal and external investors, it creates general insecurity which scares people from free movement, especially hotspots where kidnapping is rampant. It also has adverse effect on the image of Nigeria.

Recommendations

1. Employment into the security agencies should be based on merit not by nepotism or tribalism as what is mostly obtainable today. 2. There should be security apparatus of the Nigerian State should be re-organized to be able to tackle contemporary security challenges. 3. The establishment of a welfare state where there would be jobs, houses, healthcare, qualitative education and security for every citizen 4. Any body found conniving with kidnappers should be dealt with no matter how wealthy, politically or religiously placed the person may be. 5. Efforts should be geared towards the enthronement of a credible leadership in the country where social contract will be respected and implemented to prevent a further slide into the Hobbesian state of nature where life is solitary, nasty, brutish and short, and perhaps where humans can be kidnapped for ransom at will. The time to act is now to save the situation. 6. There should be proper protection of identities of public members that supply useful information to the security agencies and officers and men of the security agencies. 7. There is need to review the current strategy of dealing with the issue of kidnapping and hostage taking in Nigeria. In particular, there is the need to

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 explore the extant laws and the extent to which they are being enforced with a view to establishing their efficacy. 8. The three tiers of government, especially the federal government, should embark on a public enlightenment campaign on the need to shun kidnapping.

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Interrogating Challenges of Sectarianism, Terrorism and Socio-Economic Development of Nigeria Amos Asongo Jev Interrogating Challenges of Sectarianism, Terrorism and Socio-Economic Development of Nigeria

1Amos Asongo Jev, Ph.D, 2Henry Yenda, Ph.D and 2Mr Samaliya Sule 1Department of Public Administration, Taraba State University, Jalingo Email: [email protected] 2Department of Political Science and International Relations, Taraba State University, Jalingo Email: [email protected]

Abstract This paper examined the challenges of sectarian and terrorism crises with special focus on Boko Haram terrorism and its effects on the socio-economic development of Nigeria. Sectarianism and terrorism is a canker worm that has eaten deep into the fabrics of the Nigerian state with its negative implications on the well-being of the people. To achieve this objective, the paper adopted the descriptive design as a basis of analysis. The paper also employed the State Failure theory as a framework of analysis. The choice of this theory is in line with the inability of the Nigeria state to address the seemingly intractable sectarian and most recently, the Boko-Haram crisis which has threatened her corporate existence over the years. There exist several religions in Nigeria and many of them are exploited for political gains. Within the last couple of decades, Nigeria has witnessed astronomical rise in the number of radical Islamic sects notably among them, Maitasine, Darul Islam, and Boko Haram. These sects have resorted to the use of violence in a bid to realize their ambitions of a wider islamization of the Nigerian population. Three of the most prominent perspectives shared on the rise of these radical movements are: poor socio-economic infrastructures and poor governance, poverty and aiding of religious extremism by politicians for their selfish ambition. This study reveals that while it is true that socio-economic factors may drive the radicalization and politicization of religious sects in the country, the fear of domination and indeed the fight for supremacy is at the heart of the current terrorism-insurgency in northeastern Nigeria. The conclusion is also that sectarian and terrorists activities have posed serious challenges on the socio- economic development of Nigeria. Recommendations were made on the need for an urgent initiation of bottom-top security approach anchored on local community intelligence. Transparency, probity and accountability in public governance process are irreducible minimum requirements for good governance and sound economic performance for improved citizens’ living conditions so as to tame the rising wave of sectarian and terrorists activities in the country.

Keywords: Sectarianism, Terrorism, Politics, Socio-Economic Development

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Introduction

The 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (as Amended) clearly prohibits the practice of State religion. It guarantees freedom of religion and forbid any form of discrimination on the basis of religious beliefs. Also Section 10 of the same constitution specifies that Nigeria or any of its sub-units shall not adopt any religion as state religion. This section clearly presupposes Nigeria as a secular State. However, Nigeria’s experience is at variance with the type of secularism expressed in Continental Europe which tends to bare religious activities from public life and confines it to the private sphere. In principle, secularism calls for the separation of government institutions and personnel from sacred and the profane. Put in political context, it means the separation of religious activities from public life of the people and government.

The lack of separation of the state and religion as contained in our constitution is fundamental to the understanding of the rise of sectarian and religious crisis in Nigeria. Christianity and Islamic activities have greater influence on the socio-economic, cultural and political life of the people in the country. Each believes it has a special relationship with God that excludes other religions. Although much has been written on political Islam, there is no general agreement at the level of definition (Nwanegbo and Odigbo, 2013). This has created not only the problem of conceptualization but also a corresponding problem of prefixing. What is political Islam and how best can it be defined? Nonetheless, the paper assumes the position of a conceptual plurality necessary for the understanding of Political Islam as a term used to label the wide-scale activities of individuals or organizations advocating transformation of the state and entire society according to "Islamic" rules. The term is often used in connection with the movements which represent political powers in the name of Islam, emerging at the end of the 20th century. Whether it is called political Islam: militant Islam, radical Islam, extremist Islam, fundamentalist Islam and revolutionary Islam areconstructed categories deemed necessary as they are believed to characterize political Islam.

The 21st century is exemplified by violence prevalent in human interactions. In Nigeria, sectarianism and terrorism phenomena are perceived and acknowledged as the greatest threats that confronts contemporary Nigerian society and the world at large. The activities of the various sects and terrorists have posed a great challenge to the corporate existence and survival of the country and many other nations. For Nigeria, these have become one of the national question to be addressed with every sense of responsibility and urgency it deserves. No wonder, Osabiya (2015) affirms that the national question involves the unresolved contradictions in the society that have continued to entrench Nigeria in a brutal circle of crisis. It is against the backdrop of the foregoing that, this paper examined the vexacious question of sectarianism and the recent terrorism problematic as a challenge to socio-economic development of Nigeria with a view to

Interrogating Challenges of Sectarianism, Terrorism and Socio-Economic Development of Nigeria Amos Asongo Jev identifying the immediate and remote causes of these crisis and a way forward for peaceful co-existence in Nigeria.

The Concept of Sectarianism

Salameh (2017) describes the word, ‘sect’ as a community that subscribes to certain religious beliefs from the past. These beliefs, at the time of their formation, were the expression of the ideological and class formation of a certain social group. This conceptual formation is transformed into a religious belief when there is a societal collapse and social groups become closed, whereupon these conceptualisations are reformulated as “mythological” beliefs. The sect is a group of people who were born to certain beliefs. Their beliefs often survive only cosmetically: people practice some celebratory or funerary rituals, or marry into the same sect for reasons of continuity. But these inherited beliefs do not serve as a basis for relations with the larger society where more common traditions and customs, both in urban and rural societies, are more prevalent. These beliefs generally recede against modernist ideas allowing for more societal integration (Oche and Dokubo,2001; Nwolise, 2012).

Sectarianism on the other hand, is any religious or sectarian barrier that is based on inherited beliefs against the ‘other’. That is to say: sectarianism is turning diversity to conflict. Without doubt this diversity is a result of an ancient conflict; however, the conflict at that time had economic and ideological bases for a political and ideological class conflict. Whereas before they represented intellectual currents rooted in material social classes and conditions, this language of an old struggle is used today in an essentialist way that has no relation to ideologies or classes. There is a subheading which we could call, sectarian instrumentalisation. This means that, a certain class could utilise these inherited beliefs to advance its own interests, without necessarily believing in them. This can be seen in the context of a class defense of its own privileges and existence against other classes, or against other sectors from the same class (Midgal, 1994; Osabiya, 2015).

Mushani (2009) and Salameh (2017) has further argued that, sectarianism is the tendency to undermine social cohesion by pushing for the reproduction of ancient beliefs and separations. This process is not exclusive to religious minorities, but can also be observed in the majority as well. Sectarianism is the system that best preserves the classist hierarchy and the dominance of the colonial bourgeois class interests (this is in communities with diverse confessional backgrounds), where tribalism might prevail in other types of community. The difference between sectarian and religious regimes is that in the case of a religious regime, one is subjected to an absolutist religious hegemony that allows no sharing of power with any other religious groups, as is the case in Iran and Saudi Arabia. A sectarian regime, on the other hand, presupposes power-sharing between different religious minorities on the basis of quota, even if the system is overwhelmingly

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 dominated by one of them (Nocella, 2004; Hubert, 2001).The relationship between sectarianism and terrorism is that while terrorism is the actual use or threat to use of indiscriminate force against non- combat people with the aim of motivating an impulse by the state or a powerful group or to induce a state of fear among its various victims utilizing ruthless strategies that does not conform to humanitarian norms, sectarianism is turning diversity into conflict. Both concepts have a relationship based on the fact that they all emphasis violence.

The Concept of Terrorism

While it is accepted globally that terrorism is a worldwide enigma, there is no such consensus in defining terrorism or even who a terrorist is. Put differently, scholars of terrorism studies have long struggled to agree on a common understanding of what terrorism is. To date, they have agreed on a little more than the fact that the concept is arduous to decipher. As a result, Meisels (2006) states that a hundred to two hundred modern definitions of the concept may have been formulated, wherein, Boylan (2009, p. 2) adds that different aspects of terrorism are “stressed including motives, applied tactics, and chosen targets”.

Since deciphering the concept has become laborious, a study by Schmidt and Youngman (1988, cited in Mushani, 2009) provides a gainful insight into the most relevant aspects of the definition of the concept of terrorism to include use of force (or threat) of violence, political objective(s) and the intention of instilling fear in a target population as a means of achieving the set objectives. The above perspective therefore forms the basis for many definitions of the concept, no matter how variegated the several attempts put forward by experts on the subjects may be.

Like other scholars, Anger (2002) posits that there is want of a universal definition of terrorism due to reason of politics rather than semantics. This is because actors and stakeholders tend to twist the definition to suit their purpose. Njoku (2011) also agree that the concept of terrorism is shrouded in a lot of controversies, questioning the constituents of terrorism and adds a new twist to the argument. To him, terrorism can be perceived from either an idealist or realist conception. The idealist school of thought emphasize that every act that produces fear, terror, or death, whether legitimately carried out or not, by an individual, group or state, is an act of terrorism. The realists on the other hand, perceive terrorism as essentially an attack by clandestine groups against non- combatants or civilians in order to draw attention by imbuing fear into the people’s public life so as to coerce them into a state of the actor from carrying out an action for their political objectives.

Interrogating Challenges of Sectarianism, Terrorism and Socio-Economic Development of Nigeria Amos Asongo Jev In spite of the definitional challenge, Todd and Keith (1995) attempted to define terrorism as a predetermined use of, or even the threat to utilize excessive violence or brutality to gain political objectives via intimidation and/or fear. This entails that terrorism can be achieved by direct physical violence or even threat that leads to the achievement of specific objectives like fear or psychological imbalance which could be political. Dickson (2005) agreed with Todd and Keith’s view point when he admitted in a related manner that terrorism is premeditated or threat to use violence pursuant to political gains and objectives through intimidation of targeted audience with an overall motive of making right the perceived wrong.

In their attempt to define terrorism, Dahl (1976); Goldstein (1999) and Kegley and Wittkopf (1999) confine themselves to the motives of terrorists which they agree is political. They opine that terrorism refers to political violence which targets non- combatants indiscriminately, deliberately and consciously in order to influence attention and audience. As commendable as the above attempt at defining terrorism may be, it lost sight of current realities and demands of terrorists. Though the paper agrees with their view that politics is at the center of terrorism, current trends have also shown that some acts of terrorism move a little bit away from core political pursuits even though they have such undertones. This explains why some terrorist groups are separatists, some ethno- centric and some nationalists and yet some animal rights activists. Some groups are revolutionary while some remain religious and yet some assume a social posture. It should be noted that if a terrorist group adopts the kidnap strategy to abduct a lowly rated man in society, it may not motivate a political action such as legislation against it. On the contrary, if a minister becomes a victim of the same group, it may elicit a different kind of reaction by the government.

For the sake of emphasis, it is worthy of note that this paper is in tune with the fact that no matter a terrorist groups’ posture, demands are made that only political outcomes can settle. Most recently terrorists hardly make demands, even when they do, such demands are always almost impossible to make. The Nigeria Terrorism (Prevention) Act (2011, p. 1) in its description of the concept attempts to fill the gap identified in Goldsein and Wittkopf and Kegley’s definition above. According to the Act:

Terrorism is described as the calculated and extreme use of violence or threatened violence, perpetrated by malice, to cause serious harm or violence against individuals, government and their assets with the intention to attain political, religious or ideological goals, through intimidation or coercion or instilling fear on civilian population.

Though this paper shares the view of scholars who argue that a comprehensive definition of terrorism does not exist and cannot be found in the foreseeable future, it is worthy to attempt a definition in order to beam more light towards the understanding of the

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 concept. This is done without any such claim that the attempt captures the entire or even represents the concept completely. By our understanding, terrorism simply means any violent act perpetrated by a group of people which is intended to instil fear, coercion and force in order to force the other person or group to conform or surrender.

Having considered the various definition of terrorism, it is important to peruse on a general note, the elements of the definitions featured in the definitions above. Like Schimdt and Youngman (1988) cited in Mushani (2009) observes, while some definitions feature some elements of the terrorists such as motives, identity, and methods, the definitions failed to explicitly address the following:

(i) Explicit intention of the terrorist (self-defense, power, and freedom). (ii) What methods constitute terrorism (use of weaponry, public disorder, singular murder or multiple murders). (iii) Magnitude of violence- when does it become act of terrorism? (iv) The boundary between terrorism and other forms of political violence such as guerrilla violence. (v) Whether government terrorism and resistance terrorism are part of the same phenomenon. (vi) Separating terrorism from simple criminal acts, from open war between consenting groups and from acts that clearly arise out of mental illness. (vii) Can terrorism be legitimate? What gains justify its use? What is the relationship between crime and terrorism?

In other consideration, scholars’ attention must be drawn to the fact that though almost all the definitions of terrorism alluded to a common criterion of terrorism which is violence, there is no such common grounds for what amount of violence that constitute terrorism. It has also been observed that the definitions are too broad. While their broadness may allow for generalization of the concept, they also guarantee varying degrees of interpretations of what constitutes terrorism. These generalizations open terrorism up to politicized manipulations, conjectures, and polemical interpretations.

It is also to be noted that though some definitions briefly mention terrorists’ motifs, the definitions did not however address issues of intent. Though motive and intent appear as one and the same, they do have a fundamental difference. While motive refers to the reason why a person chooses to engage in a particular act, intent however, is the conscious objective or purpose, plan and will to act in a particular way (Geddes and Grosset, 1994). It is possible for different terrorist groups to possess similar motives, but they often hardly have identical intentions.

Interrogating Challenges of Sectarianism, Terrorism and Socio-Economic Development of Nigeria Amos Asongo Jev On yet another note, the definitions of terrorism did not take into cognizance the difference between guerrilla warfare and terrorism. The similarity of the two creates the enabling grounds for confusion. For instance, guerrilla violence remains selective; guerrillas usually only attack the government and its ‘net of safety’, unlike terrorists who use indiscriminate violence without formal code of conduct and place no limits on the selection of their targets.

Owing to the inconsistencies that becloud the definitions of terrorism, it is imperative for this paper to implement a model definition of the concept. In this case, the UN Academic Consensus Definition which is more specific in what constitutes terrorism is considered and adopted by this paper. The Academic Consensus Definition as crafted by Schmid (2011) cited in Nwolise (2012) on behalf of the organization conceptualizes terrorism as:

…an anxiety-inspired method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi) clandestine individual, group or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby-in contrast to assassination-the direct targets of violence are not the targets. The immediate human victims of violence are generally chosen randomly (targets of opportunity) or selectively (representative or symbolic targets) from a target population, and serve as message generators. Threat and violence-based communication processes between terrorist (organization), imperiled victims and main targets are used to manipulate the main target (audience(s), turning it into a target of terror, a target demands or a target of attention, depending on whether intimidation, coercion or propaganda is primarily sought.

For the fact that Boko-Haram fits into Jihadists terrorist organization, there is credence in defining religious terrorism as distinct from other forms of terrorism. According to Hoffman (2006, p. 124), religious terrorism is:

Motivated either in whole or in part by religious imperatives, where violence is regarded by its practitioners as a divine duty or sacramental act, emphasizing markedly different means of legitimization and justification than that committed by secular terrorists, and these distinguishing features leads, in turn, to yet greater bloodshed and destruction.

Examples of Islamic terrorist groups include al-Qaeda, Hamas, Boko-Haram, al-Shabaab, Taliban and the Islamic State among others. As Muslim jihadist terrorist movements see disunity in the Moslem world as the cause behind Islamic vulnerability. Because Islam is fractured along ethnic, national and sectarian lines, it is difficult to unite the faithful into a global movement.

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 These Jihadists see the perceived common hatred of the West and Westernization as a catalyst that could unite Islam and it is this trans-continental clash that fuels modern day jihadi terrorism’s global reach (Sparago, 2007). One common feature of jihadi terrorist groups is that they subscribe to Salafist school of thought or the return to tradition and pure Islam. The return includes the re-establishment of the caliphate and the implementation of Boko-Haram Law (Yapes, 2005). Some under this group may be followers of Wahhabism (a branch of Sunni Islam described as orthodox). Wahhabism started from Saudi Arabia and it is therefore Saudi specific form of Salafism, Osama bin Laden and many other al-Qaeda and other terrorist groups were/are driven by this Islamic school of thought.

The lack of consensus on what constitutes terrorism, points to its inseparable political nature, perhaps best encapsulated by Truman (2003, p. 118) in the following words: “One man’s terrorist act is another man’s freedom fighter”, “Terrorism to some, is heroism to others”, and “today’s terrorist is tomorrow’s freedom fighter”. Indeed, given the foregoing argument, a consensual definition of terrorism will continue to elude us.

Types and Forms of Modern Terrorism

Medhurst (2002) identified different types of terrorism to include domestic, international and transnational terrorism. In a similar fashion, Abimbola and Adesote (2012) also identified some types of terrorism to include state-bond, non-state bond and cross-border terrorism, while state bond terrorism is orchestrated and aided by the state like in the Nazi regime against the Jews in 1939-1945, non-state bond terrorism is carried out by clandestine groups independent of the state, like the Maitatsine activities in the 1980s and those of Boko-Haram (especially before 2015). The cross-national or border terrorism has external and international connections. Ojukwu (2011) also refer to al- Qaeda and al Shabaab, whose activities cut across boundaries as examples.

In his contribution, Anger (2002) identified four types or categories of terrorism. There are transnational, international, state terrorism and domestic. He explained that transnational terrorism is carried out basically by autonomous, non- state actors irrespective of some degree of support from sympho-thetic state. On the other hand, international terrorism refers to such actions as carried out by individuals or groups controlled by a state and domestic terrorism is devoid of nationals of more than one state(s). To Anger, one will be right to refer to this sort of terrorism as the domestic parallel of international terrorism which is carried out by non-state actors. The lethality of this kind of terrorism is tilted towards only citizens of one state. Lastly, state terrorism refers to actions by national governments or sovereign states within the boundaries of that state.

Interrogating Challenges of Sectarianism, Terrorism and Socio-Economic Development of Nigeria Amos Asongo Jev Narrowing down domestic terrorism as identified by Anger (2002), Odeleye (2013) identified different types of domestic terrorism to include; civil disorder, political terrorism, religious extremism, non-political radicalism, quasi terrorism, and official or state terrorism.It must be understood that one common decimal of all forms of terrorism is infliction of fear, and harm (real or imagined and it could be mental, psychological and physical).

While scholars may have differed on what constitutes types or forms of terrorism, this paper holds that there is: Religious terrorism, political terrorism, criminal terrorism, sub-state terrorism, revolutionary terrorism, nationalist/separatist terrorism, right wing movement, left wing terrorism, state sponsored terrorism, pathological terrorism, state/regime terrorism and single issue terrorism.

Sources of Financing Terrorism Activities

All terrorist groups are formed by idealists with particular ideologies and they have to spend money to further their ideologies. In other words, modern terrorists do not live by enthusiasm alone; they need a great deal of money to entrench their ideologies. In fact, Giraldo and Trinkuna (2007) cited in Anyadike (2013) and Aykin and Sozmen (2009) identify finance as the “life blood” of terrorists. According to them, terrorist needs cash to sustain their propaganda, recruitment, training and retraining of members, to acquire arms and ammunition for establishment of support networks and maintenance of camps and other logistics like fake means of identification, travel documents, accommodation among others.

What then is terrorist financing? In its article 12 (1 & 3) the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) provides that (i) Any person who wilfully provides or collects by any means, directly or indirectly, any money by any other person with intent that the money shall be used for any act of terrorism, commits an offence under the this Act and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for life; (ii) Any person who makes funds, financial assets or economic resources or financial or other related services available for use of any other person to commit, facilitate or participate in the commission of a terrorist act is liable on conviction to imprisonment for life.

Financing terrorism is indeed a deep rooted practice characterized by extreme confidentiality, scheme, criminality and high degree of sophistication, complexity smattering know-how of the global financial system. Raphaeli (2003, p. 59) simply put it as: “an octopus with tentacles spreading across vast territories as well as across a whole range of religious, social, economic and political realities”. Before, the September 11 (9/11) terrorist attack in US, the concept of “terrorism financing” existed but only as a crime on its own and never found its way into any anti-money laundering framework. The attack on US by al-Qaeda motivated a new interest into the concept by institutions

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 and brought awareness into the various aspects of the crime (Mushani, 2009). In fact, al- Qaeda and Bin Laden’s economic and financial empire constitute a transnational financial engine, a considerable section of which is composed of legitimate businesses as stated by Schnider (2004a, 2004); and Camras (2005, 2007).

Most literatures have indicated that high flow of funds to terrorists was substantial during the cold war. According to Schnider and Caruso (2011), these flows are said to stem from oil-rich regimes that began to pump large sums of money into terrorist financial system. An example can be found in Libya in 1970s, and Iran under Ayatollah Khomeini, beginning in the 1980s (Cooper, 2001).

Though it is worthy of note that terrorist financing and its mechanism is diverse and dynamic, Adams (1986) and Chine and Alexander (1987) contends that there exist two major sources of funds for terrorism: state sponsorship and illegal activities. Further, he states that state sponsorship of terrorism declined very well after the cold war era. Before then, it was common for Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Libya among others, to give safe haven and finance to groups like the IRA, PLO and other clandestine groups. Napoleoni (2005) further relates that state sponsorship of terrorism evolved over time. This evolution throughout the twentieth century were in three phases viz: state sponsors during the Cold War period; privatization of funding by exploiting valuable resources in failed states in the early 1990s; and utilization of global financial and trade markets after the establishment of free trade zones and globalized economy in the past decades (Best and Nocella, 2004).

In their contributions, Schneider and Caruso (2011) split the sources of funding terrorism into legal and illegal sources. While it is certain that not all funds utilized by terrorists come from illegal sources, Yapes (2008) argues that legitimate financing of terrorists is related to completely legal activities conducted in form of charities and other forms of businesses. The 9/11 Commission reports points out a core number of financial facilitators involved in raising, moving, and storing the money al Qaeda used from donors primarily in the Gulf region but also from other countries around the world. Comras (2007) adds that these groups used legitimate charities and businesses as cover to develop a substantial financial network. Such legal sources of finance include state sponsorship, private (individual and corporate) donors, ethnic community and religious financing, charity and legal businesses. Illegal sources of terrorist financing as identified by Aykin and Sozmen (2009) include drug trafficking, oil-smuggling, and diamond and arms trafficking, among others.

In expanding the frontiers of counter-terrorism, US combined both legal and illegal sources of terror financing and develop four typologies which illustrates some of the methods and techniques employed by terrorists and terrorist groups to finance and/or

Interrogating Challenges of Sectarianism, Terrorism and Socio-Economic Development of Nigeria Amos Asongo Jev support terrorist activities. The various typologies are: Terrorist financing through smuggling of arms, assets and currencies; terrorist financing through drug trafficking; terrorist financing through trade and other lucrative activities and terrorist financing through NGOs, charity organisations and levies.

In addition, FATF Report (2013) points to two other sources to include terrorist financing through Politically Exposed Persons (PEPs) and alternative system, particularly called hawala indicated above. It may be paramount to add that in Nigeria in particular, leaders and business men contribute in funding Boko-Haram terrorist activities (Zenn, 2014). Baldwin (1997) and Ehrenfeld (2003) categorizes funding of terrorism into two: operational and strategic. Operational funding sources are for short term operational purposes and represent a flexible means to arms financing. Such operational finances are largely task oriented and does not require modest investment and most of them have been funded through legal and illegal “soft financing activities.

Theoretical Framework: The State Failure Theory

The state failure theory protagonists are; Weber (1978) cited in Stone, (2009), William Zartman and Robert Rotberg. These scholars sees the state as ﬁrst and foremost a service provider. Zartman cited in Jev and Dzoho (2014) posits that, when the basic functions of the state are no longer performed, it means the state has failed. A failed state theory argues that, when a state has disintegrated to a point where basic conditions and responsibilities of a sovereign government no longer function properly, such a state has failed. Likewise, when a nation weakens and its standard of living declines, it introduces the possibility of total governmental collapse. The nation-states exist to provide political goods and social services for citizens living within their borders (Rotberg, 2003, cited in Nwolise, 2012). States can either succeed or fail in discharging these responsibilities. When states fail, it means that they are incapable of either delivering adequate political goods to their citizens or taking full control of their territories. Such internal challenges could also mean that the state has lost its monopoly over the use of force or can no longer guarantee security by central sovereign leadership. In cases of severe state failure, the state loses its legitimacy, and its capacity to safeguard its citizens and control over its people becomes eroded. Rotberg (2003), cited in Nwolise, (2012) condenses the criteria of state failure into three main categories such as; economic stagnation, political instability, and loss of state’s legitimacy. According to him, the economic sphere is hamstrung by a lack of public goods and services, the flourishing of corruption and rent-seeking, and financially precarious circumstances. In the political sphere, leaders and their cronies subvert prevailing democratic norms, manipulate legislative laws, disregard the rule of law, compromise judicial independence, repress civil societies, and abuse security and defense forces. Consequently, corrupt ruling elites engage in conspicuous and ostentatious consumption by building

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 numerous duplexes and buying properties both at home and abroad, and stoking stolen funds in foreign bank accounts.

Within the context of the prevailing situation, one can argue that, the state failure theory in Nigeria can thus be justified. Indeed, the myriad of vexatious and intractable sectarian and terrorist problems and challenges explain rather graphically the reasons various sects such as Boko Haram, Niger Delta Avengers, etc. could operate swiftly in the Nigerian public sphere. The inability of the Nigerian state to address those issues convincingly is what has led to some section of the country to resort to violence and terror as an option for survival, but also as a means to rebel against a state deem to have failed (Anyadike, 2013).

The concept of state failure as applied to the Nigerian state would be used to describe the different level of institutional and governance crises within the country that has affected the state to meet the aspirations of the people ( Amuwo & Olaitan, 1994; Vogt, 1999, cited in Call, 2008). The several unending crisis of governance in Nigeria has not just increased anxiety, frustration and aggression but, also led to several sectarian and terrorist activities with the most recent been Boko Haram in the Northeast part of Nigeria.

Despite the contributions to the political analysis, the failed state theory has been criticized along two main strands. The first argues that the term lends itself to overgeneralization, by lumping together different governance problems amongst diverse countries, and without accounting for variations of governance within states. The second is concerned with the political application of the term in order to justify military interventions and state-building based on a Western model of the state. The concept of state failure “has no coherent definition”, with indexes combining various indicators of state performance with arbitrary weights to arrive at unclear and aggregated measurements of state fragility. Call (2008) argues that the label of ‘failed state’ has been applied so widely that it has been effectively rendered useless.

The failed state theory also provides an unclear understanding of what state failure means. Further critique for the manner in which the ‘failed state’ concept has been understood and operational zed is brought forth in research by Morten and Jennings cited in Abimbola and Adesote (2012, p. 134) who, drawing on five case studies— Afghanistan, Somalia, Liberia, Sudan, and the Niger Delta region of Nigeria—argues that "the use of the ‘failed state’ label is inherently political, and based primarily on Western perceptions of Western security and interests". They go on to suggest that Western policy-makers attribute the 'failed' label to those states in which 'recession and industrialization of the state is perceived to be a threat to Western interests'. Furthermore, this suggests a hypocritical approach on behalf of Western policy-makers, due to the fact

Interrogating Challenges of Sectarianism, Terrorism and Socio-Economic Development of Nigeria Amos Asongo Jev that the characteristics that would lead certain states to be labelled as failed are accepted in other states where these characteristics are in accordance with Western interests. In fact, "this feature of state functioning is not only accepted, but also to a certain degree facilitated, as it creates an enabling environment for business and international capital. These cases are not branded ‘failed states'.

The theory has been criticized for being teleological, ahistorical and reflecting a Western bias of what constitutes a successful state. Inherent in the concept of the failed state is the assumed association with terrorism and other transnational threats. They are sometimes described as incubators for international terrorism. It promotes an unclear understanding of what state failure means (Charles, (2010).Based on evidence from Sub- Saharan Africa; citizens of failed states are attracted to political violence because of the deteriorating conditions within this type of states. Focusing on individual citizens decision-making patterns, it is suggested that "individuals living in failed states are attracted to political violence because the system is broken, which means the state has failed in its duty" (Charles, 2010, p. 67).

The theory of state failure is relevant to this paper. Situating the Maitasine, Darul Islam, and Boko-Haram and the Niger Delta and the most recent which is herdsmen/farmers impasse within the context of state failure in Nigeria can thus be justified. Indeed, the foregoing myriad of vexatious and intractable problems and challenges explain rather graphically the reasons why Boko-Haram terror and herdsmen could operate swiftly in the country with impunity.

Sectarianism, Terrorism and Socio-Economic Development: The Nexus

Detailed studies measuring the negative socio-economic impact of sectarian and terrorism activities such as the Boko Haram insurgency and the political uncertainty it has engendered since these sectarian and terrorists activities were reported, have been presented differently by various scholars and stakeholders alike. However, some economists have calculated and predicted significant consequences of the violence on Nigeria’s growth rate (Rice, 2012). A number of foreign investors and local businesses are said to have abandoned investment plans for northern Nigeria because of Boko Haram insurgency (Anaro, 2012). There are attempts by some wealthy Nigerians to sell real estate assets in Abuja and other parts of the country due to increasing attacks since the return of democratic rule in Nigeria (Rice, 2012). Although some analysts have argued that ‘today’s Nigeria is strong enough to avoid protracted crisis’ (Moyo, 2012), many prominent Nigerians, including Wole Soyinka, the Nobel prize-winning Nigerian author, have however, warned of the possibility of the crisis degenerating into a civil war if not checked (Reuters, January 16, 2012). More importantly, there are also growing signs that Nigerian violence and instability may be spreading across the border, thereby affecting her neighbouring countries (Rice, 2012; Awoyemi, 2012). Growing evidence of

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 the involvement of foreign terrorist organizations in the Boko-Haram violence, both as foot soldiers and financial/trainers has become visible (Meehan and Speicer, 2011; Krech, 2011).

The dominant explanations for the upsurge of Boko Haram in Nigeria, (Enweremadu and Njoku, 2017), have until now centered on widespread poverty, ignorance, political marginalization and power struggle among Nigerian political elites. But as this study will show, although these positions are useful to some extent in explaining the rise of violence and violent groups, such as the Boko Haram, they are not sufficient, to the extent that they do not account for all the internal and external variables that we observe in practice. For instance, what are the role of external actors and the international spread of fundamentalist religious ideologies and practices in the violence occurring in the Northern part of Nigeria? Enweremadu and Njoku (2017) study which employs secondary data sources, seeks to address this important gap observed in the existing literature, as well as contribute to the ongoing debate on the nature and solution to the various internal insurrections plaguing Nigeria. The central arguments, according to these scholars is that, the upsurge and persistence of violence, especially by the Boko- Haram terrorist group can largely be attributed to religious extremism; a deep sense of ideological feelings supplanted by sets of activities aimed at protecting ones religious cleavage. This dimension of religious extremism in Nigeria can further be traced to foreign ideologies, writings and teachings of Islamic scholars such as the Pakistani Islamist, Abdul A’la Mawdudi and Sayyid Qutb from Egypt, which was the ideological foundation behind the Iranian revolution that had a spill-over effect in all parts of the world including most parts of Northern Nigeria in the late 1970s and 1980s (Enweremadu and Njoku, 2017).

In recent years, sectarianism and terrorism has shown new patterns, shifting increasingly from military targets to civilian targets with terrorist activities including individuals and business activities. These terrorist attacks have affected both the national and the global economy. The economic consequences can be largely broken down into short-term direct effects; medium-term effects and longer term productivity effects.

Ibietan, Chidozie and Ujara (2014), in their analysis submits that, the direct economic costs of terrorism and sectarian conflicts have been the destruction of lives and properties. It has also created emergency crisis leading to huge sums of money for restoration of the systems and the infrastructure affected. The provision of temporary shelter to huge number of refugees and the ever-increasing demands on government in terms of financial cost of fighting the activities of these terrorists has negatively impacted on the socio-economic development of Nigeria, especially in the North-eastern part of the country. Apart from financial implications, there is great effect in terms of manpower loss. A good number of Nigerian citizens and security personnel are daily lost to the

Interrogating Challenges of Sectarianism, Terrorism and Socio-Economic Development of Nigeria Amos Asongo Jev terrorist group’s criminal activities. In fact, it has been revealed that the cost of financing the fight against Boko-Haram and other terrorist activities is put at well over ₦ 1 trillion naira as of 2017 apart from losses incurred from agricultural productivity, health and education sectors of the economy (World Bank Report, 2017).

The indirect costs of terrorism have also affected the economy to a very large extent by undermining consumer and investor confidence. The activities of terrorism and sectarian crisis have made investors to divert resources to other neigbouring countries for fear of attacks on business installations (Moyo, 2012; Enweremadu and Njoku, 2017). The implication of the foregoing is that, it has reduced the tempo for foreign direct investments (FDI) into the country and as such, reduced socio-economic growth of the nation.

Religious conflict and other sectarian crisis in Nigeria dates back to 1953, when the crisis took place in Tafawa Balewa in 1948; the Igbo massacre of 1966 in the North that followed the counter-coup of the same yearwhich became a matter between the Igbo ethnic groups and the Hausa-Fulani Muslims. This crisis laid the foundation for the civil war of 1967 – 1970, which recorded about 3 million lives lost to the war. In 1980, the Maitatsine crisis erupted. In the same period, the erstwhile military ruler of Nigeria, General Ibrahim Babangida enrolled Nigeria in the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) an action that almost tore Nigeria apart (George and Hilal, 2013; Akinbi, 2015). The efforts to register Nigeria as OIC member aggravated religious tensions in the country, particularly among the Christian group who opposed the move. In reaction, their Muslim counterpart supported the moves, arguing that, smaller African countries with less number of Muslim adherents were members and so it was right for Nigeria to also join the OIC.

Another area of conflicts is the suspicions between Christians and Muslim communities in Nigeria. Rather than preach unity and peace which are the core values of both religions, religious extremism has taken center stage. These suspicions have resulted to crisis of unimaginable proportions, with tremendous loss in terms of human and material resources. The states mostly affected are Kano, Bauchi, Kaduna, Adamawa, Maiduguri and Yobe state. In view of the frequent occurrence of these crises, so much of socio-economic development of those affected states and Nigeria cannot be quantified (Akanbi, 2015).

Exploitation of the media has also become a weapon used to propagate the ideas of the sectarian crisis in Nigeria over the years. The media everywhere is supposed to serve as a gadfly to society. However, in Nigeria the media reports are sometimes seem to be much more sensational instead of reporting the actual events unbiased. In view of this therefore, these crises are usually aggravated. On the other hand, government slow

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 response to reported cases of tension and acrimony also do not augur well in a multi- ethnic environment such as Nigeria: For instance, the slow manner in which government responded to the activities of Boko-Haram when it was first reported, calls for concern as to the failure of the Nigerian state to protect the lives and properties of her citizens. No serious and responsible government will fold its hands and watch citizens been killed for whatever reasons. For instance, the inability of government at the federal level to bring to justice those who killed the leader of Boko-Haram in police custody up to now challenges the authority of the government at that time in prosecuting the Book-Haram insurgency in the North-East (Eme and Ibietan, 2012; Akanbi, 2015).

The negative implications of security deficits and inaction on the part of government over the years, explains the volume of sectarian and Boko-Haram terrorism on the Nigerian State. The negative effect of this security challenges on socio-economic growth and development of the country cannot be over emphasized. Peace is an irreducible minimum requirement and platform for economic progress and transformation. The north-eastern part of the country has been reduced to ashes and a shadow of itself. The ugly situation has resulted to deteriorating unemployment crisis and worsening food crises in the country. There is no doubt that Boko-Haram insurgency has exacerbated the situation of misery, poverty and pauperization of the citizenry, especially around the North-East geopolitical zone of Nigeria. It is common knowledge that economic activities, for over 10 years have been grounded in Maiduguri and its environs. The space of development in all sectors has been slowed down. In view of this, therefore, the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) in its 2016 and 2017 reports on the poverty situation revealed that the poverty stood at 76% while unemployment rates was 68% in the period under review (NBS, 2016, 2017).

The Implications of Terrorism and other Sectarian Crisis on Socio-Economic Development

The implications of terrorism and other sectarian crises on socio-economic development of Nigeria is varied and multifaceted, ranging from socio-psychological to economic and political which affects every nation because they are all connected and thus raising serious questions concerning the religious dimension of such terrorist and sectarian activities. Below are some of the implications of sectarianism and terrorism activities on socio-economic development of Nigeria:

Social/Psychological Implications

Yapes (2008) opines that, the primary and immediate effect of terrorism and sectarian activities has to do with loss of lives and properties. A huge number of lives have been lost and properties worth billions also destroyed, people live in perpetual fear

Interrogating Challenges of Sectarianism, Terrorism and Socio-Economic Development of Nigeria Amos Asongo Jev of insecurity because they do not know the next turn of events, or where it would take place. In the September 11 attacks, for instance, more than three thousand (3000) people were reported killed. The attacks in Kenya and Tanzania killed over two hundred people. The bombing of a night club in Bali in Indonesia on October 12, 2002, killed two hundred people. The Balsam school siege in September 2004 in Russia ended tragically with the death of about three hundred (300) persons, half of who were children (Stephen and Orokpo, 2016). Since the terrorist attacks started in the northeast of Nigeria, several lives have been lost to the crisis. The Human Rights Watch (2017) reported that about 500,000 lives have been lost to the conflict since its inception, several people both school children and old men and women kidnapped. A total of over 27 million people are currently in IDP camps in various locations in the northeast and other neighbouring states (Human Rights Watch, 2017).

One of the greatest concerns and fears existing in the minds of the people is that terrorists could go beyond ordinary explosives and find a way to deploy nuclear, biological and chemical weapons of mass destruction, now referred to as ‘weapons of mass destruction (WMD). The fear of the consequences of such action has a terrible psychological impact on the people, particularly those in the northeast who are more susceptible to terrorist attacks (Zabadi, 2005; Subair,2012).

Economic Implications of Terrorism and Sectarian Crises

The implications of terrorism on the economic spheres of the Nigeria society have been immediate and multifaceted. They include the following: With the ever-present fear of attacks from terrorists, governments and organizations all over the world including Nigeria, are compelled to expend huge sums of money to develop anti-terror infrastructure and other means of curbing the spread of terrorists activities. Such funds ordinarily could be used for more beneficial services to the people (Shaheen, 1987; Oche, 2001).

Since the 9/11 terror attacks in US and the subsequent responses by the international community, including the use of military force and full-scale war in Afghanistan and Iraq, and the cycle of violence that the situation has engendered, governments, companies and organizations have had to take painful economic measures. These range from reorganization leading to retrenchments of workers, increase in airfares, and withdrawal of subsidies which also invariably leads to inflation with attendants’ negative effects on economic growth and further insecurity among nations and in Nigeria in particular (Okeke 2005; Al-Thagafi, 2008).

Investors stay away from target areas or regions perceived as potential source of terrorist activities. The increasing high cost of oil is a direct consequence of terrorist activities and the unending insurgency against the coalition forces in countries like Libya,

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Iraq, Syria Somalia, among others has also fueled global insecurity with increasing effects on economies of nation states such as Nigeria with already fragile economy. The security challenges occasioned by rising terrorist activities have negatively impacted on the economic life of the country, leaving poverty and misery in the faces of Nigerian people in all ramifications. Suffice to say that the economy of the entire North-Eastern states of Nigeria is grounded with little activities going on due to terrorist activities (Alao, Atere and Alao, 2012).

Ever since terrorist activities became a global affair, air travels have entered a new era with air security becoming the priority concern of the airline operators/industry. Consequently, not only are huge sums of money spent on counter-terrorism measures, but innocent passengers are made to suffer the rigors of security checks at airports, especially Nigerians because of the failed attempt of Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab on December 25, 2009 to blow off the plane conveying passengers to US. Apart from that the increasing activities of Boko-Haram terrorist activities in the North-eastern part of Nigeria has also heightened security checks on Nigerians for fear of possible attacks (Putnam, 1993; Akinterinwa, 2010).

Political Implications of Terrorism and Sectarian Crisis

The political impact of terrorism and sectarian crisis on socio-economic development can also be immediate and long term in nature. For example, the ruling party in Spain lost power two days after the March 11, 2004 Madrid train bombings which killed one hundred and eighty one innocent lives. The post-9/11 environments has also relegated the Israeli/Palestinian crisis to the back burner thereby leading to a freeze in the peace process and the result is renewed cycle of violence and growing tension in the region with its attendant global peace and security implications (Stephen and Orokpo, 2016).

In Nigeria, the crisis has a telling effects on the political development of the North-eastern region as well. Apart from governorshipand national assembly elections, grassroots political activities have been hampered due to insecurity in the rural areas (Schnider, 2002a; Stone, 2009).

By and large, international terrorism continues to pose difficult challenges, just as the Boko-Haram insurgency in the North-eastern part of Nigeria remains a threat to socio-economic development of Nigeria. Terrorism has become a major challenge to state and human security in the international system. Terrorism is a threat to tourism development, energy-sector, civil-aviation, maritime and civil transportation. The act of terrorism transcend national boundaries and because the world has entered a new era of

Interrogating Challenges of Sectarianism, Terrorism and Socio-Economic Development of Nigeria Amos Asongo Jev interdependence, it is no longer possible for a nation to run amok on one frontier while her neighbours on another are hardly aware.

Conclusion

From the foregoing, it could be said that both sectarianism and terrorism crisis have come to stay in the national and international political systems. Both security challenges have emerged as a major threat to modern civilization. Even though in Nigeria, sectarian crisis seem to have been on the down-ward trend in recent times, the emergence of terrorism activities has become a worrisome phenomenon. Though some believe that one man’s terrorist is likely to be another man’s freedom fighter and one nation’s liberation movement could always be another nation’s terrorist organization, there is the need for the whole world to tackle this menace, which has the capacity to split the unity of a nation like Nigeria because of the religious nature of such terrorists acts and can literally destroy the world. Without doubt, the war against terrorism has grown beyond the management of a single nation or continent or state and therefore cooperation is vital if there will be meaningful success to be achieved in the fight against terrorism and other security challenges confronting nation states such Nigeria’s Boko-Haram insurgency.

According to Oche (2006) terrorism is not new in the world and it is very clear that as long as the “State” exists alongside diverse world outlooks and perspectives, the end of the phenomenon is not in sight. The only option left for mankind is to increase the attention given to terrorism the world over because no nation will ever claim absolute freedom from the scourge- because the victims of September 11 attacks in US were from around the world. For us in Nigeria, we must also take steps to deal with the problems that are unique to us like the incessant ethno-religious and other sectarian crisis, Niger- Delta militants (kudos to the Yar’Adua Amnesty) programme; and the Boko-Haram uprising in the North-Eastern Nigeria among others.

The effort made here is to interrogate the phenomenon of sectarianism, terrorism and its impact on Socio-economic development of Nigeria. From the analysis so far, the conclusion here is that this crisis has impacted negatively on the socio-economic development of Nigeria. This is said to be manifesting through so many unresolved issues leading to all manner of conflicts by way of sectarian or ethno-religious conflicts witnessed in the country as shown in the paper.

Recommendations

Deriving from the fact that sectarianism and terrorism activities have negative implications on the socio-economic well-being of the Nigerian people through loss of human lives and properties as well as huge resources expended in managing the crises,

Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 the following recommendations are made to tame the tide of sectarianism and terrorists activities in Nigeria. These are as follows: i. The Nigerian State under its leadership and political elites must create and continuously foster a climate of open dialogue and communication among the disparate elements and plural segments of the Nigerian society. This will imbue the country with the necessary sense of cohesion and integration, thus reducing acrimony, squabbles, tension, violent conflicts and ultimately end terrorism, which is almost consuming the country. ii. There is an urgent need for the initiation of bottom-top security approach anchored on local community intelligence. This approach to security makes every Nigerian, a security officer and will not only transcend the bounds of traditional security architecture, but complement it. This method will help check the rising cases of infiltration of communities and religious groups by people of questionable characters. iii. Transparency, probity and accountability in public governance process are irreducible minimum requirements for good governance and sound economic performance for improved citizens’ living conditions, and this is highly recommended. This premised on the fact that a well enhanced citizenry, that is gainfully employed will not engage in terrorist activities. A hungry man they say is an angry man! iv. Sponsors and sources of funding for the Boko-Haram insurgency and other sectarian crisis should be identified and investigated and those culpable punished. It is hoped that curtailing the sources of funding sectarian crisis and terrorist activities will go a long way in reducing the rising wave of sectarianism and terrorism activities in Nigeria. v. The government should put machinery in place through a collaborative effort between national and state orientation agencies, local government areas, traditional rulers, youths, women and religious groups in carrying out campaigns in all parts of the country to entrench a sense of unity and patriotism. This will help to address the misconceptions about western education, government activities and other issues used by Boko-Haram terrorist group in convincing the youths to support them. Furthermore, it will also help to address the issue of school drop outs so that those with sectarian and terrorists tendencies will not seize the opportunity to recruit them. vi. The rising cases of poverty and unemployment should be urgently addressed. Policies aimed at employment generation and poverty reduction should be put in place by the various tiers of government. There should also be collaborations between government and the private sector, as well as efforts at revamping ailing firms and empowering youths and women through skills acquisition programmes and agricultural practices. These measures cannot be achieved

Interrogating Challenges of Sectarianism, Terrorism and Socio-Economic Development of Nigeria Amos Asongo Jev without government addressing the issue of corruption in the governance process so as to improve the socio-economic well-being of the citizens. vii. Finally, the government of Nigeria should partner with the international community in addressing the issue of Boko-Haram insurgency and other sectarian crisis. Terrorism is a global phenomenon; therefore, it is advisable that it should also be addressed through global collaboration.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 An Assessment of the Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan (2001-2018)

1Julius Ngomba and 2Angela Ajodo-Adebanjoko, PhD 1Department of Political Science and International Relations,Taraba State University, Jalingo.E-mail address: [email protected] 2Department of Political Science, Federal University Lafia, Nasarawa State E-mail address: [email protected]

Abstract Since 2009, Afghan security forces and their international allies have been faced with a powerful insurgency which poses a serious threat to the security and stability of Afghanistan. One of the challenges of this insurgency is the fact that the image of who the insurgents are seems to be blurred. This is to some extent justified by the fact that due to Afghanistan’s geography and demography, the nature of the insurgency can vary greatly from one region to the next, or even from one village to the other. On the other hand, few would describe the insurgency in Afghanistan as merely a collection of small, locally based militias with no overall leadership or direction. However, when reading insurgents’ own statements and publications, we see that the militants have definite ideas of who they are and how they relate to other actors on the scene. Therefore, the Taliban’s definition of themselves may at times differ considerably from the mass media’s often ambiguous use of the label “Taliban.” This paper seeks to investigate the current situation of Taliban insurgency in Afghanistan. As the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) presence decreases, the onus will shift to the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) to secure the country and continue the fight against the insurgents still battling the Afghan government. Moreover, because it is a key regional actor, the actions of Pakistan and its Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) will be critical to the end game of the conflict and future direction of Afghanistan. The paper therefore seeks to ascertain how these two outfits can carry out their tasks and ensure security for the people of Afghanistan.

Keywords: Afghanistan, Insurgency, Taliban and Terrorism, Introduction The foundation for modern-day Afghanistan was laid by the Pashtun emperor, Ahmed Shah Durrani, in 1747. The country’s borders, as we know them today, were finalized by the British and Russian empires at the end of the 19th century, when Afghanistan functioned as a buffer state between the two great powers. Afghanistan gained full independence from the British Empire in 1919 and remained a kingdom until 1973, when it was transformed into a republic after a bloodless coup by king Zahir Shah’s brother-in-

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An Assessment of the Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan (2001-2018) Julius Ngomba law, Muhammad Daoud. A coup in 1978 ensured that the Afghan communist party, PDPA, came to power. Soviet forces invaded Afghanistan in 1979 in order to support the faltering communist regime, and occupied the country until they were forced to withdraw in 1989. The withdrawal was partly a result of fierce popular resistance among the Afghans, primarily by rebels known as the mujahidin, who were trained and supported by a number of external factors including Pakistan, the United States and Saudi Arabia. In 1992, a coalition of mujahidin parties led by Burhanuddin Rabbani came to power in Kabul, but was unable to stabilize the country due to severe infighting and civil war. In 1996, a conservative Islamist movement known as the Taliban took control over Kabul and remained in power until they were ousted by the U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001. Many of the Taliban’s leaders had fought with the mujahidin in the 1980s, but the Taliban did not emerge as a separate political force until about 1994. In some ways, the Taliban’s rise to power from 1994 to 1996 represented something new, since it was the first time an Islamist movement had been able to control a substantial portion of Afghanistan’s territory. On the other hand, the movement was not without precedents. Islamist-inspired anti-government opposition has a long history in Afghanistan. At times, the opposition was initiated by conservative tribal leaders, and at other times, by charismatic religious figures known as pirs or mullahs. These religious figures were normally not bound by the tribal structures, and were therefore able to rally large amounts of tribesmen to jihad against whoever they perceived as enemies of Islam. In the Pashtun border areas between Afghanistan and Pakistan; such uprisings were dubbed “mad mullah movements” by the British colonial administration (Thomas and Chris, 2007). The Taliban’s leader, Mullah Omar, has frequently been compared to the charismatic mullahs of the 19th and early 20th centuries, such as Mullah Hadda (who started the Great Pashtun Revolt of 1897) and the Fakir of Ipi (who led a guerrilla war against British India in the 1930s and 1940s). However, while it may be tempting to label the eccentric Taliban leader a “mad mullah,” it is important to point out that the Taliban phenomenon was more than simply another village uprising that gathered momentum due to Pakistani support. The rise of the Taliban as a political organization in the 1990s must be seen as a result of the great changes that Afghanistan and the rest of the region underwent during the latter part of the 20th century. Islamist political movements did not become a major force in Afghanistan until the Soviet-Afghan war in the 1980s where large groups of mujahidin were equipped and trained by foreign powers, in order to counter the threat of Soviet communism. In 1992, a coalition of these mujahidin parties came to power in Kabul and declared Afghanistan an Islamic state, but never managed to implement it in a systematic manner due to civil war and in-fighting. It was in this context that the Taliban movement rose to prominence in 1994–96.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Due to variations between the various mujahidin factions, as well as within the Taliban, it is hard to make any generalizations about their differences. For the sake of simplification, we can say that mujahidin leaders such as Burhanuddin Rabbani and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar were Islamist intellectuals with secular university degrees, who had gotten their inspiration from urban Islamist movements in the Middle East. The Taliban’s leaders, on the other hand, were more often of rural background and had a traditional Islamic education, often from madrasas in Afghanistan or Pakistan. But the distinction between mujahidin and Taliban is by no means clear: In the 1980s, before “Taliban” existed as a separate political movement, many religious students fought with the various mujahidin parties against the Soviet occupation. Mullah Omar himself, and about half of those who were to become the Taliban leadership, fought under the Islamic Revolution Movement of Afghanistan (harakat-e enqelab-e islami-ye afghanistan) led by Mullah Muhammad Nabi Muhammadi (Robert and Amin, 2008). The Taliban’s approach is a mixture of rural-urban insurgency, depending on which regional command of the country is being analyzed. Overall, the insurgency is rural, protracted, and funded through rents acquired from illicit economies. Its approach, or fighting strategy, has alternatively been described as asymmetric, ‘Fourth Generation’, Maoist, and that of the ‘war of the flea’. While there are certainly elements of each of these fighting styles apparent in the Taliban’s approach, the most accurate characterization is probably closest to Maoism. In the opening stages of the conflict, insurgents infiltrated the population and gained control over key areas before moving on to consolidate base areas, organize guerilla war, and create rudimentary political structures (Gutierrez and Giustozzi, 2010). This study is an attempt to investigate the current situation of Taliban insurgency in Afghanistan by ascertaining how the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) and Pakistan and its Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) have ensured security for the people of Afghanistan. Conceptual Clarification The Taliban The Taliban, who refer to themselves as the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (IEA), are a Sunni Islamic fundamentalist political movement and military organization in Afghanistan currently waging war (an insurgency, or jihad) within that country. Since 2016, the Taliban's leader is Mawlawi Hibatullah Akhundzada. The leadership is based in Quetta, Pakistan. From 1996 to 2001, the Taliban held power over roughly three quarters of Afghanistan, and enforced there a strict interpretation of Sharia, or Islamic law. The Taliban emerged in 1994 as one of the prominent factions in the Afghan Civil War and largely consisted of students (talib) from the Pashtun areas of eastern and southern Afghanistan who had been educated in traditional Islamic schools, and fought

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An Assessment of the Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan (2001-2018) Julius Ngomba during the Soviet–Afghan War. Under the leadership of Mohammed Omar, the movement spread throughout most of Afghanistan, sequestering power from the Mujahideen warlords. The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan was established in 1996 and the Afghan capital was transferred to Kandahar. It held control of most of the country until being overthrown after the American-led invasion of Afghanistan in December 2001 following the September 11 attacks. At its peak, formal diplomatic recognition of the Taliban's government was acknowledged by only three nations: Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. The group later regrouped as an insurgency movement to fight the American-backed Karzai administration and the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in the War in Afghanistan. The Taliban have been condemned internationally for the harsh enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic Sharia law, which has resulted in the brutal treatment of many Afghans, especially women. During their rule from 1996 to 2001, the Taliban and their allies committed massacres against Afghan civilians, denied UN food supplies to 160,000 starving civilians and conducted a policy of scorched earth, burning vast areas of fertile land and destroying tens of thousands of homes (Skain, 2002). Concept of Insurgency An insurgency is a rebellion against authority (for example, an authority recognized as such by the United Nations) when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents (lawful combatants). An insurgency can be fought via counter- insurgency warfare, and may also be opposed by measures to protect the population, and by political and economic actions of various kinds and propaganda aimed at undermining the insurgents' claims against the incumbent regime. As a concept, insurgency's nature is ambiguous. Insurgency is a protracted political military struggle directed toward subverting or displacing the legitimacy of a constituted government or occupying power and completely or partially controlling the resources of a territory through the use of irregular military forces and illegal political organizations. The common denominator for most insurgent groups is their objective of gaining control of a population or a particular territory including its resources. This objective differentiates insurgent groups from purely terrorist organizations. It is worth nothing that identifying a movement as an insurgency does not convey a normative judgment on the legitimacy of the movement or its cause, the term insurgency is simply a description of the nature of the conflict. Not all rebellions are insurgencies. There have been many cases of non-violent rebellions, using civil resistance, as in the People Power Revolution in the Philippines in the 1980s that ousted President Marcos and the Egyptian Revolution of 2011. Where a revolt takes the form of armed rebellion, it may not be viewed as an insurgency if a state of

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 belligerency exists between one or more sovereign states and rebel forces. For example, during the American Civil War, the Confederate States of America was not recognized as a sovereign state, but it was recognized as a belligerent power, and thus Confederate warships were given the same rights as United States warships in foreign ports (Roberts, Adam and Timothy Garton Ash, 2009) When insurgency is used to describe a movement's unlawfulness by virtue of not being authorized by or in accordance with the law of the land, its use is neutral. However, when it is used by a state or another authority under threat, "insurgency" often also carries an implication that the rebels' cause is illegitimate, whereas those rising up will see the authority of the state as being illegitimate. Criticisms of widely held ideas and actions about insurgency started to occur in works of the 1960s; they are still common in recent studies (Douglas, 1977).

Analysis of the Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan The Rise of the Taliban Popular stories tell us that the Taliban movement came into being in 1994, after a warlord in Kandahar province had kidnapped and molested two local girls. Mullah Omar, then a local village mullah, gathered a group of religious students, went to the commander and freed the girls. The story has several variations: Some versions tell that it was a young boy that was kidnapped; others add that the Taliban killed the warlord and hung his corpse on the cannon of a Soviet tank. Whatever the details, it is commonly acknowledged that the Taliban movement started as a local reaction to the widespread anarchy and lawlessness in the country. In 1994, Afghanistan had already gone through a ten-year long struggle against Soviet occupation, followed by five years of devastating civil war. Due to the large amounts of arms and other support given to the mujahidin in the 1980s, the country’s population was armed to the teeth by the time of the Soviet withdrawal. While society previously had been based on tribal laws and customs, the long struggle against Soviet occupation and the subsequent civil war had led to a fragmented society, where power was no longer based on tribal heritage, but on military muscle. Thus, the 1980s and 1990s saw the rise of a new phenomenon in Afghanistan, namely, that of warlordism. It resulted in a period of brutal suppression of the population, corruption, anarchy and lawlessness. It was this society that the Taliban movement set out to reform, by calling for a return to a “pure” Islamic society governed by a strict interpretation of Sharia, or Islamic law. The Taliban movement quickly increased in strength, and came to control 90 per cent of the country in less than five years. The research literature usually points to two main explanations for the Taliban’s rapid rise to power: The fragmented nature of Afghan society, and the external support it received from Pakistan and other foreign actors. Thus,

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An Assessment of the Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan (2001-2018) Julius Ngomba the literature tends to downplay or ignore the role played by the Taliban themselves. However, other researchers have argued that the Taliban’s rise to power cannot be explained by external factors alone. In a recent article, Sinno argues that the Taliban’s rapid rise to power was due to the Taliban’s own skills and efforts at assimilating or sidelining rival Pashtun leaders. This would explain why the Taliban managed to take control over large portions of Afghanistan so quickly while Hekmatyar, a Pashtun warlord who received far more foreign support than the Taliban, never managed to extend his power outside a small area of eastern Afghanistan. On the other hand, it is unlikely that the Taliban would have achieved what it did, had it not been for the specific historical circumstances and the support from outside actors, in particular the Pakistani intelligence agency ISI (Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence). There is probably more research to be done in the field of understanding the internal dynamics of the Taliban movement of the 1990s (Abdulkader, 2008). Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan 2013-2018 Taliban Cancels Talks; U.S.-Afghan Tensions Flare In January, the Taliban strikes a deal to open an office in Qatar, a move toward peace talks that the United States sees as a crucial part of a political settlement to ensure a stable Afghanistan. But two months later, the Taliban suspends preliminary talks, accusing Washington of reneging on promises to take meaningful steps toward a prisoner swap. In February, U.S. Defense Secretary Leon Panetta announces the Pentagon's plan to conclude combat missions by as early as mid-2013 and shift to a primarily security assistance role in Afghanistan. Meanwhile, several incidents serve asblows to the international mission, including an accidental burning of Qurans by U.S. troops and allegations that a U.S. soldier murdered at least sixteen Afghan villagers. President Hamid Karzai demands that foreign troops be withdrawn from village outposts and confined to military bases, which analysts say would greatly accelerate the pace of transition from NATO to Afghan control. Also on April 13, 2017 U.S Attacks Islamic State Redoubt, the United States drops its most powerful non-nuclear bomb on suspected Islamic State militants at a cave complex in eastern Nangarhar Province. The weapon, known colloquially as “the mother of all bombs,” comes as newly elected President Donald J. Trump delegates decision- making authorities to commanders, including the possibility of adding several thousand U.S. troops to the nearly nine thousand already deployed there. (There are about as many U.S. contractors as well.) The bombing casts a spotlight on the emergence of the Islamic State in Afghanistan. At the same time, the Taliban appears to be as strong as ever, and the U.S. military describes the war as a stalemate. Kabul experiences suicide bombings on a scale never before seen, while the Taliban control or contest more than a third of the country. U.S. Marines are once again dispatched to Helmand Province.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Furthermore, January 2018 the Taliban Launches Major Attacks amid U.S Escalation, The Taliban carry out a series of bold terror attacks in Kabul that kills more than 115 people amid a broader upsurge in violence. The attacks come as the Trump administration implements its Afghanistan plan, deploying troops across rural Afghanistan to advise Afghan brigades and launching air strikes against opium labs to try to decimate the Taliban’s finances. The administration also cuts off security assistance worth billions of dollars to Pakistan for what President Trump called its “lies and deceit” in harboring Taliban militants. Critics of the National Unity Government say domestic politics-notably a showdown with a provincial governor-have distracted President Ghani from security. Who are the Insurgents? In order to describe the nature of the Afghan insurgency, it is essential to say something about how it is comprised. Most of the research literature agrees that the insurgent movement can be divided into several distinguishable groups: The Taliban movement/Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan led by Mullah Omar; the Haqqani network led by Jalaluddin Haqqani and his sons; the Hizb-e-Islami led by Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, 23 foreign fighters connected to the al-Qaida network, and so forth. This would also correspond to how the insurgents often describe themselves. In reality, however, and especially on a local level, it is often hard to distinguish between the various insurgent groups, especially when they all seem to be fighting for the same cause. Dividing insurgents into groups may in some cases seem artificial, and does not describe the dynamics of the insurgent movement very well. Another approach, which is especially useful for counter-insurgency purposes, is to divide the insurgent movement into “layers” based on the individual insurgents’ motivation for fighting. Using this approach, the literature talks about “hard-core” vs. “non-core” insurgents, “first-tier” vs. “second-tier” and “third-tier” Taliban, and the like. In one end of the scale are those motivated by ideology and religion alone, and on the other end are those fighting for money or other pragmatic reasons. In the following, we will outline both these approaches (Gutierrez and Giustozzi, 2010). Development of the Military Campaign in Afghanistan There are different versions of how the Afghan insurgency started, but it is generally agreed that the initiative came from a narrow group of Taliban leaders who had managed to survive the U.S. invasion in 2001.Initiatives probably came from local commanders and militants inside Afghanistan as well, who may have started fighting the coalition forces and the new Afghan authorities on their own, and for a variety of purposes. Nevertheless, it appears that remnants from the Taliban government were involved in organizing and coordinating an insurgency from early on. Some have argued that had former Taliban officials been offered a role in the post-war negotiations, they would

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An Assessment of the Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan (2001-2018) Julius Ngomba perhaps not have started the insurgency. This depends, of course, what part of the “Taliban” one is referring to. Giustozzi has argued that while so-called “moderate Taliban” might have been involved in such a process,the “hard-core” led by Mullah Omar started the insurgency not because they were refused a seat at the negotiation table, but because they, for ideological reasons, “never accepted defeat and thought it was their duty to fight on.”The IEA’s ability to recruit and gather followers, on the other hand, could perhaps have been reduced had “moderate Taliban,” or former Taliban officials willing to cooperate with the new government, been given political influence in the new Afghan state from the very beginning. From January to September 2002, there were occasional incidents of violence, mostly concentrated in the southern and south-eastern border areas of Afghanistan, and in particular the provinces of Paktia, Paktika and Khost in the southeast, and Kunar in the East. The largest battle in this period was the battle of Shah-i-Kot (Operation Anaconda) in the first half of March 2002, which involved both local Taliban militia (fighters associated with the commander Safiur Rahman Mansoor) and foreign fighters associated with al-Qaida and the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan. It was not looked upon as a sign of a new insurgency, but rather as a “last stance” for foreign and local fighters who had not yet withdrawn to Pakistan. In this period, there were also occasional attacks elsewhere in Afghanistan (Rahimullah, 2002). From September 2002, the insurgency gradually developed into a more organized campaign. Attacks slowly increased in number and in geographical distribution. New tactics were also introduced, and the attacks became slightly more sophisticated. In the beginning, attacks involved mostly small numbers of fighters and tactics were limited to rocket attacks and ambushes on U.S. targets, in addition to attacks on Afghan police and military. Towards the end of 2002 and in 2003, insurgents started to operate in larger units (up to 150), the use of roadside bombs increased, and operations became more frequent. A Taliban stronghold was reportedly established in the province of Zabul, which some said housed up to 1,000 fighters During 2004 to 2006, more strongholds were established across southern and southeastern Afghanistan, and in 2006, reports started to emerge of insurgent activity in northern parts of the country. In 2006, insurgents also stepped up their efforts in the southern provinces of Afghanistan, in particular Kandahar, Uruzgan and Helmand, as a reaction to the deployment of ISAF troops in the area. In Kandahar province, insurgents gathered in the Arghandab district in a possible attempt to take the city of Kandahar, the second largest city of Afghanistan and a traditional Taliban stronghold. However, they suffered a setback during a massive ISAF operation known as “Operation Medusa,” carried out in September that year. The IEA’s leadership also suffered another setback in May 2006, when the notorious commander for Southern Afghanistan, Mullah Dadullah, was killed. In spite of this, the insurgency seemed to resume with full strength the

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 following spring (Asia Strategic Survey, 2007). In 2007, the insurgency continued its spread to western and northern parts of the country, and the fighting also came closer to Kabul. From late 2007, a series of high-profile attacks have been mounted inside Kabul city, including: i. 14 January 2008: An attack on the five-star Serena hotel in Kabul was carried out by four militants with small arms and suicide bombs, killing six people. ii. 24 April 2008: An attempt on President Karzai’s life was made during a military parade in Kabul, carried out by six militants with small arms and suicide bombs. Three people were killed. iii. 7 July 2008: A suicide car bomb attack against the Indian Embassy in Kabul killed 41 people. This was the largest attack in Kabul city since 2001. iv. 11 February 2009: A coordinated attack on three government buildings (the Justice Ministry, the Education Ministry and the directorate for prisons) in Kabul was carried out by eight militants with small arms and suicide bombs. Around 20 people were killed. v. 15 August 2009: A suicide car bomb attack against the NATO headquarters in central Kabul killed eight people. vi. 17 September 2009: A suicide car bomb attack against an ISAF convoy in Kabul killed six Italian soldiers and at least 10 civilians. vii. 8 October 2009: A suicide car bomb attack against the Indian embassy in Kabul killed at least 17 people. viii. 29 October 2009: An attack on a UN guesthouse in Kabul was carried out by three gunmen. Five UN staff and three Afghans were killed. Over the past few years, there have been some new trends in the insurgency that deserve mention. First of all, the capital of Kabul appears to be more often targeted with gunmen and/or suicide bombers than before. It is a disturbing development, as it indicates that militant networks have the ability to smuggle fighters and weapons even into the seemingly secure capital. Most attacks in Kabul have been directed against coalition forces, the Afghan government and certain foreign embassies. The attack on the Serena hotel in 2008 and the UN Guesthouse in 2009 were exceptions to this pattern. Up until 2009, UN offices in the Afghan capital had largely been spared for direct attacks, which made the Afghan insurgency different from that in Iraq. In an article published in May 2007, Williams noted that the UN appeared to be respected by the main insurgent groups in Afghanistan as a neutral partner in the conflict. The attack on the UN Guesthouse in Kabul in 2009 broke with this trend, but it is still too early to say whether it was a separate incident connected to the UN’s involvement in the 2009 elections, or the beginning of a new strategy to step up attacks on UN personnel and installations. The IEA has repeatedly condemned the UN in their public statements (more on this in Chapter 8), but does not appear to have a specific strategy to target the UN on a massive scale. According to an IEA spokesman, the attack on the Guesthouse in October

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An Assessment of the Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan (2001-2018) Julius Ngomba 2009 came because of the UN’s involvement in the Afghan elections that autumn, which the IEA sought to derail (Brian, 2007). The use of suicide bombers is another trend that deserves mention. The tactic of suicide bombing was virtually unknown in Afghanistan before 2001. The first known suicide attack to take place on Afghan soil was carried out on 9th September 2001, when the Northern Alliance commander, Ahmed Shah Masoud, was killed by two Arab suicide operatives posing as journalists. As the insurgency gained momentum, the use of suicide bombing also increased, and the tactic started to be employed by local insurgents as well as by foreigners. The number of attacks per year reached a peak in 2007 with 142 attacks, after which it appears to have declined. Suicide attacks with a large number of casualties, which occurred on a few occasions in 2007 and 2008, do not appear to be a trend in Afghanistan. In fact, suicide attacks in Afghanistan have tended to result in much fewer casualties per attack than similar campaigns in Iraq and elsewhere. A study of attacks carried out in 2006 and the first half of 2007 concluded that in almost half of the cases, only the suicide attacker himself was killed. There may be many reasons for this, including a lack of professionalism and motivation on part of the suicide bombers. However, the avoidance of mass casualty bombings also appears to be a deliberate strategy of Taliban leaders. When suicide attacks result in large numbers of civilian casualties, IEA’s spokesmen usually deny responsibility, presumably for fear of losing popular support. In 2009, the IEA issued a new “code of conduct” for its members which stated that the use of suicide bombings should be limited to high-value targets and that “the utmost effort should be made to avoid civilian casualties.”Another point is that few suicide attacks in Afghanistan have randomly targeted civilians or other religious sects, as was the case in the Iraqi insurgency.When mass-casualty attacks do happen, they appear to have had a specific target in mind such as Afghan politicians or security chiefs (Brian, 2007). Taliban insurgents who fight against US and ISAF troops in 2014 are motivated by a different set of factors than the group of young madrassa students that initially comprised the movement in the mid-1990s. Then, the Taliban was primarily motivated by the desire to establish an ideal Islamic state governed by sharia law. After all, the Taliban’s ranks were made up of young Afghans who grew up in the refugee camps of Pakistan, displaced from the fighting of the Soviet-Afghan War. Today, the Taliban fight first and foremost to expel foreign troops from Afghan soil. Following a dozen years of fighting against Coalition forces, the Taliban has been seriously degraded. Estimates put the number of insurgents somewhere between 60,000 and 70,000, of which approximately 15,000 insurgents are full-time fighters. American airpower, ISAF counterinsurgency warfare, and special operations night-raids have damaged the organization and caused it to disperse throughout Afghanistan and across the border in Pakistan. However, this is the same group that claims membership in

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 the mujahedin that drove the Soviets out of Afghanistan in the late 1980s. Despite suffering major losses, elements of the insurgency remain confident that if its fighters are able to muddle along, the Taliban can survive until US troops are withdrawn from Afghanistan. This could potentially set the stage for a return to violence and yet another Afghan civil war. The majority of the Taliban’s military operations are conducted by insurgents operating within their home provinces (Fotini, 2009). Still, the influence of groups like the Haqqani Network and links to both al-Qaida and the Tehrik-i-Taliban (TTP), or Pakistani Taliban, indicate that as the conflict continues, the Afghan Taliban could be influenced by actors with more regional and even global ambitions8. Thomas Ruttig believes that the current U.S. strategy of degrading the Taliban to force it to the negotiating table is having unintended effects. The most serious of these is contributing to the rise of younger, more radical Taliban commanders who are filling the ranks of the ‘neo-Taliban’, an iteration of the insurgency with a more ‘jihadist internationalist’ worldview (Ruttig, 2011). Funding and Support of the Taliban Insurgency How an insurgent group finances itself has a major impact on the motivation of its members, overall group morale, political legitimacy, and the trajectory of the conflict. Unlike groups that are strictly considered ‘narco-terrorists’, the Taliban does not rely solely upon narcotics as a means of funding its insurgent activities in Afghanistan. Indeed, it maintains diverse sources of financing, coupled with a robust support network that offers both active and passive support. Part of the Taliban’s war chest is derived from a multibillion dollar trade in goods smuggled from Dubai to Pakistan (Rubin, 2001). According to Peters, by 2010, the Taliban had become involved in no fewer than 36 cross-border smuggling operations12. Besides taxing narcotics traffickers and smuggling, the Taliban also runs protection rackets, commits extortion, and is engaged in kidnapping for ransom (KFR) throughout Afghanistan. In 2007, Taliban insurgents met with members of the Haqqani Network and the TTP to discuss how to negotiate an agreement on dividing the ransom proceeds raised from the return of hostages (Peters, 2010). The Taliban’s finances are very often associated with opium production. While this is true to a large extent, it would be wrong to say that the opium industry is the sole financial source of the Taliban. One report from 2008 estimated that opium production “provides up to 40 percent of the Taliban’s total financial support,” which is serious enough, but which also indicates that 60 per cent or more comes from other sources. Other sources of income probably include taxations of local populations, various forms of criminal activities (either directly through foreign exchange kidnapping and extortion, or indirectly through cooperation with criminal networks), and donations from local and international support networks. The Islamic Emirate usually admits that the insurgents are financed by way of religious taxes, and local and international donors, although they

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An Assessment of the Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan (2001-2018) Julius Ngomba principally deny having anything to do with opium trade, or other forms of organized crime (Mohammad, 2008). Support Networks in Pakistani Tribal Areas After the fall of the Taliban regime in late 2001, Pakistan’s Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) has functioned as a sanctuary for senior Taliban and al-Qaida leaders. These areas have traditionally been outside control of Pakistan’s central government, and have been a site for guerrilla and terrorist training camps since at least the 1980s (Tim, 2004). Today, Afghan insurgents and foreign fighters rely on these areas for training, material support, and recruitment. The border with Afghanistan is porous, allowing for fighters and supplies to be transported across it with relative ease. FATA and NWFP have long been home to a number of Pakistani militant Islamist groups. In 2007, several of these groups joined an umbrella organization called the “Pakistani Taliban Movement” (Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan, or TTP), initially lead by the Waziristan- based militant Baithullah Mehsud. Mehsud was killed in a drone strike in August 2009, and was replaced by one of his close associates, Hakimullah Mehsud. (Tallis, 2008) The exact contributions of TTP to the Afghan insurgency are unclear. According to the Pakistani journalist Muhammad Amir Rana, the two organizations enjoy close ties: “Every group that wants to join the TTP must take an oath of commitment to Sharia enforcement and loyalty to Mullah Omar.” They also have to contribute 50 per cent of their income to a ‘‘jihad fund” to sustain activities in tribal areas and in Afghanistan.According to various reports, the TTP has supported the insurgency in Afghanistan directly by sending fighters across the border. However, there have also been tensions between TTP and the Afghan Taliban over strategy and tactics, as will be discussed later in this report (Muhammad, 2008). Attitude Towards Negotiations and Power Sharing In the West, there is an increasing realization that negotiations with the Taliban, at some level or another, must be an integrated part of the counter-insurgency effort in Afghanistan. The need for a negotiated solution with Taliban insurgents has also been voiced by NATO and U.S. generals, perhaps most clearly by the departing commander of the British forces in Afghanistan, Brig. Mark Carleton-Smith, who said in October 2008 that the Taliban could not be defeated, indicating that the only way forward for Afghanistan was to find a political solution that would include the Taliban. In practice, this usually means attempting to win over local commanders and tribal leaders inside Afghanistan and thereby undermine the authority of central leadership figures (Michael, 2009). However, others have called for more direct talks with the IEA’s leadership council. The UN representative to Afghanistan, Kai Eide, has said that “effective dialogue must reach the insurgent leadership rather than just marginalised moderates.” Few believe that it is

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 feasible to negotiate with the Taliban leaders directly, due to their rigid stance on the topic. Nevertheless, there are various allegations that the Afghan government has attempted to approach Mullah Omar directly. Negotiation Attempts with the IEA’s Leaders Around 2006, the Afghan government started to talk openly about negotiating with Mullah Omar. The IEA promptly denied that any kind of negotiations had taken place, “neither with the occupation forces nor its followers,” and said that it is impossible to hold negotiations when the country is under occupation. Another statement specified that holding negotiations with Karzai would be “meaningless,” because he is under the control of others. It also stated that the IEA does not want any political power, i.e. compromise or power-sharing is not an alternative, only “an independent Afghanistan and a sovereign state” (Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, 2006). In 2007, there was talk of a joint “tribal council” or “joint peace jirga” to be held, with the participation of Pashtun tribes from both Afghanistan and Pakistan. Although the press initially reported that the IEA considered participating in this jirga, the statement was promptly denied by the Emirate’s spokesman, Muhammad Yusuf, who claimed he had been misquoted by Reuters.Throughout 2007, the Emirate issued several statements condemning the peace jirga and repeating that the only solution to the conflict is that the foreign “occupation forces” leave Afghanistan. The peace jirga took place in Kabul on 9- 12 August 2007 and resulted in a declaration that contained, among others, a pledge.” that government and people of Afghanistan and Pakistan will not allow sanctuaries/training centres for terrorists in their respective countries, and a pledge to stop opium production (Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, 2006). In the autumn of 2007, two foreign diplomats (Michael and Mervyn) were expelled from Afghanistan, accused of trying to negotiate with Taliban representatives in Musa Qala, Helmand, without the permission of President Karzai. British troops had long fought with the Taliban in Helmand province for control over Musa Qala, with local Taliban forces periodically seizing control. It is unclear whether the diplomats really negotiated with the IEA, and on what level (media stated there were negotiations with “low-level commanders” only – which was most likely the case). The IEA, however, denied that any negotiations had taken place at all, and that the surrender of Musa Qala had been a tactical decision that had nothing to do with negotiations (Times Online, 2007). In the autumn of 2008, new reports surfaced that there had been secret talks between the Taliban and the Karzai regime, sponsored by Saudi Arabia and Great Britain. The talks were held in Saudi Arabia on 24–27 September 2008, and according to the CNN, “... involved 11 Taliban delegates, two Afghan government officials, a representative of former mujahadeen commander and U.S. foe, Gulbadin Hekmatyar, and three others” (Robertson, 2009). King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia was also said to be present. Other

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An Assessment of the Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan (2001-2018) Julius Ngomba sources, however, said that the so-called “Taliban delegates” were not representatives of Mullah Omar’s organization, but rather, constituted former members of the Taliban regime such as Mullah Wakil Ahmed Muttawakil and others (Bill, 2009). In the wake of these press reports, the IEA, again, issued a series of denials that they had been involved in the talks. This time, it included statements by both the deputy leader of the Emirate, Mullah Baradir, as well as of Mullah Omar himself. The double statement by both the leader and the deputy leader of the Emirate stresses the importance the Taliban leadership puts to upholding its image of being completely uncompromising in the issue of negotiations. Mullah Baradir stated, for example, that “the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan will never hold negotiations with America, NATO, and the Kabul agent administration” (Al-Sumud, 2009). He claimed that the Karzai administration only held talks with former members of the Taliban government, whom “it detains and whom it holds under house arrest. The reality is that those do not represent the Islamic Emirate in any manner.” He also stated that the IEA’s goal is not to obtain political power, and “if the Islamic Emirate conducts negotiations, they will be on the basis of benefiting Islam and the people, and they will be hidden from nobody.” In December the same year, Mullah Omar issued a statement denying any role in the Saudi Arabian negotiations at all. Conclusion This study is an attempt to complement already existing studies of the Afghan insurgency. It cannot be stressed often enough that the primary purpose of the IEA’s propaganda is not to represent reality on the ground; they merely represent an image the IEA seeks to project of itself, with the purpose of increasing its chances to win the war in the long run. The Emirate’s leaders are well aware that they are fighting a “media war” with its adversaries, in addition to the physical struggle on the ground. The information found in its propaganda cannot be compared with the “hard facts” on the ground. At the same time, however, databases of insurgent attacks can hardly explain why a particular target was attacked, or what the insurgents think about the future. It is these and similar questions that have been examined in this report. One of the findings of the study is that the Islamic Emirate sees itself as a nationalist- religious movement fighting to resurrect the Taliban regime of the 1990s and to bring the various ethnic groups of Afghanistan under its rule. The Taliban-led insurgency is primarily a Pashtun movement, and tribal and ethnic factors have direct influence on its recruitment and mobilization patterns. Its political agenda, however, is different than that of Pashtun separatists who advocate a separate Pashtun state. The IEA’s agenda also differs from that of its foreign allies (al-Qaida and Pakistani Taliban) because its primary concern is re-taking power in Afghanistan and implementing their interpretation of Islamic law in Afghanistan.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 However, the IEA appears to have a closer relationship with its foreign allies than with the other major insurgent leader in Afghanistan, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. In spite of their fighting for the same broad goals, their relationship can be described as pragmatic at best. The main fault line in the IEA’s relationship with its various allies appears to be centred on power and authority: Hekmatyar’s group, the Hizb-e-Islami, is seen as a challenge to the IEA’s power, while al-Qaida’s fighters are not, because they have taken on the role as advisors and supporters. Here probably lies some of al-Qaida’s key to success in the region, and the reason why they have not suffered the same destiny as al-Qaida in Iraq.

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Crews, Robert D., and Amin Tarzi. The Taliban and the Crisis of Afghanistan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Philosophy and Theological Ideas of Martin Luther as a Prelude to Protestant Reformation

Ibrahim Bashir Aminu and Isaac IorhenAkuva, Ph.D Department of Political Science, Federal University Dutsin-Ma Email: [email protected]; [email protected] Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract This paper is analytical and adopted the use of secondary method of data collection to examine the theological as well as the political philosophy of Martin Luther as a responsible factor to the Christian Protestant Reformation in the 14th Century. The authors used the existing extant literature on the philosophy of Luther on church reformation to show how Luther contributed to the revolution in the Roman Catholic Church. Before the Church reformation, Luther was dissatisfied with the life style of the clergy and the condition the church found itself. The Church was highly monetized; the condition made the Church to gradually lost touch with its spiritual and moral essence. The degradation was found in the sale of indulgences as a ‘means’ for salvation, Luther found this absurd. The climax of Luther’s dissatisfaction was registered when he nailed his famous ninety five thesis on the door of Wittenberg. It was found that the awareness created by the ninety five thesis gave birth to the emergence of the protestant denominations. The findings on the philosophy of Luther show that, the world around us can be changed with the persistent pursuit of truth founded on selflessness. If the society we live in can be anywhere better for human existence, then the role of philosophy cannot be taken for granted. Keywords: Philosophy, theological, ideas, prelude, protestant, reformation Introduction Martin Luther (1483 - 1546), a German Theologian, Professor, Pastor (Rev. Father of an Augustinian congregation), and religious reformer was the catalyst of the 16th-century protestant reformation. Through his words and actions, Luther precipitated a movement that reformulated certain basic tenets of Christian belief, resulted in the division of Western Christendom between Roman Catholicism and the new protestant traditions, mainly Lutherism, Calvinism, The Anglican Communion, the Anabaptists, and the Antitrinitarians. He is one of the most influential figures in the history of Christianity. Martin Luther went on to become one of the Western history’s most significant figures. Luther spent his early years in relative anonymity as a monk and scholar.

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Philosophy and Theological Ideas of Martin Luther as a Prelude to Protestant Reformation Ibrahim Bashir Aminu Luther began the Protestant Reformation with the publication of his Ninety-Five Theses on October 31, 1517. In this publication, he attacked the Church’s sale of indulgences. He advocated a theology that rested on God’s gracious activity in Jesus Christ, rather than in human works. Although, these ideas had been advanced before, Martin Luther codified them at a moment in history ripe for religious reformation. The Catholic Church was ever after divided, and the Protestantism that soon emerged was shaped by Luther’s ideas. His writings changed the course of religious and cultural history in the West. Nearly all Protestants trace their history back to Luther in one way or another. Luther’s relationship to philosophy is complex and should not be judged only by his famous statement that “reason is the devil’s whore.” Given Luther’s critique of philosophy and his famous phrase that philosophy is the “devil’s whore,” it would be easy to assume that Luther had only contempt for philosophy and reason. Nothing could be further from the truth. Luther believed, rather, that philosophy and reason had important roles to play in our lives and in the life of the community. The study highlights three major contributions of Martin Luther which are his theological ideas and belief and how it precipitated the total splintering of the Christendom which started in Germany and later spread all over Europe.

Historical Background to the life and time of Martin Luther

Martin Luther who challenged the authority of the church and set off the protestant reformation was born on November 10, 1483 in Eisleben in the Holy Roman Empire in present Eastern Germany. Soon after Luther’s birth, his family moved from Eisleben to Mansfield. His father was a successful miner and smelter and Mansfield was a larger mining town. Martin was the second son born to his parents Hans and Margaret Luther. Two of his brothers died during outbreaks of the plague.

Luther’s father knew that mining was a cyclical occupation, and he wanted more security for his promising young son. Hans Luther decided that he would do whatever was necessary to see that Martin could become a lawyer. Martin started school in Mansfield probably around seven. The school stressed Latin, a bit of logic and rhetoric. When Martin was 14 he was sent to Magdeburg to continue his studies. He stayed only one year in Magdeburg and then enrolled in Latin school in another city known as Eisenach until 1501. In 1501, he enrolled in the University of Erfurt, where he studied the basic course for a Master of Arts (grammar, logic, rhetoric, metaphysics, etc.). Significant to his spiritual and theological development was the principal role of theology and metaphysics in Erfurt’s curriculum. In 1505, it seemed that his father’s plans were about to finally be realized. His son was on the verge of becoming a lawyer. Unfortunately, the plans were interrupted because Martin dropped out of school almost immediately, believing that law represent uncertainty (Hendrix, 2015).

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 He later attributed his decision to an event when he was returning to university on horseback after a trip home. During the trip, there was a thunderstorm, a lightning bolt struck near him, Martin was afraid that he was going to die, he screamed out, “save me, St. Anna, and I will become a monk.” St. Anna was the mother of the Virgin Mary. He told his father that he was terrified of death and the divine judgment. He left law school, sold his books and entered St. Augustine’s monastery.

The decision to enter the monastery was a difficult one. Martin knew that he would greatly disappoint his parents (which he did), but he also knew that one must keep a promise made to God. Beyond that, however, he also had strong internal reasons to join the monastery because he was haunted by insecurity about his salvation. To him, a monastery was the perfect place to find assurance. However, he threw himself into the life of a monk with vitality. Finally, his mentor told him to focus on Christ alone in his quest for assurance (Brecht, 2015).

In 1510, Luther traveled as part of delegation from his monastery to Rome in Italy. He was not very impressed with what he saw. In 1511, he transferred from the monastery in Erfurt to one in Wittenberg where after receiving his Doctor of Theology degree, he became a Professor of Biblical Theology at the newly founded University of Wittenberg.

In 1513, he began his first lectures on the Psalms. In these lectures, Luther’s critique of the theological world around him began to take shape. In 1515/16, this critique became more noticeable. It was during these lectures that Luther finally found the assurance that had evaded him for years. The discovery that changed Luther’s life ultimately changed the course of church history and the history of Europe (Erikson, 1958). During his life, Luther had several publications, among which were the Ninety-five theses 1525, the Bondage of the Will 1517, This is My Body 1527, Concerning Monastic Vows 1521, The Babylonian Captivity of the Church 1520, The Freedom of a Christian 1520, Earthly Government 1523 etc.

From the mid-1530s Luther was plagued by Kidney stones and an obvious coronary condition. He attributed his poor health to the severity of his life in the monastery. He nevertheless continued his academic teaching from 1535 to 1545. He lectured on the book of Genesis, one of his most insightful biblical expositions and preached regularly at the city church until his colleague Johannes assumed that responsibility. Even then, Luther continued to preach in the Augustinian monastery. After the death of one of his oldest friends, Nikolas Hausmann, in 1538 and that of his daughter Magdalene four years later, references to death became increasingly abundant in Luther’s correspondence. Thus, he wrote in June 1543, letter to a friend: ‘‘I desire that there be given me a good little hour when I can move onward to God. I have had enough. I am tired. I have become

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Philosophy and Theological Ideas of Martin Luther as a Prelude to Protestant Reformation Ibrahim Bashir Aminu nothing. Do pray earnestly for me so that the Lord may take my soul in peace’’ (Marty, 2004, p.126).

In February 1546, Luther journeyed, despite his failing health, to Eisleben, the town where he was born. He set out to mediate an embarrassing quarrel between two young and arrogant noblemen, the Albrecht and Gebhard of Mansfield. He was successful, and he so informed his wife in what proved to be his last letter. One day later, on February 18, death came. His body was interred in the Castle Church in Wittenberg (Lull and Derek, 2015).

Conceptual Clarification

Philosophy originate from a Greekword “philosophia,” literally "love of wisdom". It is the study of general and fundamental questionsabout existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. The term was probably coined by Pythagoras (c. 570 – 495 BCE). Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument, and systematic presentation. Philosophical problems lead to philosophical questions and philosophical questions leads to philosophical analysis. A philosophical problem is usually framed in form of arguments. An argument is a set of discussions in which inferences are made in support of a given point (Ujoma, Omonzejele, and Maduka, 2011). Theology

The word “theology” comes from two Greek words that when combined, mean “the study of God.” Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. Theology is the study of deities or their scripturesin order to discover what they have revealed about themselves. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the supernatural, but also especially with epistemology, and asks and seeks to answer the question of revelation. Revelation pertains to the acceptance of God, gods, or deities, as not only transcendent or above the natural world, but also willing and able to interact with the natural world and, in particular, to reveal themselves to humankind. While theology has turned into a secular field, religious adherents still consider theology to be a discipline that helps them live and understand concepts such as life and love and that helps them lead lives of obedience to the deities they follow or worship.

Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation was the 16th-century religious, political, intellectual and cultural upheaval that splintered Catholic Europe, setting in place the structures and

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 beliefs that would define the continent in the modern era. In northern and central Europe, reformers like Martin Luther, John Calvin and Henry VIII challenged papal authority and questioned the Catholic Church’s ability to define Christian practice. They argued for a religious and political redistribution of power into the hands of Bible - and pamphlet- reading pastors and princes. The disruption triggered wars, persecutions and the so-called Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church’s delayed, but forcefully responded to the Protestants.

Martin Luther’s Relationship with Philosophy At some point, Luther expressed interest in Aristotle. He therefore became suspicious of even the greatest thinkers and tests everything himself by experience, because philosophy proved to be unsatisfying. To him, reason could not lead men to God, and he therefore developed a love-hate relationship with Aristotle over Aristotle’s emphasis on reason. For Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God through divine revelation (Falsbusch, 2017). Given Luther’s critique of philosophy and his famous phrase is that, philosophy is the “devil’s whore”. It would be easy to assume that Luther had only contempt for philosophy and reason. Luther believed that philosophy and reason had important roles to play in our lives and in the life of the community. However, he also felt that it was important to remember what those roles are and not to confuse the proper use of philosophy with an improper one. If properly understood and used, philosophy and reason are a great aid to individuals and society. If improperly used, they become a great threat to both. Likewise, revelation and the gospel when used properly are an aid to society, but when misused also have sad and profound implications. The proper role of philosophy is organizational and as an aid in governance. When Cardinal Cajetan first demanded Luther’s recantation of the Ninety-Five Theses, Luther appealed to scripture and right reason. Reason can be an aid to faith in that it helps to clarify and organize, but it is always a second order discourse and never the reverse. The two cannot be reconciled. Reason is the devil’s whore precisely because it asks the wrong questions and looks in the wrong direction for answers. Revelation is the only proper place for theology to begin. Reason must always take a back seat. Reason plays a primary role in governance and in most human interaction. Luther argued that reason is necessary for a good and just society. In fact, unlike most of his contemporaries, Luther did not believe that a ruler had to be Christian, only reasonable. Here, opposite to his discussion of theology, it is revelation that is improper. Trying to govern using the gospel as one’s model would either corrupt the government or corrupt the gospel. The gospel’s fundamental message is forgiveness, but government must

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Philosophy and Theological Ideas of Martin Luther as a Prelude to Protestant Reformation Ibrahim Bashir Aminu maintain justice. If forgiveness becomes the dominant model in government, people being sinful, chaos will increase. If however, the government claims the gospel but acts on the basis of justice, then people will be misled as to the proper nature of the gospel (Falsbusch, 2017). Luther was self-consciously trying to carve out proper realms for revelation and philosophy or reason. Each had a proper role that enables humanity to develop. Chaos only became a problem when the two got confused. Theological Ideas of Luther

The theology of Martin Luther was instrumental in influencing the Protestant Reformation, specifically topics dealing with justification by faith, the relationship between the Law and the Gospel (also an instrumental component of reformed theology), and various other theological ideas. Although Luther never wrote a "systematic theology" in the style of St. Thomas Aquinas, many of his ideas were systematized in the Lutheran confessions, and summed in:

 Justification by faith  Law and Gospel  Universal priesthood of the baptized  Sacraments and the means of Grace  Two Kingdoms

The Political Ideas of Martin Luther 1. The Doctrine of Two Regiments or Kingdoms Martin Luther’s doctrine of Two Regiments or Kingdoms is highly significant not simply because it is central to his theology, but because it is related to his thought about politics and society. In a nutshell, the doctrine of two regiments or kingdoms is central to his entire philosophy. At the centre of the doctrine, there is the idea that God has created two kingdoms in the world and through these kingdoms he governs the world. One is the spiritual world and the other is the temporal world or regiment. The spiritual kingdom is governed through the Word of the Bible and without sword and in this kingdom men become righteous and godly only through the Word. In the spiritual world, there is no need of sword or law and only Word is enough. All the inhabitants of spiritual world are true Christians those are governed by the spirit of godliness and spirituality. The spiritual Regiment is essentially a government of the soul whose purpose is to lead men to everlasting life. God rules through Holy Spirit and the Word, the government of the spiritual kingdom is invisible. Men act and lead their spiritual life only through the

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 sermon preached by human ministers. In the spiritual world, there is no place of force and the whole system is based on voluntary rule (Lehman, 2002). The nature of temporal regiment is quite different. People in this kingdom are not true Christians or ardent believers of Christianity. Their main concern was worldly enjoyment and pleasure as well as possessions. People of this kingdom cannot be governed only by Word, because Word carries very little significance and in most cases, its importance upon the people of temporal world is not worthy to mention. Sword and word are essential instruments by which God governs this kingdom. For the maintenance of peace and order, God has awarded the government of the temporal kingdom with the manifold sources of enjoyment and luxury. So God himself is the founder, lord, master, promoter and rewarder of both forms of righteousness, temporal as well as spiritual. There is a very close similarity between Luther’s doctrine of two regiments and St. Augustine’s City of God. Both offer us interesting narratives of world of God and world of Devil. All are children of God but are divided into two classes. One lives in the kingdom of God and the other lives in the kingdom of Devil. Luther says, God has created the kingdom of Devil to punish its inhabitants for their sins. The two kingdoms are loosely connected, in between these two worlds, there is God who watches over them all. The temporal kingdom is dominated by conflict, quarrel and strife, and human nature is vicious and self-centered. The two regiments are weapons which God employs against devil’s kingdom. The first regiment is at first, God appeals through word to the hearts of men in order to ensure obedience to him and if it fails, he uses the sword to punish them. Martin Luther draw a distinction in order to emphasize that in the temporal world, God created the post of a king or governor to maintain law and order and punish the wrongdoers. The simple implication is that political system was created by God. In this idea, religion and politics are mixed (Lehman, 2002). 2. State and its Relation to Church Luther’s theory of state or theory of government is naturally from the theological assumptions. Like St. Augustine, Luther asserted that government was both a consequences of sinfulness of human nature and a divine institution, it exists because vast majority of men are evil. So we can say that a state according to Luther is a mechanism devised by God to punish the evil minded people. From the theological point of view, the state is necessary. It is the primary duty of the temporal government with the help of sword to force people to lead a spiritual life. Otherwise, it will have no use. It was the belief of Luther that the king or temporal power performs all duties or action in accordance with the directives sent through the church. In this process the king himself has no personal liking or disliking, God wishes are final. This ultimately leads to autocratic rule (Dillenberger, 1961).

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Philosophy and Theological Ideas of Martin Luther as a Prelude to Protestant Reformation Ibrahim Bashir Aminu Luther’s state is not only an instrument to punish the people for their sinful activities, but it was also a way which will save them from inevitable destruction. Luther demanded a radical reform on the whole system of the church, and for this, he proposed the institution of general council. He looked to the secular power for the reform of the church, therefore, he formulated twenty-seven points of reforms and he said, these reforms would be carried out by the secular power or general council. One of these points was all revenues and jurisdictions of the Pope in the regions outside the estate of the Roman Church would be abolished, all matters of money or material interest would be left to the secular authority. It would be absolutely wrong on the part of the Church, if it involves itself in the acquisition of earthly wealth and possessions. It should try to satisfy itself with religious or spiritual considerations. Pope, Priests and Bishops are merely officers for the regulation and promotion of Christian principles, under no circumstances they are to be related to secular affairs. The purpose of this was to dislodge the Church from its position. The ultimate result was that the checks upon the secular authority were removed and the church started to function as an institution under the secular authority. Through his movement, he succeeded in establishing absoluteness of political power. We can say, Luther was the originator of absolutism in politics. Martin Luther apprehended that his writings might be misinterpreted by secular rulers; they would try to encroach or overlap upon the spiritual affairs. To remove this possibility, he clearly stated that the prince and magistrates had nothing to interfere in spiritual matters; they were concern with life and goods and also everything external on earth. He strongly opposed any attempt to promote spiritual ends through temporal means. This implies that Luther was in support of division of duty. The secular authority was design for earthly affairs. The spiritual would go to the church. But the objective of both was to bring about peace and salvation. The prince would punish the sin after which people would be fit for receiving blessing of God. In Luther’s conception, the state and the church are not completely separated from each other (Dillenberger, 1961). 3. Obedience to Secular Authority In his analysis of obedience to the secular authority, Luther has again taken the help of scripture. He says that the Christians among themselves need no law or sword, because it is not necessary for them. But this does not mean they will disobey the secular authority or violate the man-made laws. According to Luther a true Christian lives not for himself alone, but for his neighbors. It is the primary duty of a Christian to obey the laws of the secular authority and act in accordance with the law made by such authority. The obligation to the authority as well as its law is the duty of a Christian. This idea later on has given birth to the important political theory (political obligation). He also said, people must pay taxes and perform other duties. A true Christian should serve the state as well as the society spontaneously and with undiluted love. That is to say, his obedience to secular authority must come out of love, while obeying the state he should not bring the question of material gain under his consideration. A true Christian cannot prevent a man from

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 obeying the law of state and if he does, it would be his unchristian act (Dacker, Johnson and Revell, 1957). Bearing in mind the above three major factors, it is clear why Luther took the radical steps of engaging on the enterprise of ensuring that the Church of his time was reformed

The Condition of the Church before Luther’s Protest

The Medieval Church played a far greater role in medieval period than the Church does today. In Medieval Europe, the Church dominated everybody’s life. All Medieval people, village peasants or town’s people believed that God, Heaven and Hell all existed. From the very earliest of ages, the people were taught that the only way they could get to Heaven was if the Roman Catholic Church let them. Everybody would have been terrified of Hell and the people would have been told of the sheer horrors waiting for them in Hell in the weekly services they attended.

The control the Church had over the people was total. Peasants worked for free on Church land. This proved difficult for peasants as the time they spent working on Church land, could have been better spent working on their own plots of land producing food for their families (Durant, 2005). They paid 10% of what they earned in a year to the Church (this tax was called tithes). Tithes could be paid in either money or in goods produced by the peasant farmers. As peasants had little money, they almost always had to pay in seeds, harvested grain, animals etc. What the Church got in tithes was kept in huge tithe barns; a lot of the stored grain would have been eaten by rats or poisoned by their urine. A failure to pay tithes, so the peasants were told by the Church, would lead to their souls going to hell after they had died. This is one reason the Church was so wealthy (Christopher).

This relationship between people and church was essentially based on money which enhanced the huge wealth of the Catholic Church. Rich families could buy high positions for their sons in the Catholic Church and this satisfied their belief that they would go to heaven and attain salvation. However, a peasant had to pay for a child to be christened (this had to be done as a first step to getting to heaven as the people were told that a non- baptized child could not go to heaven); you had to pay to get married and you had to pay to bury someone from your family in holy ground (Durant, 2005). The Catholic Church also had a three other ways of raising revenue.

Relics: These were officially sanctioned by the Vatican. They were pieces of straw, hay, white feathers from a dove, pieces of the cross etc. that could be sold to people as the things that had been the nearest to Jesus on Earth. The money raised went straight to the church and to the Vatican. These holy relics were keenly sought after as the people saw

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Philosophy and Theological Ideas of Martin Luther as a Prelude to Protestant Reformation Ibrahim Bashir Aminu their purchase as a way of pleasing God. It also showed that you had honored Him by spending your money on relics associated with his son.

Indulgences: These were ‘certificates’ produced in bulk that had been pre-signed by the Pope which pardoned a person’s sins and gave you access to heaven. Basically if you knew that you had sinned you would wait until a pardoner was in your region selling an indulgence and purchase one as the Pope, being God’s representative on Earth, would forgive your sins and you would be pardoned. This industry was later expanded to allow people to buy an indulgence for a dead relative who might be in purgatory or hell and relieve that relative of his sins. By doing this you would be seen by the Catholic Church of committing a Christian act and this would elevate your status in the eyes of God.

Pilgrimages: These were very much supported by the Catholic Church as a pilgrim would end up at a place of worship that was owned by the Catholic Church and money could be made by the sale of badges, holy water, and certificates to prove you had been on pilgrimage and completed your journey. It was specifically the issue of indulgences that angered Martin Luther into speaking out against them (Hans, 2007).

The Nexus between Luther’s Philosophico-Theological ideas and the Rise of Protestantism In the history of Rome there was a time when the word of Caesar was the law and the worship of Caesar was the religion of the world. He held control of both church and the state in his own person. Indeed, in a large sense, he was the church and he was the state. Martin Luther changed the course of Christianity and Western history. His 1517 complaint against specific abuses in the Roman Catholic Church, a document published by Luther now known as 95 theses sparked the explosive Protestant Reformation that swept Europe for the rest of the century. Martin Luther an Augustinian Friar, set a series of events that led to the permanent split of western Christendom. The story of Martin Luther posting his Ninety-Five Theses against Indulgences to the door of the castle Chapel in Wittenberg is a defining moment in German history. But what were the origins of Luther’s movement for religious reform? How should we understand the individuals and the events that propelled his protest from Wittenberg onto the European stage? And how can we explain the Reformation’s significance in the context of contemporary concerns?

During Luther’s trip to Rome in 1510, he was shocked by the lack of morality and piety of the local clergy and by the luxurious lifestyle of the Pope. Pope Leo was known for his expensive tastes and was fond of hunting, gambling and carnivals. Luther was not happy with what he saw there. He was not against the existence of the Church; rather he was condemning its practices. He revolted against Papalism and vehemently opposed the usury and was against sale of indulgence (the sale of indulgences, is a popular means by

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 which pious Christians could make a financial contribution to the church in return for the hope of remission of their sins in the afterlife) and the mechanisms of finance. Therefore, he felt the pieces of paper being sold to escape Purgatory were worthless and pious Christians were being scammed. The fact that the funds were going from poor German peasants to wealthy Roman Clergy made the fraud even more disturbing. He wrote out a list of his objections to the practice, he named 95 issues he wished to dispute (Brecht, 1985). Luther wrote compellingly of his understanding of the true Christian life: “A Christian is a perfectly free lord of all, subject to none. A Christian is a perfectly dutiful servant of all, subject to all.” The believer is freed from sin through his or her faith in God: ‘Faith alone, without works, justifies, frees and saves” (Bekker, 2010, p.213).

After carefully observing the practices of the church and Papal, he composed his Ninety Five Theses against Indulgences and nailed them to the door of Wittenberg’s Castle Church and sent it to Archbishop Albrecht, the Empire’s most powerful churchman. The revolution against the church commenced in October 1517 when Martin Luther pasted his Ninety Five Theses on the Church door at Wittenberg. This move created commotion in the church circle (Atkinson, 1968). The medieval Church claimed that it was the ultimate arbiter of all, it claimed of this were based on sacramental conception the Church occupied a special position between man and God. Only through the Church that men could find salvation. The Church claimed that it was authorized by God to perform the miracles. It could offer the body and blood of Christ as a sacrifice for the sins of mankind. Luther challenged and rejected the claims. He propagated that people had the right to follow scriptures and take decision on the basis of the knowledge of the Bible. They could follow and adopt faith. He declared that Priests had no right and power to forgive people of their sins. Forgiveness of the sins was dependent upon the repentance and not on priestly absolution. He put forward the doctrine of Priesthood of all believers, which is the belief that there was no essential distinction between Priests and laymen. All the believers were entitled to mercy of God and Church had nothing to do with mercy. Luther also challenged the Papal doctrine of two swords, with its claim that Pope was the ultimate source of all authority, temporal as well as spiritual. The temporal authority derived its power from God and its functions were purely spiritual (Kolb, Dingel and Bakta, 2014). It is evident that his works and ideas show that Luther was a medieval thinker; renaissance had very little influence upon his thought, he was a medieval German. His conception of theology was the origin of his political ideas. His leading ideas on politics can be found in two of his publications; The Sermon on Good Works and The Address to Christian Nobility. His political treatise is of temporal government. It is to be noted that the scripture is the basis of his theology and politics. Treatise on Christian liberty, Secular Authority, to what

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Philosophy and Theological Ideas of Martin Luther as a Prelude to Protestant Reformation Ibrahim Bashir Aminu extent it should be obeyed etc. contain his other aspects of political ideas, but all based on religion. Luther’s politics is not separate from religion. Here are some of the quotes from Luther’s speeches that precipitated the protestant reformation; We have the empire in name, but the pope has our wealth, our honor, our bodies, lives, and souls and all that we have, oh noble princes and gentlemen, how long will you suffer your lands and your people to be the prey of these ravening wolves? To Luther:

Temporal Christian power must destroy the three walls that the papacy had built to protect itself: the elevation of spiritual power above secular; the belief that only the pope can interpret scripture; and the assertion that only he can call or appoint a council of the Church. All Christians are spiritually equal, all are priests and all must therefore share responsibility for the reform of the Christian community. The members of the German nation must compel the pope to ‘free their country from his unbearable taxes and robberies’ and to give them back their ‘liberty, authority, wealth, honor, body, and soul (Dorman 2010, p.279).

The Diet of Worms in Western Germany and Luther’s Recantation Refutation

Every year, the Holy Roman Emperor would call a meeting of the German Princes and Bishops. These meetings were called as ‘diets’ and in 1521, the Emperor summoned Martin Luther to a meeting to be held in the Old Cathedral City of Worms in Western Germany. Emperor Charles was a very devout Catholic, but about half of the princes were sympathetic to Luther. Luther was given safe conduct to attend the meeting and defend his positions. At the Diet of Worms, Luther was shown a table with a pile of his books and other writings. He was offered the opportunity to recant, he admitted that the books were writing by him but refused to recant. Luther's reply was written down as he spoke it:

Unless I am convicted by scripture and plain reason, I do not accept the authority of Popes and Councils, for they have contradicted each other, my conscience is captive to the word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I can do no other. God help me. Amen (Oberman, 2006, p.122).

Luther was allowed to leave Worms, but he was now considered an outlaw. Emperor Charles issued the Edict of Worms, declaring Luther an outlaw and ordering his death. Luther left worms, on his return journey he was kidnapped and taken into protective custody by the agents of Fredrick, the wise who was concern for his safety. Luther disguised himself as a nobleman, grew a beard and called himself "Junker Jorg". He was safe in the custody under the protection of the local prince. He spent nearly a year there, writing furiously and fighting depression and numerous physical ailments. It was

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 productive period for him during which he translated the New Testament from Greek into German vernacular and profoundly influenced the form and standardization of the German language (Oberman, 2006).

Conclusion Martin Luther is assuredly one of the most influential figures in Western civilization during the last millennium. He was the catalyst for the division of Western Christendom into several churches, but he also left a host of cultural legacies, such as the emphasis on vernacular language. He was primarily a theologian, and there is a great wealth of insights in his writings, which in their definitive scholarly edition comprise more than 100 folio volumes. But he was not a systematic theological thinker much like St. Augustine. Certain key tenets of Luther’s theology have shaped Protestant Christianity since the 16th century. They include his insistence on the Bible, the word of God and his understanding of the church as a community of the faithful, a priesthood of all believers rather than as a hierarchical structure with a prominent division between.

The centre of scholarly attention in Luther studies in the late 20th century was Luther understanding of the proper role of the Christian in society and politics. According to many scholars, Luther’s disavowal of the German peasants in 1525 and his notion that, as he once put it, “the Gospel has nothing to do with politics” facilitated a tendency toward political passivity among Protestant Christians in Germany. Likewise, his strident pronouncements against the Jews, especially toward the end of his life, have raised the question of whether Luther significantly encouraged the development of German anti- Semitism. Although many scholars have taken this view, this perspective puts far too much emphasis on Luther and not enough on the larger peculiarities of German history.

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Philosophy and Theological Ideas of Martin Luther as a Prelude to Protestant Reformation Ibrahim Bashir Aminu Recommendations

The following recommendations are necessary for the glorious Church:

a. The study of theology should be highly Biblically based without the selfish and personal opinions of individuals or group of persons. This will help to deliver the Church from erroneous teachings; b. The Church should be separated from the influence of circular government. If the government is allowed to continue to dominate the Church, it will erode the influence of the Church on the followers; c. The Roman Catholic Church should reconsider the theological positions of Martin Luther in order to reposition the Church towards a more Biblically Oriented Church; d. The Church should refrain from the practice of indulgences which does not have the capacity to advance the Church; e. The Church should have reverence to the government and its regulations.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 References Atkinson, J, (1968). Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism, Harmondsworth, English Penguin Books.

Bekker, H. (2010). Dresden Leipzig & Saxony Adventure Guide. Hunter Publishing.

Brecht, M. (2015). Martin Luther: His road to Reformation, London: Rutledge press.

Christopher, P. (2012). Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany, Indiana University Press.

Dillenberger, John (1961). Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.

Dorman, T. (2010) Justification as Healing: The Little-Known Luther", Quodlibet Journal: Retrieved 15 April 2019.

Durant, W. (2005). Delineation of Roman Catholicism.Old Tappan.

Edwards, U. (2015). Jr. Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics, Cornell University Press,

Erikson, H. (1958). Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History. New York.

Fahlbusch, E. and William, G. (2017) The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Leiden, Netherlands.

Hans J. (2007). Martin Luther: Indulgences and salvation, Concordia Publishing House.

Hendrix, S. (2015).Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer. Yale University Press.

Kolb, R., Dingel, I. and Batka, L. (2014). The Oxford Handbook of Martin Luther's Theology. Oxford: Oxford University.

Lehman, H. (2002). Luther's Works. Minneapolis and St Louis, Fortress Press and Concordia Publishing House.

Lull, T., Nelson, F. and Derek R. (2015). Resilient Reformer: The Life and Thought of Martin Luther. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress.

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Philosophy and Theological Ideas of Martin Luther as a Prelude to Protestant Reformation Ibrahim Bashir Aminu Marty, M. (2004). Martin Luther. Viking Penguin.

Oberman, H. (2006). Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, Yale University Press. W. Norton.

Ujomu, P., Omonzejele, P. and Maduka, C. (2011). Philosophy and Logic an Introduction, University of Benin.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Moderating Effect of Audit Quality on the Relationship between Corporate Board Characteristics and Corporate Environmental Information Disclosure in Nigeria: A Theoretical Framework Proposal

Zephaniah Liuraman1and Ishaya John Dabari2 (PhD) 1Department of Accounting, College of Management and Social Sciences, Kwararafa University, Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria. Email Address; [email protected] 2Department of Accountancy, School of Management and Information Technology Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Adamawa State, Nigeria Email Address; [email protected]

Abstract The main objective of this study is to proposed a theoretical framework to examine the moderating effect of audit quality on the relationship between corporate board characteristics and corporate environmental information disclosure. The component of board characteristics considered is board size, board independence, board tenure, board gender composition and foreign directors. In addition, the moderating role of audit quality on the relationship between corporate board characteristics and corporate environmental disclosure was considered. The methodology adopted in this study was content review of related literatures. The study revealed that there is a positive correlation between corporate board characteristics and corporate environmental disclosure.

Keywords: Board Characteristics, Environmental Information Disclosure, Audit Quality.

Introduction A conscientious business conduct has turned into everyone’s business involving not only the owners of the firms, but also their host operating environments. It is therefore a key priority on global economic agenda on which proper emphasis shall be laid for meeting not only the expectations of owners, but also the needs of all pertinent stakeholders and the suitability of the local operating environment for firms to thrive and prosper. Thus, the increased responsiveness of environmental concern is now a challenge facing the corporate firms. Uwuigbe, Egbide and Ayokunle (2011) confirm that, corporate environmental disclosure as a concept has received considerable attention among corporate firms, policy makers and researchers around the globe. Therefore, firms around the world are engaged in efforts to describe and integrate environmental reporting into various aspects of their businesses. Accounting and reporting on environment assists in accurate assessment of the effort of environmental preservation measures of firms. This led KPMG and UNEP

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Moderating Effect of Audit Quality on the Relationship between Corporate Board Characteristics and Corporate Environmental Information Disclosure in Nigeria: A Theoretical Framework Proposal. Zephaniah Liuraman (2006) and Schaltegger and Burritt (2000) to assert that, environmental accounting and reporting provides a general structure for firms to identify and account for past, present and future environmental information to enhance managerial decision-making and control, and enhance other stakeholders decision making. Also Ashafoke and Ilaboya (2017) argued that; the natural environment has become an important means for companies to gain competitive advantage owing to the increasing degree of ecological problems. The degree of negative effects caused by firm’s activities as environmental hazard to the ecosystem had made environmental problems a current issue across the globe. Consequently, the need to be environmentally accountable poses a major challenge to modern corporate organisations, and therefore, firms are required to disclose information regarding their impact on the environment in which they operate. However, based on the empirical review, there are limited studies on the assessment of the level of corporate environmental information disclosure especially in developing countries, hence the motivation for the present study. Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) (2004) observed that, environmental information disclosure is a subject of increasing importance and companies in developed countries have been providing information regarding the environmental impact. Also, Nik and Maliah (2002); Perry and Teng, (1999) confirmed that environmental information disclosure have attend considerable level in the international community, and several research studies have been conducted in the area in developed countries, but only few have been conducted in emerging nations. Delmas and Toffel (2008), Kassinis and Vafeas (2006), Buysee and Verbeke (2003) in Ashafoke and Ilaboya (2017) also confirmed that, environmental information disclosure of firms in Nigeria is very insignificant despite the current day society and various stakeholders demand, and expecting environmental accountability on the part of the firms. Failure to disclose sufficient information, including environmental information, by corporate firms to various stakeholders; despite the requirements of the law and need of the stakeholders leads to the problem of information asymmetry. Corporate environmental disclosure presents a valuable avenue for firms to maintain acceptable relationships with various stakeholders who may affect or be affected by the firm’s environmental information disclosure practices and way firms respond to these. In view of the pressing need of corporate environmental information disclosure, Rouf (2011) is of a contrary opinion, asserting that such reporting does not provide for the need of the primary users due to the fact that managers often times, think of the personal goal in the process of carrying out administrative activities which might create a difference between actual and expected disclosure. It is against this thinking that agency theory was developed providing the possibility of information asymmetry. The trust of this theory is that the firm consists of different stakeholders who may not necessarily be the owners of the business, but may affect or be affected by the activities of the business. Therefore, there is a need to establish a control mechanism that can checkmate this

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 tendency. In order to reduce the tendency of information asymmetry, the law made it mandatory for all corporate organisations to have board of directors. The main idea of the board is to provide entrepreneurial, strategic and ethical leadership to firms, ensure that management is acting in the best interest of owners and other stakeholders through the board’s advisory and monitoring functions, and in the process enhance and sustain the success of the firm over time. Therefore, Sheila, Rashid, Mohammad, and Meera (2012) in Ashafoke and Ilaboya (2017) argued that the choice to disclose or not to disclose relevant information is subject to component such as composition of the board of directors of a firm as well as other corporate characteristics. Corporate board is saddle with the responsibility of achieving and defending the interest of the stakeholders. It is also the duty of the board to set standards of operations, procedures, policies and successful administration conveyance to the organisation in its ability in achieving the interest of the shareholders (Ali & Attan, 2013). It is based on this role that board characteristics determine the success of the board on matters such as environmental disclosure. Delmas and Toffel (2003), Kassinis and Vafeas (2006), Buysee and Verbeke (2003) in different studies agreed that the relationship between corporate board characteristics and corporate environmental disclosure has well been established in developed countries but only few studies were conducted in developing nations. Also it is a well-established fact that, the study in developed countries may not be applicable to developing nations due to many factors such as, the differences in technological development, environmental difference, economic difference, political difference and cultural difference. This justifies the need for this study. Also, another control mechanism required by law is the appointment of external auditor who is to examine the financial affairs of the business and report on the true and fair view of the financial statement prepared by the management to the shareholders. External audit is primarily aim at ensuring that the financial statement prepared by board of directors to shareholders is reliable (Mautz and Sharaf, 1961). It is the effort of an external audit to minimize information asymmetry between management and shareholders (Fama, 1980). External audit assists in reducing the ownership gap and the control over the firm (Fama and Jensen, 1983). The function of auditor is a controlling factor employed by the firm to address agency problems and any manipulation or changes in the accounting information (Watts and Zimmerman, 1983). Under the agency theory, the relationship between managers and shareholders is such a conflictive relation. Therefore, as governance mechanisms, the study expect that, the quality of audit may moderate the relationship between corporate board characteristics and environmental information disclosure since the fundamental role of audit as well as ownership structure is to reduce asymmetry information between managers and stakeholders. Consequently, the study expects that an effective control exercise by this governance mechanism may moderate and enhance ethical and legal behaviour of corporate organisations, given the degree of the impact of firms in the Niger Delta, and the desertification in the Northern

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Moderating Effect of Audit Quality on the Relationship between Corporate Board Characteristics and Corporate Environmental Information Disclosure in Nigeria: A Theoretical Framework Proposal. Zephaniah Liuraman parts of the country. Therefore, there is a need to confirm this empirically which is first in its kind. Given the above scenario, the main objective of this study is to examine the relationship between corporate board characteristics and corporate environmental disclosure of firms in Nigeria. It will also determine the moderating effect of audit quality on the relationship between corporate board characteristics and corporate environmental disclosure. The study is the first known research to the researcher’s knowledge with the same combination of variables. The scarcity of research on environmental disclosure in accounting motivates the study. Few studies, such as Ashafoke and Ilaboya (2017); Ajibola and Uwuigbe (2013); and Sanda, Mikailu and Garba (2005) on the effect of corporate board characteristics on environmental disclosure in developing countries and lack of research on the moderating role of audit quality on the relationship between dependent and independent variables are part of the motivation. The understanding and knowledge of the role of corporate board in environmental disclosure are useful to the regulatory bodies, academics, practitioners, board of directors, external auditors and stakeholders which can assist them in policy formulation, implementation and evaluation. The research will add to the existing literature on environmental reporting by developing a model that could improve the disclosure of environmental information by firms. Therefore, the proposed theoretical framework for this study may be useful tool for academics to understand the role of corporate board, and audit quality in environmental information disclosure in the future and improve on them. Conceptual Clarification Environment Disclosure There are various definitions of environmental disclosure, but the most widely accepted definition is the one by the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA). CIMA (2012) defined environmental disclosure as the public disclosure of information regarding an organisations environmental performance. It entails issues such as recognition, measurement, allocation, and incorporation of environmental cost into the business as well as the method of disclosing such information to stakeholders. Over the past decades, firms in developed countries have recognized the needs of environmental reporting. As a result, there was dramatic increase in the number of companies reporting in numerous ways. Corporate environmental disclosure is a form of internal monitoring, management and external communication, which permit organisations of all sizes to meet the growing information needs of both internal and external stockholders. The information provided by environmental disclosure is important for probity and accountability and non-disclosure may have an adverse impact on the economic decisions of the users (Ashafoke and Ilaboya, 2017). The main objective of environmental

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 reporting is to make the society know the extent of firms contribution to maintaining environment in which they operates and to attract more local and foreign direct investment. However, the level of environmental information disclosure differs among countries, business enterprises; especially between developed and developing countries. It depends on the culture, political, social and economic factors of the countries (Ali and Attan, 2013). Several studies have been conducted on environmental disclosure and board characteristics in developed countries (Kruger, 2010, Bernadi and Threadgill, 2010, Hannifa and Coke, 2002, Mullen, 2011; Said, Zainuddin and Haron, 2009, etc.). Most of the studies were conducted in the developed countries such as USA, UK, and emerging countries like China. Some of the variables used include board independent, board size, and board gender composition, presence of foreign directors on board, board tenure, CEO duality, and environmental disclosure as dummy variable. However, the characteristics of these variables depend on the peculiarity of each country and their context. Most of the results revealed that, there were positive and significant relationship between most of the variables identified and enhancing business performance, competitive advantage and reduced business risk. A study conducted by Paydarmansh, Salehi, Moradi and Khorrami (2014) in Iran revealed that the current level of environmental disclosure by firms in most developing countries is underdeveloped and still relatively immature. In developing countries such as Nigeria, there is still lack of research on corporate environmental disclosure while its adoption by firms is still at rudimentary stage (Palmer, 2008; Al- Shaer, Salama and Toms, 2011; Dabor and Benjamine, 2017). The application of agency theory on the role of corporate board characteristics in corporate environmental disclosure has not been extensively examined outside developed countries. Therefore, there is a need to study the agency theory in the context of developing countries such as Nigeria. The study is to know how the identified variables solve the agency problem of conflict of interest and information asymmetry created between the principal (shareholders) and the agent (corporate management). Corporate Governance Organisation of Economic Development and Corporation (1999), defined corporate governance as relating to a set of relationship between a corporate management, corporate boards, shareholders and other stakeholders. Cadbury (2000) sees corporate governance as being related with holding the balance between individual and communal goals. The corporate governance framework enhances the efficient use of resources and equally requires accountability for the stewardship of these resources. In order to reduce information asymmetry, the corporate organisations are required to establish a mechanism known as corporate board to checkmate this problem. Studies have shown that corporate board characteristics can be seen in board size, outside directors, board

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Moderating Effect of Audit Quality on the Relationship between Corporate Board Characteristics and Corporate Environmental Information Disclosure in Nigeria: A Theoretical Framework Proposal. Zephaniah Liuraman tenure, board gender composition, and board independence (Vo and Phan, 2013; Akpan and Amran, 2014; Ashafoke and Ilaboya, 2017). Bernadi and Threadgill, (2010), Fondas (2000), Brennan and McCafterty (1997), and Ashafoke and Ilaboya (2017) in different studies used gender composition as one of the board characteristics. Haniffa and Cooke (2002); Said, Zainuddin and Harron (2009), Ashafoke and Ilaboya (2017) state that the board of an organisation consist of dependent and independent members. Board size was considered as one of the characteristics of corporate board by Hermalin and Weisbach (2003); Dalto and Dalton (2005); Halme and Huse (1997); Uwalomwa, Egbide and Ayokunle (2011), and John and Senbet (1997). Rutherford and Buchholtz (2007), Kruger (2010), Berberich and Niu (2011), and Lilik and Suboroto (2014) used corporate board tenure as one of the features of corporate board. The existence of foreign directors on board was used by Haniffa and Cooke (2002), Ashafoke and Ilaboya (2017), Che-Ahmad (2001), and Uwaigbe, Egbide, and Ayokunle (2012) as the characteristics of corporate board. From the studies reviewed, none of the study used all the five variables to measure corporate board characteristics. Therefore, this study attempt to use all the five variables to measure corporate board characteristics and relates them to corporate environmental disclosure. Corporate board gender mix Bernadi and Threadgil (2010) and Ashafoke and Ilaboya (2017) were of the view that, the level of corporate board gender mix can determine the level of firm information disclosure. Companies that have at least three females on board put more attention to social relation than companies with no female board member (Mullen, 2011). The Nigerian Code of Corporate Governance (2016) provides that the board shall be composed in such a way as to ensure best practices and diversity of gender without compromising competence, independence, integrity and availability of members to attend and participate effectively at meetings. Jain and Jamali (2016) postulate that female directors are more concern about ethical behaviour and their presence may encourage corporate environmental information disclosure. There is a positive relationship between corporate board gender mix and the level of corporate environmental information disclosure. Corporate board independent A study conducted by Haniffa and Cooke (2002) and Said, Zainuddin and Harron (2009) revealed that independent directors has a significant relationship with corporate information disclosure. Similarly, a survey conducted by Uwalomwa, Egbide and Ayakunle (2011) shows that the existence of independent directors encourages firms to disclose more information. Beasely, Clune and Hermanson (2005) hypothesize that independent directors are more effective monitors because of reputation concerns and their aspiration to obtain additional tenure ship. There is a positive relationship between board independent and the level of corporate environmental information disclosure.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Corporate board size According to Hermalin and Weisbach (2003) and Dalton and Dalton (2005), board size is the number of the members who work on corporate board. The Nigeria Corporate Governance Code (2016) provides that the board shall be of a sufficient size relative to the scale and complexity of the company’s operations and be composed in such a way as to ensure best practices and diversity of experience without compromising competence, independence, integrity and availability of members to attend and participate effectively at meetings. And it further states that membership of the board shall not be less than eight (8). Recent literature indicates that board size may play a significant role in the directors’ ability to monitor and control the actions of managers (Daud, Haron & Ibrahim, 2011). Also, Rao, Tilt and Lester (2012) assert that board size is crucial for the effective management decision and information disclosure. There is a positive relationship between board size and the level of corporate environmental information disclosure. Corporate board Tenure The importance of board tenure has been supported by these scholars (Vafeas, 2003; Rutherford and Buchholtz, 2007; Berberich and Niu, 2011; Lilik and Subroto, 2014). The Nigerian Code of Corporate Governance (2016) provides that the board shall be composed in such a way as to ensure best practices and diversity of experience without compromising competence, independence, integrity and availability of members to attend and participate effectively at meetings. This implies that, a board shall include experienced members who will provide and display the knowledge and skills accumulated for the success of a business. Kruger (2010) observed that, companies with a significant higher board tenure indicates higher information disclosure, because the board is more concerned with corporate long term success and tends to create good relationship with environment. The longer board tenure may offer better experience and understanding to corporate firm’s environment, so as to lead to better long-term strategy and policy for corporate sustainability. There is a positive relationship between board tenure and the level of corporate environmental information disclosure. Foreign Directors Several studies have examined foreign directors as a variable in different context. The existence of foreign directors on a corporate board may affect corporate disclosure. Ashafoke and Ilaboya (2017) state that; the issue of environment is more rooted in the developed countries than emerging nations. Therefore, the higher the shares held by foreign investors in a business, the more scope of environmental disclosure. The studies such as Haniffa and Cooke (2002) were of the view that, foreign directors play an important role in formulating and overseeing the corporate policy on disclosure. Che- Ahmad (2001) states that, foreign directors purchase shares in a subsidiary of

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Moderating Effect of Audit Quality on the Relationship between Corporate Board Characteristics and Corporate Environmental Information Disclosure in Nigeria: A Theoretical Framework Proposal. Zephaniah Liuraman multinational businesses having their controlling entity in developed countries where the practice of disclosure is more developed. Therefore, there is a tendency that, such firms are likely to apply similar reporting practice as their parent counterparts. Uwaigbe, Egbide, and Ayokunle, (2012) assert that increasing the proportion of foreign directors in a corporate board will lead to better environmental disclosure. There is a positive relationship between foreign directors and the level of corporate environmental disclosure. External Audit Quality Several studies have examined audit quality as a variable in different context. Janne (2017), and Paape and Spekle (2011) advocate that; quality audit firms are more likely to encourage their clients to improve the level of information disclosure that may include environmental information. The statement implies that those firms that appoint high quality auditors are more committed to ethical standards and there by improve good governance. Al-Ajmi (2009) argue that the engagement of the big 4 auditors has a significant influence on firms’ ethical behaviour and the level of information disclosure and are more likely to be committed to environmental information disclosure. However, this is the first known study to the researcher that introduces audit quality as a moderating variable on the relationship between corporate board characteristics and corporate environmental disclosure. Materials and Methods The study proposed longitudinal research design for the combined effect of time and number of firms and content analysis in capturing the extent of environmental information disclosure. The information was sourced through content analysis of the literature related to the topic under the study. The identified variables of the study are environmental disclosure as dependent variable, corporate board characteristics as independent variable and audit size (audit quality) as moderating variable. The variables and their respective measurement are presented in table 1 below:

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Table 1: Variables identification and measurements Variables Code Measurement Sources Independent Variables Board It is to be measured as the ratio of percentage of independent Said et al. (2009), Hanifa, independence BOID directors to total directors (2002) It is a total number of board members Dalton et al. (2005), Li et al. Board size BOSZ (2006) It is to be measured as the ratio of percentage of female Kruger (2010), Ashafoke et Board gender BODG directors to total directors al. (2017) Foreign directors The presence of foreign member on the board is measured as 1 Uwaigbe et al. (2011), Che- FDBO and 0 if otherwise Ahmad (2001) It is to be measured as the average number of years the firm’s Vafeas (2003), Lilik et al. Board tenure BODT director have served on the board (2014) Dependent Variable Environmental Dummy variable having value 1 if the organization disclose Ashafoke et al. (2017), Vo et disclosure CEDS environmental information, otherwise 0 al. (2013) Moderator Dummy variable having value 1 if the auditor belongs to the Ali et al (2004), Gupta et al. Audit size (Audit BIGF Big4, and 0 otherwise (2007) quality) Source: Compiled from literature, 2018 Current literature suggests various factors influencing corporate environmental information disclosure. Corporate board defines stakeholders control mechanisms on management to reduce the tendency of agency problem of conflict of interest and information asymmetry. Framework explain important stakeholders control mechanism, corporate board of directors philosophies and concepts, and proposes a common environmental disclosure and provides clear action and direction for environmental disclosure. For the study of the moderating effect of audit quality on the relationship between board characteristics and corporate environmental disclosure, the research developed the following framework that is expected to explain the relationship between the variables. With the literature being reviewed, a conceptual framework for this study is developed by presenting the relationship between the dependent variable, environmental disclosure and explanatory variables (Board gender composition, board size, board independent, board tenure, foreign directors with moderating variable, audit size). The concept is operationalised and demonstrated in figure 1 below using the six independent variables. Figure 1: Framework of the moderating effect of audit quality on the relationship between board characteristics and corporate environmental disclosure.

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Audit Size

Corporate board characteristics

Board Gender Composition Corporate

Board Independence Environmental Disclosure Board size

Board tenure

Foreign director

Source: Developed by the researcher (2019) Conclusion and Recommendations Environmental information disclosure is an important means of corporate communication to various stakeholders. The disclosure of the organisational efforts towards mitigating their impact on the operating environment can create a good relationship between the business enterprise and the host community. It provides a general structure for firms to identify and account for past, present and future environmental information to enhance managerial decision-making and control, and enhance other stakeholders decision-making. Based on the extant literature reviewed, the act of corporate environmental disclosure will improve stakeholder’s confidence on the activities of the firms and consequently improve firm performance. Therefore, the need for further research on the level of environmental information disclosure by firms in Nigeria become imperative in view of the scarcity of research on environmental disclosure and the fact that environmental accounting is still at its rudimentary stage in Nigeria. The corporate directors and regulatory authorities’ knowledge of the importance of corporate environmental information disclosure will go a long way to improve the adoption of environmental information disclosure.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 References Ajibolade, S.O. and Uwuigbe, U. (2013). Effect of corporate governance and corporate social and environmental disclosure among listed firms in Nigeria. European Journal of Business and Social Science, 2(5):76-92. Akpan, E.O. and Amron, N.A. (2014). Board characteristics and company performance: Evidence from Nigeria. Journal of Finance and Accounting, 4(2):25-38. Al-Ajmi, J. (2009). Audit firm, corporate governance and audit quality: Evidence from Bahrain, Advances in Accounting, Incorporating Advances in International Accounting,25(1):64-74. Ali, M.A. and Attan, R.H. (2013). The relationship between corporate governance and corporate social responsibility disclosure: A case of Malaysian sustainability companies and global sustainability companies. South East Asia Journal of Contemporary Business, Economics and Law, 1(3):39-48. Ashfoke, T.O. and Ilaboya, J. (2017). Board characteristics and environmental disclosure in Nigeria banking sector. ICAN Journal of Accounting & Finance, 6(1):87-102. Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) (2004) Report Summary: The State of Corporate Environmental and Social Reporting in Malaysia, ACCA, Kuala Lumpur. Berberich, G. and Niu, F. (2011). Director busyness, directors tenure and the likelihood of encountering corporate governance problems. CAAA Annual Conference 2011. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1742483. Bernardi, R.A. and Threadgill, V.H. (2010). Women directors and corporate social responsibility. Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organizational Studies, 15 (2):15-21. Brennan, N. and McCafferty, J. (1997). Corporate governance practices in Irish companies. Irish Journal of Management,17(1):116-135. Buysee, K. and Verbeke, A. (2003). Proactive environmental strategies: A stakeholder management perspective. Strategic Management Journal, 24(1):453-470. Cadbury Committee (1992). The Report of the committee on financial aspects of corporate governance. Available at:www.ecgi.org/codes/documents/cadbury.pdf. Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (2012). The role of management accountants: 2003-2012.Available at:www.cimaglobal.com

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Impact of Foreign Capital Inflows and Foreign Exchange Rate on Stock Market Returns

1Helen Afang Andow (Ph.D.) and 1Adams Audu 1Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Social & Management Science Kaduna State University, Kaduna State Email: [email protected]@gmail.com

Abstract Stock is one of the key securities traded in the capital market and as such, has attracted the attention of researchers. While it is said to propel economic activities, empirical studies conducted on different countries present divergent outcomes. The effect of foreign capital inflows in the stock market return in emerging economy like Nigeria have so far received inadequate attention in the literature. Thisstudy contributes to the literature by examining a possible determinant of stock market return that has receivedless attention in the literature: foreign investment inflows. The work covered a period of 1990-2017 using annual data from Central Bank of Nigeriastatistical bulletin. Causal research design was used in this study. The study found that foreign direct investment and foreign portfolio investment have positive and significant impact on the stock market return. However, exchange rate has negative but statistically insignificant impact on the stock market return in Nigeria. Based on this finding, it recommends that that policymakers should be concerned with stock market liquidity, given that market capitalization is a strong indicator of stock market development as it is positive and statistically significant. If this can be done, it will help to attract foreign investors into the Nigeria stock market.

Keywords: Foreign direct investment, foreign portfolio investment, international remittance inflow and stock market return

Introduction Foreign capital has significant role for every national economy, regardless of its level of development. Stock market development is not only important in economic development of a nation, it is also an important indicator of future economic activity and a nation’s economic strength. Stock market plays an important role in the development of every economy’s financial system and serves as an avenue for financing projects and investments capable of providing job opportunities, reducing poverty, and accelerating economic growth (Akinlo, 2014). Stock markets are the best indicators to estimate future economic activity and stock market health is also a measure of economic strength of a country (Raza, Iqbal, Ahmed, Ahmed, & Ahmed, 2012).

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Impact of Foreign Capital Inflows and Foreign Exchange Rate on Stock Market Returns. Helen Afang Andow The determinants of Stock Market return have drawn the attention of many scholars and researchers in recent times. Studies have revealed that a well-developed and functioning stock market can boost economic growth by enhancing faster capital accumulation and allowing for a better resource allocation in developing countries. Thus, it is the general belief amongst scholars that stock markets play a pivotal role in the growth and development of an economy. Foreign capital inflow may create both short and long run impact on the stock market return of a nation. Foreign capital inflow is the movement of capital resources from one country to another country for investment purpose, trade or business production (Nwosa, 2015). Capital inflows allow the recipient country to invest and consume more than it produces when the marginal productivity of capital within its borders is higher than in the capital-rich regions of the world (Chigbu, Ubah and Chigbu, 2015). The composition of foreign capital inflow to developing countries in general and Nigeria in particular has shifted from commercial loans to foreign direct investment (FDI) and portfolio investment (Ndem, Okoronkwo and Nwamuo, 2014). Foreign portfolio investment means the purchase of shares in a foreign country where the investing party does not seek control over the investment. A portfolio investment typically takes the form of the purchase of equity (preference share) or government debt in a foreign stock market, or loans made to a foreign company (Mucuk, Demirsel and Şahin, 2014). Portfolio investment is a recent phenomenon in Nigeria. Up to the mid 1980’s, Nigeria did not record any figure on portfolio investment (inflow or outflow) in her balance of payment account. The nil return on the inflow column of the account is attributable to the absence of foreign portfolio investors in the Nigerian economy. This is largely because of the non-internalization of the country’s money and capital markets as well as the non-disclosure of information on the portfolio investments in foreign capital/money markets (Obadan, 2004). Foreign direct investment (FDI) on the other hand, is long term investment made by the foreign investor to acquire lasting interest in enterprises operating outside the country or economy of the investor (Singh, 1997). FDI is central to the economic growth of a country and it represents an important financing source for capital investment. This is because it supports the transfer of technology, expertise and organizational capital between two countries as well as stimulating productivity growth (Nkalu, Edeme and Ifelunini, 2016). The benefits of FDI are employment generation; increase in the level of income and savings of investing country as well as transmitting of knowledge and technology (Haque, Patnaik and Hashmi, 2017). One of the many influences on foreign capital inflows activity is the behaviour of exchange rates. Exchange rates, defined as the domestic currency price of a foreign currency, matter both in terms of their levels and their volatility (Odili, 2014). Exchange rates can influence both the total amount of foreign direct investment that takes place and

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 the allocation of this investment spending across a range of countries (Goldberg, 2006). When a currency depreciates, meaning that its value declines relative to the value of another currency, the exchange rate movement has two potential implications for FDI. Firstly, it will increase FDI inflows into the country since it reduces cost of investment. Secondly, it will increase overall performance of stock market (Goldberg, 1993). Capital flows in the form of foreign direct and portfolio investment to developing countries has been described as low in the past few decades (Nwankwo, 2013). It is worth noting that stock market returns all over the world including Nigeria is characterized by upward and downward movements. In the recent years’ foreign capital inflows into Nigeria stock market is very low. For instance, the foreign portfolio investment inflow to Nigeria was N2,687.2 Billion in year 2012 as against N2,130.2 Billion and N832.4 Billion in year 2013 and 2014 respectively (Stabull, 2014). Stock market response, to the above sluggish foreign capital inflows into Nigeria stock market, the All Share Index (ASI) has severally declined, exhibiting a secular bear posture since July 17, 2008 when, at ASI of 52,910, the Index fell below 20% of its all- time high. It fell further, crossing below the 50,000 mark on August 8, 2008 and closing on October 22 at 42,207 (a 36.4% loss from the high within just seven months, and a year to date decline of 27.9%) (Mobolaji, 2008). Business Report (BR) in May 27, 2018, revealed that All Share Index (ASI) depreciated by 2.84% to settle at 39,323.62 points, while market capitalization decreased by 416 billion to finish at 14.244 trillion as against its previous close of 14.660 trillion (Business Report, 2018). The factors driving stock price movements (upward and downward) have become issue of concern to both researchers in academics and professional portfolio managers in different cycle. As a result, several studies investigated the impact of foreign capital inflows on stock market return in various countries (Adam and Tweneboah, 2009; Garacia and Liu, 1999; Yartey, 2008). But there is no consensus among the previous studies. Incidentally, few studies in Nigeria have attempted to provide empirical evidence of the foreign capital inflow on stock market return (Udegbunam and Eriki, 2001), while few others have done that at theoretical level (Adabag, 2012). On the other hand, several related studies on Nigerian emerging market had neglected the fact that foreign portfolio investment may exert positive influence on stock market returns. For instance, Temitope (2002), Tokunbo (2004), Rose and Sara (1998), examined the trend towards promoting stock market and economic growth but failed to consider the fact that foreign portfolio investment, Adeleke (2004) is believed to facilitate economic growth and development which leads to industrialization of the economy. Ologunde, Elumilade and Asaolu, (2006) showed that interest rate exerts positive influence with stock market returns, this is in line with the empirical result of Temitope (2002). Robert (2008) investigated the relationship

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Impact of Foreign Capital Inflows and Foreign Exchange Rate on Stock Market Returns. Helen Afang Andow that exists between stock market returns and the exchange rate. Meanwhile, Adabag (2012) had opined that foreign investors are blamed for financial instability through sudden flows in emerging markets. To this end, it needs to be investigated whether the inflow and outflow of foreign portfolio investments on the stock market is significant enough to lead to an increase or fall in stock market returns. It is in the light of the issuesraised above that this study would analyze the foreign portfolio investment inNigeria. The necessity of this study is that Nigeria government has been searching for foreign investors to boost her economy that is in recession, since global fall in the crude oil price which is the major source of income to the country. The policy relevance of this study cannot be over stressed since Nigeria has increasingly become an investment destination for most foreign financial investors because of the recent financial sector reforms (Haque, Patnaik and Hashmi, 2017). The broad objective of this study is to investigate impact of foreign capital inflows on stock market return in Nigeria. Specifically, the study seeks to; firstly, investigate impact of foreign direct investment on stock market return in Nigeria; secondly, examine impact of foreign portfolio investment on stock market return in Nigeria and thirdly, examine impact of exchange rate in stock market return in Nigeria. Conceptual Clarification Concept of Stock Market Return The flow of foreign capital is highly dependent on the functioning of the financial market. One major aspect of the financial market that triggers investment is the stock market. The stock market enhances investment opportunities of the investors by providing avenues for the sale of securities when the need for cash/liquidity arises and enables investors to alter their choice of asset portfolio (Nwosa, 2015). All Share Index (ASI) is an indicator of the stock market which measures the overall performance of the market and specified as the dependent variables in this study.

Concept of Foreign Direct Investment Foreign direct investment (FDI) is an important source of stock market returns (SMR). It can also play its task in raising domestic savings in the country through enhancement of technology transfer and creating job opportunities (Singh, 1997). It may be difficult to acquire such huge investment through the country’s domestic savings without foreign direct investment. Nwankwo, (2013), found positive and statistically strong relationship between FDI and stock market returns. Foreign direct investment net inflows in reporting (current US$) is used as a proxy for FDI and sourced from the World Bank Development Indicator Database. FDI is measured as the aggregate annual value. Previous studies have used the same proxy for FDI and found mix finding between FDI and stock market return (Adam and Twenebooah, 2009; Mordi, 2006; Nwankwo, 2013).

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Concept of Foreign Portfolio Investment Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI) is the transfer of financial assets such as cash, stock or bonds into a country by foreigners in need of profit and sometimes for speculation reason (Idowu and Babatunde, 2012). Foreign portfolio investment as an international capital flow comprises of transfers and financial assets such as stocks or bonds (Eniekezimene, 2013). It occurs when investors purchase non-controlling interest in foreign companies or buy foreign corporate or government bonds, short term securities or notes (Ekeocha, Ekeocha, Victor and Onyema, 2012). The desire by foreign firms, governments and individuals to explore their comparative advantage has necessitated international capital flows. Therefore, foreigners seeking to maximize their earnings, move their accumulated foreign assets to countries where they will be more productive. Hence, it is the productivity of capital that facilitates international investments. However, in this study foreign portfolio investment would be measured using annual aggregate value. Concept of Exchange Rate Exchange rate has been defined as the price of one currency in terms of another (Mordi, 2006). Oladipupo and Ogheneov (2011) defined Exchange rate as the price of one currency (the domestic currency) in terms of another (the foreign currency). Exchange rate plays a key role in international economic transactions because no nation can remain in isolation due to varying factor endowment. Therefore, exchange facilitates the inflows of foreign capital into a country stock market. In this study exchange rate would be measured using exchange rate of Nigeria naira par US dollar. Review of Related Studies Chauhan (2013) examined the impacts of foreign capital inflows on stock market development for the period 2000 to 2011. The study employed Ordinary Least Square, Karl Pearson’s correlation and Analysis of Variance techniques. The findings of the study showed that FDI had the greatest effect on both Bombay and National stock exchanges up to 61 per cent and 86 per cent respectively. Further, the study observed that FPI had a very low impact on Bombay stock market and a comparative high impact on the National stock exchange while foreign portfolio investment had the least impact on both markets. In the same view, LO Duca (2012), examined the factors affecting the capital inflows on GDP growth rate, market efficiency and higher returns expectation. The study employed ordinary least square approached. The study found that foreign direct investment and portfolio investment have positive and insignificant effect on the stock market return. In Nigeria Adaramola and Obisesan (2015) investigated impact of foreign direct investment on the Nigeria capital market development. The study found absence of cointegration between the variables. The study found that FDI has positive and significant impact on the stock market development. Eniekezimene (2013) examined the impact of foreign portfolio investment on capital market growth. Ordinary Least Square method

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Impact of Foreign Capital Inflows and Foreign Exchange Rate on Stock Market Returns. Helen Afang Andow was used to analyze the data collected. It was revealed that foreign portfolio investment has a positive impact on capital market growth. Conversely, Idowu and Babatunde (2012) investigated the effect of financial reform on capital market development in Nigeria over the period 1986 to 2010. Ordinary Least Square (OLS) technique was also used. The findings however revealed that the variables that represented the development of the banking sector interacted negatively with market capitalization which implies that the activities of those institutions deterred the development of the capital market. Ayunku and Etale (2014), study examined the determinants of stock market development for the period of 1977-2010. The study further investigated the long run and short run relationship between the variables, using ex-post facto research design and the utilization of Johansen Co-integration and Error Correction Model (ECM) approach. The empirical result indicated that market capitalization, credit to private sector and exchange rates are all important determinants of stock market development both in the long run and short run in Nigeria. Furthermore, Ibrahim and Akinbobola (2017) examined the relationship between foreign portfolio investment, democracy and economic growth in Nigeria. The results showed that, in the long run. Foreign portfolio investment had positive and significant effect on the economic growth in Nigeria. Haider, Khan, Saddique and Hashim, (2017) investigated the impact of stock market performance and inflation on foreign portfolio investment (FPI) in China. For this purpose, time series quarterly data from 2007 Q1 to 2015 Q4 was used. The results showed that there was significant positive impact of stock market performance on the FPI, whereas inflation is found to be negatively associated with the FPI. Fayyaz, Draz, and Yang, (2016) concluded that the major determinants of the foreign portfolio investments are the GDP growth, market size and market efficiency and higher expectation of returns, which played a vital role in the movement of the foreign portfolio investment. Loice (2017) investigated the effect of foreign portfolio equity outflows on stock returns of listed financial institutions in Kenya. Using purposive sampling technique, the study concentrated on 14 financial institutions. Panel estimation results indicated that foreign portfolio equity outflows had no effect on stock returns of listed financial institutions in Kenya. Ouedraogo (2017) explored the impact of the inflows of portfolio capital into three institutional sectors (government, banks and corporates) on the real effective exchange rate. Using a large sample of 73 countries, it was shown that the effect of portfolio inflows on the real effective exchange rate depended on the sector the investment that flowed in. The results were robust to different econometric methods, additional variables in the model, and various indicators of real effective exchange rates. Syed, Syed and Sahar (2013) examined the impacts of foreign capital inflows and economic growth on stock market capitalization in Pakistan for the period of 1976 to 2011.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Employing an ARDL bound testing co-integration approach. The study observed that foreign direct investment, workers’ remittances and economic growth have significant positive relationship with the stock market capitalization both in long run and the short run. Umar, Ismail and Sulong (2015) studied the impact of the stock market development on foreign direct investment using autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) in the presence of structural breaks (dummies) in Nigeria. The study utilized annual time series data from 1970 to 2013. The data were generated from World Bank and Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN). The result suggests that the foreign direct investment (FDI) has a significant positive long-run impact on the value of the total stock transaction, but has a negative and significant effect on the rate of stock returns. Evidence from the empirical reviewed shows that there is no consensus on the relationship between foreign capital inflows and stock market return. These mix findings may be attributed to methodological, theoretical, market and economy peculiar factors, political instability etc., in different countries in which hose studies were conducted. Very few studies conducted so far in emerging market most especially in Nigeria context. This create a vacuum that required urgent solution.

Theoretical Framework

One way of linking macroeconomics variables and stock market returns is through Arbitrage Pricing Theory (APT) propounded by Ross (1976). The model as formulated by Ross (1976) rests on the hypothesis that the equity price (Stock) is influenced by limited and non-correlated common factors and by specific factor totally independent of the other factors. The risk associated with holding a particular security came from two ways. The first source of risk is the macroeconomic factors such as inflation, interest rate, etc. that affect stock prices. Their influence pervades the whole stock market and cannot be diversified away. The second source of risk is the idiosyncratic or peculiar element. This element is unique to each security and, in a broadly diversified portfolio it can be diversified away. In this regard, the model assumes that macroeconomic variables such as exchange rate can influence the stock market. The theory made use of multiple risk factors to explain asset returns. However, the theory assumed that returns on market securities are affected by two factors (securities characteristics and macroeconomic factors). Macroeconomic variables could be reflecting a change in an underlying systematic risk factor influence future returns. Furthermore, most of empirical studies such as Syed, Syed and Sahar (2013); Loice (2017), Adam and Twenebooah, 2009; Mordi, 2006; Nwankwo, 2013, on APT theory, linking the state of foreign capital inflows to stock market returns, are characterized by modeling a short-run relationship between foreign direct investment and foreign portfolio investment and the stock price (Goldberg, 1993). However, this theory would be used to underpin the study

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Impact of Foreign Capital Inflows and Foreign Exchange Rate on Stock Market Returns. Helen Afang Andow as it clearly shows the interrelationship between the study’sindependent and dependent variables.

Methodology

The study used causal research design which is more quantitative in nature as well as deliberate and configured design. Causal research design happens when variation in one incident, an independent variable, leads to, on average, a variation in another incident, the dependent variable (Delbert and Neil, 2002). The study utilized secondary data which was collected from Nigeria Bureaus of Statistics, Central Bank of Nigeria and Nigeria Securities Exchange.

Model Specification

The selection of the model is based on the theoretical perspectives of the nexus between foreign capital inflows, which maintains that such inflows have effect on stock market return. The variables used in this study on the effect of foreign investment inflows on stock market return in Nigeria are exchange rate (EXR), foreign direct investment (FDI), foreign portfolio investment (FPI). Thus, the growth model is specified as ASIt = a +1FDIt + 2PFIt +3EXCH+ut…………………………………………………………….. (1)

Table 1. Measurement of Variable Variables Measurement Source

Stock market return The Nigerian Stock Exchange Market All Share Koskei (2017); Sulieman Sa’ad & Index was used as a proxy for Stock Market Abba, Mohammed (2016) Returns.

Foreign Direct investment FDI is measured as the annual aggregate value Chauhan (2013)

Foreign portfolio FPI is measured as the annual aggregate value Chauhan (2013) investment

Exchange Rate Exchange rate of Naira to US Dollar Chauhan (2013)

Source: Researcher Computation from Literature 2019

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Result and Discussion

Table 2. Diagnostic Tests Results Test Specification Chi2 P-value

Normality Test (Shapiro-Wilk W test for normal data) 0.0010 0.9994

Multicoliarity Test (VIF) (FDI 2.61, FPI 1.58 and FDI 2.62)

Model Specification Test (Ramsey RESET test) 0.7324 0.2883

(Breusch-Pagan / Cook-Weisberg test for heteroskedasticity) 0.9007 0.4566

Serial Autocorrelation Test (Breusch–Godfrey test LM) 1.1061 0.6130

Source: Researcher Computation 2019

The regression model of differenced value of the stock market returns (dependent variable) against differenced values of foreign direct investment, foreign portfolio investment and exchange rate and the error correction term was estimated. Diagnostic tests for the estimated model were done and the results are hereby discussed. Ramsey test was used to test for the correct model specification. In this test, if non-linear combinations of the explanatory variables do not have any power in explaining the endogenous variable, the model is correctly specified (Ramsey, 1969). The null hypothesis of the test is that the model is linear against an alternative. The results show that the null hypothesis of non-linearity was rejected since its p-value is greater than 5% significance level. The model was therefore correctly specified. This implies that there is not evidenced of omitted or additional variables in the model. Serial correlation is a statistical term used to describe the situation when the residual is correlated with lagged values of itself which is not desirable. Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation LM Test was used to test for the presence of serial correlation on the residuals. The null hypothesis is of no serial correlation. The p-value is 0.6130 (61.30%) which is more than 5 percent (p>0.05), hence null hypothesis could not be rejected. This means that residuals (u) are not serially correlated which is desirable. Heteroscedasticity is a term used to describe the situation when the variance of the residuals from a model is not constant. Breusch-Pegan-Godfrey test (B-P-G Test) was used to test for the presence of heteroscedasticity. The p-value is 0.4566 (45.66%) which shows that null hypothesis of homoscedasticity cannot be rejected. This implies that the residuals have constant variance which is desirable. One of the assumptions of the regression model is that the error term, follows the normal distribution. Jarque Berra statistics was used to test for normality. The result in show that its value is 0.0010 and the corresponding p value is 0.9994. Since p value is greater than 5 percent the null hypothesis of normal distribution cannot berejected meaning that

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Impact of Foreign Capital Inflows and Foreign Exchange Rate on Stock Market Returns. Helen Afang Andow population residual is normally distributed which fulfills the assumption of a good regression line. Unit Roots Test Result In this study, the Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) unit roots test was employed to test for the time series properties of model variables. The null hypothesis is that the variable under investigation has a unit root against the alternative. The decision rule is to reject the null hypothesis if the ADF statistic value exceeds the critical value at a chosen level of significance (in absolute term). These results are presented in table 2 below.

Table 3. Augmented Dickey-Fuller (1980) At Level 1(0)

Variables T-statistic 5% sig level Order of integration

ASI 2.048914 2.986225 Not Stationary

FPI 3.033281 3.052169 Not Stationary

FDI 1.059839 3.004861 Not Stationary

EXR 2.215732 3.012363 Not Stationary At First Difference 1(1) T-statistics 5%sig level Order of integration ASI 3.312882 2.991878 Stationary

FPI 3.937457 3.052169 Stationary

FDI 5.352735 3.012363 Stationary

EXR 5.561955 3.020686 Stationary Source: Eview 9.5 Output

The results of table 2 show that all the variables are not stationary at level given the value of t-statistics less than 5% significance level. Based on this null hypothesis of unit root was accepted. However, at the 1st difference all the variables (ASI, FDI, FPI and EXR) are free from unit root problem. This is evidenced from the T-statistic value greater than 5% critical level. Thus, we conclude that the variables under investigation are integrated of order zero one I(1). This indicates that all the variables are stationary at the first difference 1(1), which is a precondition to use Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) to test for long-run relationship between the study variables. Based on the foregoing, it became necessary to use the Johansen approach to test for co-integration among the variables. The order of lags on the first differenced variables are obtained from the unrestricted models by using the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC).Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC) provides the best fit for an autoregressive model to a set of

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 data. The model with the smallest value of the AIC is judged to be the most appropriate. The AIC revealed that the best fit for the model is an AR (1). This implied that the study would use lag (1), which is the lowest value for each criterion is its chosen VAR lag length. ong-Run Impact of Foreign Capital Inflows on Stock Market Return Table 4. Johansen Co-integration Test Lags interval (in first differences): 1 to 1

Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test (Trace)

Hypothesized Trace 0.05 No. of CE(s) Eigenvalue Statistic Critical Value Prob.**

None * 0.748833 66.13633 47.85613 0.0004 At most 1 * 0.628470 32.97705 29.79707 0.0208 At most 2 0.244221 9.214046 15.49471 0.3460 At most 3 0.098695 2.493890 3.841466 0.1143

Trace test indicates 2 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level * denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level **MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999) p-values

Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test (Maximum Eigenvalue)

Hypothesized Max-Eigen 0.05 No. of CE(s) Eigenvalue Statistic Critical Value Prob.**

None * 0.748833 33.15928 27.58434 0.0086 At most 1 * 0.628470 23.76301 21.13162 0.0208 At most 2 0.244221 6.720156 14.26460 0.5227 At most 3 0.098695 2.493890 3.841466 0.1143

Max-eigenvalue test indicates 2 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level * denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level **MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999) p-values Source: Eview Output, 2019

The co-integration test provides evidence on the existence of a long run relationship between the variables of interest such as foreign direct investment, foreign portfolio investment, exchange rate and sock market return. The Trace and Eigen value result in table 4 reveal existence of two (2) co-integration between the variables. This is evidenced from Trace and Eigen value statistic greater than 5% critical level. Thus, the null hypothesis of no cointegration is rejected at the 5 percent level of significance. In order to absolve the short-term dynamics of the relationship among the series, an Error Correction Model (ECM) was employed.

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Impact of Foreign Capital Inflows and Foreign Exchange Rate on Stock Market Returns. Helen Afang Andow Long-run Equation Table 5. The results of the long run estimations using (VECM) are presented below. Regression coefficient of Random Effect Model

Variables Coefficient Standard Error t-statistics P-value Constants 29.140 2.4652 11.82 0.000** FDI 0.3517 0.0289 12.16 0.000** FPI 0.1430 0.5181 2.76 0.043* EXR -0.2165 0.1207 -1.79 0.072 Coint (-1) -0.3927 0.0710 -5.53 0.000 R2 0.5867 Adjusted R2 0.5825 S.E of Regression 0.7133 F-statistics 27.625 P-Value 0.0000 Source: Researcher computation 2019. Note: * significance at 5%, ** significance at 1%.

Summary of Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) are presented in the table 5. The coefficient of the VECM as could be observed in the table 5 is negative signed and highly significant, showing that the model has a self-adjusting mechanism for adjusting the short-run dynamics of the variables with their long-run values. The coefficient of the ECM is significant at 1 percent level of significance and has the correct negative sign. According to Afolabi and Oluyemi (2005), a highly significant error correction term is a further proof of the existence of a stable long run relationship. This implies that there is a long-run relationship between foreign capital inflows and stock market return its determinants. The speed of adjustment to equilibrium is given by the coefficient of ECM (-1) as -0.3927. This speed is very high, indicating that a deviation in stock market return proxy with all share index (ASI) from equilibrium is corrected by as high as 39.3% the following year in Nigeria. Only about 39.3% of the adjustment to long run equilibrium is completed within the first period (year). The value of adjusted R2 of the estimated model shows about 0.5825 or 58.3% of the variation in stock market return is explained by the combined effects of all the predictor while the remaining 42.7% is attributed to the unexplained variation that is the variables not captured in this model. Also, the equation’s standard error of 0.7133 signifies that in about 71% of the time the predicted value of stock market return would be within 71.33% of the actual value. The F-statistic of 27.625 is significant at 1 percent level, as the p-value estimate of 0.0000 has indicated. The F-statistics shows that the explanatory variables are jointly significant in explaining stock market return (dependent variable). It shows that there is a linear relationship between the dependent variable and at least one of the independent

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 variables. The explanatory variables used in this study are good enough to explain the various foreign capital inflows on stock market return in Nigeria.

Results and Discussions

The coefficient of foreign direct investment reveals a positive and significant impact on the stock market return. This is evidenced from positive coefficient 0.3517 with the corresponding p-value 0.000 less than 5% significance level. This finding implies that FDI has positive and significant influence on the stock market return proxy by all share index. Based on this finding, the study rejects the null hypothesis that foreign direct investment has no significant impact on the stock market return in Nigeria. This finding is in line with the work of Chauhan (2013), Syed, Syed and Sahar (2013) who document positive and significant relationship between foreign direct investment and stock market performance. However, the finding is not in line with the work of Ahmed and Ahmed, 2012) who document negative and insignificant relationship between foreign direct investment and stock market performance. The result also revealed that foreign portfolio investment has positive and statistically significant impact on the stock market return. This is evidenced from the coefficient value of 0.1430 with p-value of 0.043 less than 5% significance level. This finding signifies that foreign portfolio investment has significant impact on the stock market return in Nigeria. Based on this finding, the study rejects null hypothesis that foreign portfolio investment has no significant impact on the stock market return in Nigeria. This finding is in line with the work of Chauhan (2013) who found a positive and significant relationship between stock market return and foreign portfolio investment. Furthermore, the finding the coefficient of real exchange rate is -0.2165; that is, a given percent increase in real exchange rate leads to 21.65 percent decrease in stock market return. Real exchange rate is not statistically significant in the analysis. This implies that it is not a key determinant of stock market return movements in Nigeria. The negative coefficient could be attributed to the instability in the foreign exchange market which can lead to crisis of confidence that could cause capital flight, or a large-scale withdrawal of short-term credit facilities. In essence, high exchange rate is expected to encourage round tripping and discourages stock market investment. This will cause an upward movement in operating cost and lower corporate profit in the real sector. The higher the operating cost the lower the profit. When the value of the currency is dropping, the incentive to invest by foreign investors in the domestic economy is lost. This would no doubt have negative effect on the stock market return. This finding is not in line with the work of Asaolu and Ogunmuyiwa (2011), Ajayi (2006) who found a positive and significant relationship between exchange rate and stock market return in Nigeria.

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Impact of Foreign Capital Inflows and Foreign Exchange Rate on Stock Market Returns. Helen Afang Andow Conclusion and Recommendations

Accordingly, we conclude by reiterating the fact thatwhatever the benefits of FDI, the development processmust start from within, through a strong investment in human capital accumulation and a significant increase in infrastructure provision so that a strong basis for a diversified production system can be established; a means topromote technological learning and technology diffusion. Base on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are advanced: That policymakers should be concerned with stock market liquidity, given that market capitalization is a strong indicator of stock market development as it is positive and statistically significant. If this can be done, it will help to attract foreign investors into the Nigeria stock market. To promote stock market development in Nigeria, the banking sector should be encouraged to increase lending to the both local and international investors of the economy so as to boast their financial strength stock market performance.

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Adam, O. I. and Twenebooah, A.A, (2009). Stock Market Development, Foreign Direct Investment and Macroeconomic Stability: Evidence from Nigeria. World, 62, 5- 279.

Adaramola, A.O. and Obisesan, O.G. (2015) Impact of Foreign Direct Investment on Nigerian Capital Market Development. International Journal of Academic Research in Accounting, Finance and Management Sciences (IJARAFMS), 5(1): 103-108.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Development Implications of Social Capital among the Igede of Central Nigeria

Comfort Erima Ugbem Department of Sociology, Benue State University, Makurdi Email: [email protected]

Abstract One of the undaunted challenges facing many countries in Africa is that of achieving development. Many African states remain underdeveloped despite the various investments made by successive governments in achieving development. As such, many groups have begun to look inwards using association, identity, love and trust, summed up as social capital to achieve development in their various communities. This study examined the relationship between social capital and sustainable development among the Igede of Central Nigeria. The methodology was basically qualitative. Data was generated through key informant interviews (KII), in-depth interviews (IDI) and focus group discussion (FGDs). KII interviews were conducted with traditionalist (titled) male and female, IDIs were conducted with male and female opinion leaders, leaders of community development associations, political office holders among others. FGDs were conducted homogenously on the basis of age and sex. Findings revealed the existence of strong bonding social capital but weak bridging and linking social capital. The study therefore recommended the development of strong bridging and linking social capital through socialization, awareness creation, civil society actions as well as the use of identity by political office holders to create stronger links between government and the people. Keywords: Development, identity, Igede, social capital, under development

Introduction

Achieving development has remained an undaunted challenge in many African countries. Many African states especially, former colonies remain underdeveloped despite the various plans, strategies and investments of successive governments towards achieving development. The Nigerian state, presents as one state, where so much effort has been advanced towards achieving sustainable development from the post independence era till date without success (Lawal and Oluwatoyin, 2011; Eneh, 2011). Successive governments in Nigeria since independence in 1960 have pursued the goal of development through structural change without success. Countries such as China, India, Indonesia, and Malaysia were far behind Nigeria in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita in 1970, but today, beyond overtaking Nigeria, they have become major players in the world economic system (Sanusi 2010;Ewetan and Urhie 2014). Though

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Development Implications of Social Capital among the Igede of Central Nigeria Comfort Erima Ugbem successive governments have devised various policies to enhance development, many of these policies have failed. Nigeria’s earliest effort at achieving development started with development planning in 1962. It was aimed at ensuring economic growth with priority on agriculture, manpower training and industrial development. This plan was however interrupted by the Nigerian civil war. A lot of infrastructure had been destroyed and there was need for reconstruction. This formed the basis of the second development plan (1970-1974) (Marcellus 2009 and Ogechukwu 2011) which was aimed at reconstruction and rehabilitation of damaged structures during the civil war. An indigenization decree was also enacted to put the economy and development of Nigeria in the hands of Nigerians. The third development plan (1975-1980) focused on consolidating the gains from the oil boom, while the fourth development plan (1981-985) failed and was grossly affected by oil prices. In 1986, an International Monetary Fund (IMF) Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) was adopted by the Nigerian government (Obadan, 2001; Aladekomo, 2004; Obadan, 2003; Lawal and Oluwatoyin, 2011). SAP failed to bring about the expected wealth creation and development. Nigerians popularly regard SAP as a period of lack, suffering and hunger. Besides development planning, various agricultural development and poverty alleviation programmes such as Operation feed the Nation (OFN), Young Farmers Club, National Directorate for Employment (NDE), Directorate of Food Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), Mass Mobilization for Social and Economic Recovery(MAMSER), National Poverty Alleviation and Eradication Programmes, (NAPEP) and Youth Empowerment Schemes (YES) were developed and adopted in Nigeria without reasonable change in the life of Nigerians (Olayiwola and Adeleye, 2005; Marcellus, 2009;Adedayo, 1985; Ibietan and Ekhosuehi, 2013). Many of these programmes, though plausible on paper, their implementations were marred by corruption, nepotism, ethnic politics, civil disturbances, tribalism and many other social vices. The failure of the various policies and programmes to achieve development has led individuals to begin to look inwards in terms of evolving home grown development strategies. As such many individuals and groups have begun to look inwards using association, identity, love and trust summed up as social capital to achieve development. Social capital has been defined variously by scholars. Coleman (1990) defines social capital as cooperative relationships within families and communities. Woolock (2000) defines it as shared values and norms, essential for social behaviour that are reflected in individual’s personal relationships, their trust in each other and shared sense of civic responsibility, something that makes society more than and beyond the sum of individuals. Evans (2002) further looks at it as resources within communities which are created through the presence of high levels of trust, reciprocity and mutuality, shared norms of behaviour, shared commitment and belonging, both formal and informal networks and effective information channel which may be used productively by individuals and groups to facilitate actions to benefit individuals, groups and the larger

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 community. Social capital on the whole, refers to relation of mutual benefit characterised by norms of trust and reciprocity. Scholars further classify social capital into bonding, bridging and linking social capital. Bonding social capital refers to the relationships we have with members of our families and ethnic groups (Brisson and Usher, 2005). It involves trust and reciprocity in closed networks and helps in the process of getting by in life on a daily basis. Bridging social capital refers to relationships with people who are not like us, different socio-economic status, different generations or ethnic groups. Linking social capital refer to relationship with people in power (Leonard, 2004). Linking social capital enables individuals and community groups to access resources, ideas and information from formal institutions beyond the immediate community. On the whole, social capital is about networks, relationships and collective action that can enhance development. According to Narayan (2000), social capital is the vehicle through which many rural areas or communities may develop. It is believed to have many benefits, such as, stronger communities, better education, economic propensity for people (Leonard, 2004;Hawkins and Maurer, 2009 and Adger, 2010). The concept of social capital has gained currency in recent times and is increasingly been regarded as critical to achieving development. Recent development discourse has begun to focus on social capital in view of the failure of modernization strategies to achieve development and has made it imperative to understand and examine how vulnerable populations use resources available to them to survive poverty and underdevelopment. Social capital exists in all societies, but it can be distributed in very different ways. The family is an important source of social capital, even though the structure differs from society to society. Social capital relies on people looking beyond themselves and engaging in supportive or helpful action. The importance of social capital in achieving human and sustainable development has been widely researched on by scholars. According to Dipasqvale and Glaeser (1999) and Putman (1993); Omobowole and Olutayo (2009), social capital promotes cooperation, collaboration and coordination and brings about outcomes such as political participation and good governance. Paldam and Svendsen (2000); Casey and Christ (2005) believe that social capital led to successful cooperatives movement in Denmark between 1850 and 1900. The need for the utilization of social capital to achieve development has become relevant in recent times due to economic decline and increasing poverty, which is endemic in many African countries. Though hardship exists, people utilize social capital to bring about development. The fact that social capital has been portrayed as beneficial does not mean it always translates into development. In some cases, the content of the social capital can inhibit development. It is the opinion of this paper that the specific realities of individuals and groups have to be examined in other to understand the precise value of their social capital for development. It is against this back drop that this study examines the relationship between social capital and development among the Igede people of Central Nigeria. The study specifically seeks

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Development Implications of Social Capital among the Igede of Central Nigeria Comfort Erima Ugbem to identify and examine the nature of bonding, bridging and linking social capital among the Igede in Central Nigeria; and the impact of Igede social capital on human development. Materials and Methods Description of Study Area The Igede are the contemporary inhabitants of present day Oju and Obi local government areas of Benue State. In the recent past, the Igede occupied only Oju local government area which was bordered to the North - West by the Idoma in Otukpo Local Government Area, to the North -East by the Tiv, in Gwer - West Local Government Area, the Izis of present day Ebonyi State and the Ukelle and Yachi of present day Cross River State to the South - West and South - East (Odey, 1980). The name Igede describes the people, their language and their land. The Igede language in the wider context of African group of language falls within the Kwa sub-group of the Niger-Congo family (Odey 1980). It has five dialects; the dialects are – Ito, Uwokwu, Ainu, Igabu, Itakpa and Igede - Central which is regarded as the purest form of the language. The population of Igede according to the 2006 census is 168,491. The major occupation among the Igede include trading, subsistence agriculture, civil service, teaching and many other professions. Igede was chosen for the study because it is one of the most underdeveloped areas in Benue State where social capital is visible in the formation of association and the use of social ties for community advancement. The methodology adopted was basically qualitative. Data was generated through key informant interviews (KIIs), in-depth interviews (IDIs) and focus group discussion (FGDs). KII interviews were conducted with traditionalist (title holders) male and female, IDIs were conducted with male and female opinion leaders, leaders of community development associations and political office holders. FGDs were conducted homogenously on the basis of age and sex. The male and female FGDs were conducted in two groups of 18-39 years and 40years and above. Participants were drawn from residents of the Igede speaking areas. Each FGD session had between 6-10 participants. An interview guide was used to generate data and these were subsequently subjected to content and descriptive analysis. Result of Findings Bonding Social Capital among the Igede Bonding social capital describes connections within a group of community and is characterized by high levels of similarity in demographic characteristics, interest, origin, history and identity. For a better understanding of bonding social capital among the Igede, it is important to examine their history and identity. According to oral history, the Igede were natives of Sabon Gida Ora in present day Edo State. They are said to be the

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 descendants of a certain Agba, a high chief at Sabon Gida Ora in contemporary Edo State. He had fourteen sons which are today regarded as the founders of the fourteen clans of Igede. The clans are actually named after these fourteen sons. They were predominantly involved in farming, fishing and hunting. Oral history traces Igede’s migration to an altercation between an Igede woman and an Ora woman. Trouble started when an Ora woman broke the (earthen) water pot of an Igede woman at the stream. The Ora woman apologised and offered to replace it with another pot but the Igede woman refused and insisted that she wanted that particular broken pot replaced. This led to a quarrel, initially involving the two women but later spread to other members of the society and a full scale quarrel and exchange of words ensued between the Ora and Igede men and women. After a long time of quarrelling at the stream, an uneasy peace agreement was eventually reached. Subsequently, an Igede borrowed the cutlass of an Ora man. In the process of using it, it fell into a river. This time, the Ora man demanded the same cutlass that had fallen into the river. A consequent quarrel resulting from this altercation between the two groups resulted in a full scale war, which Igede lost. This loss led to their migration to their present location after having various stop overs at Nsukka (present day Enugu State, Nigeria), and Edumoga (Benue State). The Igede reside and relate on the basis of clannish relationship. Beyond the Ugbiyegwu, the Igede are organized in fourteen clans which refers to the fourteen children of the Agba, King at Sabon Gida Ora. Decisions are made by the elder members of the society. Presently, the Igede have a paramount chief, which is known as Adi Igede or the father of Igede The small unit of social capital among the Igede is the household, or Ododo-epwa. OdodoEpwa according to Iganga (2008) is indicative of the polygamous nature of most African societies. In an Ododa-epwa, each wife and her children constitute a household. Also a man’s family does not only include his conjugal family, but those of his brothers and in some cases cousin. Various families who traced their descent to one father are called Ugbiyegwu. Ugbiyegwu Igede bonding social capital is evidenced in their value for members of family, kinship group and the ethnic group in general. This is shown in the response below: My wealth is my family members. Of what use is money, houses and a big farm if there is nobody that enjoy these things with. An Igede man values brothers and sisters above everything. Even if I don’t have money, the fact that I have family members that I can count on is sufficient. If I organize an occasion now, no matter how much food I prepare, people will judge the success of the occasion by the members of my relatives that came from far and wide (IDI with a 45 year old farmer). This response above, show that Igede people value family relations and members of the ethnic groups. In terms of celebration or grief, they draw upon these relations to cope with the grief and for survival. To further show the nature of bonding capital, the Igede

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Development Implications of Social Capital among the Igede of Central Nigeria Comfort Erima Ugbem are organized in clan association and all these umbrella associations come under the umbrella organization Ominyi Igede, meaning, the voice of Igede. Responses from Key Informants show the value the Igede people have for the association; We cannot live alone; we have to form groups with others that are like us, so that we can draw strength from one another. We have village association for both males and females and we also have these associations at the level of the clan. We encourage our young ones to form these associations because we believe that your strength and success as a human being depends on your associations (KII with a 70 year old retired civil servant/Igede). Another says: We have these associations here in the village and every town where our people settle, they form these associations. So we are all connected wherever we go. Our people value these meetings (word for association and groups). If you don’t join any, when you have a loss, you will grieve alone, but if you are a member, they others will rally round you to help you (45 year old/Okada rider/Oju). The responses above show the value attached to association. Association is critical to human existence. In pre-colonial times, the communal family system was prevalent in many societies. Among the Igede, they were organized around Ugbiyegwu– kinship group. This relationship has remained over the years, though they trace their origin to one progenitor called Agba. They are organized in fourteen clans, reminecent of the fourteen children of Agba. Within these clans they are organized in epweji (villages). Within the villages, there are patrilineages called Onegba. Each Onegba comprises several extended families called Ugbiyegwu.Ugbiyegwu, literally means “fruits of the common hearth” (Odey, 1980). An Ugbiyegwu comprises of several Odeda epha (smaller families). Each Ugbiyewo has an Ogabo (Elder) who is the spokesman. Each clan has an Adikobia who is the spokesman of the clan. All these Adikobias are answerable to the smaller chiefs and then there is an Adigede who is a paramount chief. It is important to note that the relationship of Adikobia is replicated in the towns where the Igede’s settle. The Adikobias form the decision-making body of the Igede outside their traditional towns. The point of emphasis here is the fact that association is highly valued. Those who are not members of these associations are seen as proud and self-conceited and arrogant. This can be seen in the responses below: Some people especially those in town don’t like to join these associations. They feel they don’t need others. They feel that those of us who join associations are illiterate and backward. They feel they are too educated to join us (KII with 75 year old/farmer/Oboru).

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Some of the young people in the town feel they are self-sufficient but they usually suffer when they have a loss and they have to bring the corpse back home. It is then, many of them will realize value of these associations (KII, 60 years old/female/farmer/Obi). The responses above go on to show the value that is given to membership of association. Beyond the fact that these associations are a form of identity, it signifies wealth and individuals are able to draw strength from them during their period of grief. The responses above also confirm the existence of bonding capital among the Igede people. Their bonding capital here involves value for interaction and association, where individuals draw strength to everyday social existence. Their bonding capital here also results in the formation of association which results in collective actions. The formation of association enables them to exhibit egalitarian, social, political, cultural, trust, cooperation and public spirited attributes (Omobowale and Olutayo, 2009, Putman, 1993). These associations further encourage members to contribute their own quota to development. Beyond drawing strength and sympathy from associations, they contribute to the development of their communities through these associations. The responses below show the fact that associations are able to attract development projects to their community. The road to this community was graded by an organization but we had to contribute part of the money before they help us with the rest. Our association chapters in the town contributed money and sent to us. We were then able to pay our part so that the road can be graded (KII with 70 years old/Retired Civil Servant/Ohirigwe). We have been able to contribute money to sink boreholes, fix culverts in our communities. Also, those in the town contribute to repair broken down bridges and boreholes (IDI with 55 years old/Female/Civil Servant). These responses show that associations can be used to enhance development, so social capital can be mobilized to bring about development in the community. Other associations in the town also contribute to human development. For instance, a group of women called Achilla daughters came together to sensitize the community about the importance of girl child education and the dangers of circumcision. This point is further buttressed by the responses below Some of our daughters who are educated in town have taken it upon themselves to ensure that our children go to school. Some of them take upon themselves to send money for school fees for our children. In fact, one of them gave me money to start the business I am currently doing

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We depend on one another a lot. I remember when local government workers were not being paid. We received a lot of help and support from our relatives in the town and from those who were into farming in the village. We would not have survived that period without them.

Findings from the study further revealed that association can also be used to enhance empowerment. This is shown in the responses, ‘‘during one military regime we were told that we could access loans for garri processing machines. Through our women association, we were able to purchase a garri processing machine for use in the community’’ (KII with 65 years old/Farmer/Ito). The responses in this section so far show the nature of bonding social capital among the Igede and the fact that it could be mobilized to being about development. As much as social capital can be used to enhance development, a caveat was however discovered in the course of the study. The bonding social capital can also have negative influence on development as can be seen in the responses below. One of the challenges I have with the Igede man is that we value our associations and family relationship so much as we don’t work hard to improve ourselves. The trend in many families is that once one person has made it and has money, the rest of the family members will relax and settle down to wait for that one person to give to them. If that person is not able to give to them, he or she is seen as wicked and stingy (KII with 75 year old/Retired Civil Servant). There is a trend that I don’t like with some of our people. They lazy about because they feel that one of their brothers in the town has arrived so they can leverage on his success, as much as association or family relationship is important, we should strive to have our own and not only regard our brother’s success as our own, therefore, we fold our hands and settle down to spend the money (KII with 80 year old/Adikobia). Another in the course of FGD said There is this brother who has a wife and two children without any source of livelihood. My sister and I felt marriage would make him responsible, so we married for him. We kept sending monthly allowance to him until my daughter who is a caterer in the town asked him to come and join her in her catering work so that he can fend for himself and his family. Can you believe that he left, return back to the village after two weeks with the excuse that the work was too difficult? In concert with him, another respondent says;

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 My daughter is a successful entrepreneur in the town. I have a brother that is doing nothing in the village and my daughter sends money to him from time-to-time. She decided to employ him as a security in her house. My brother could not even work for her for a month. He said he was a man and will not be controlled by a woman. In support of this, another respondent said, in the course of FGD and the others agreed with him; ‘‘my brother’s problem is my problem, so also my brother’s money is my money. I can call my brother’s wife and children my own, whatever my brother has I also have. So if he has succeeded, he has succeeded on our behalf’’. These responses point to a situation where bonding capital can be used negatively. Here people over rely on the norms of trust and friendliness to exploit sympathy and other valued resources without reciprocity. Bonding social capital is valuable but can be used negatively when the norms of love, trust and association are not reciprocated or used negatively. Bridging Social Capital among the Igede Bridging social capital is known as cross cutting ties. It is a type of social capital that occurs when members of one group connect with members of other groups to seek access or support to gain information. Geographically, Igede shares boundaries with other ethnic groups within and outside the State. To the Northern side, they are bounded by the Tiv in Gwer and Idoma in Otukpo Local Government Areas. They are also bounded by the Tiv and Idomas on the Eastern boundary and the Ebbi of Ogoja in Cross River State. The geographical location of this ethnic group inherently suggests that they are surrounded by ethnic groups such as Idoma, Tiv and the Ebbi of Ogoja in Cross River State. It is important to examine the relationship of the Igedes to these ethnic groups in order to properly place their bridging social capital in perspective. Findings from the study showed that the Igedes are able to connect with other ethnic groups within the social environment and seek support. Inter-ethnic relations between the Igede are cordial as evidenced by the KII response below; We relate well with the Idoma and Tiv and other ethnic groups that have settled in our place. We buy their things and they also buy from us. We meet them in the market, at school, at work and even in the church. Our people are naturally peaceful people so we don’t usually have problem with our neighbours. We relate well with them, all my years I spent in the city working, we are able to form associations with other ethnic groups at work or in the church. The responses above show that the bridging social capital here revolves around cordial interaction with people outside the ethnic group. The emphasis here is cordiality. This

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Development Implications of Social Capital among the Igede of Central Nigeria Comfort Erima Ugbem form of social capital tends to be fragile and less permanent; the ties here are not as strong as that of bonding social capital. Findings from the study further revealed that there were identity connection/contest issues inherent in their bonding social capital (inter-group relations). The following responses further attest to this. As much as we relate well with these ethnic groups, there are some underground issues, because of some of these issues some of us interact with them with caution. Some of the ethnic groups like Tiv and Idoma look down on us. The Idoma see us as inferior to them, while among the Tiv, Igede is synonymous to house-help or slaves. Another says: ‘‘we don’t like to marry the Idoma because they see us as inferior to them. Most times, they refer to us as Egede as against Igede, that is, the correct name. We too call them apoto or Idada, the name of their special soup that is prepared without palm oil’’. Another respondent also says: ‘‘it is forbidden for us to even inter marry with the Tiv. Even though, no concrete explanation has been given, it is a taboo that carries life-long sanctions that are transferable from one generation to the other’’. Another also says: ‘‘the Idoma only use us to get number and score political points against the Tiv ethnic group. Besides that, they usually take all the important opportunities that come to the zone. We are only relevant to them numerically’’. The responses go to show the place of identity in social relation. These responses show that identity which is a critical aspect of bonding capital can weaken the bridging capital. Identity defines who an individual is in relation to others in the same social environment. This definition extends to access to valued goods in the society. Identity can enhance bonding capital and weaken bridging capital. Here individuals trust members of their ethnic groups more than outsider. Very strong bonding social capital can lead to social exclusion and even mutual suspicion between ethnic groups and can in turn, hamper development efforts within a heterogeneous setting. Linking Social Capital among the Igede Linking social capital refers to the extent to which individuals build relationships with institutions and individuals who have relative power over them. That is, to provide access to services, jobs or resources (Woolock, 2001; Szreter and Woolock, 2004). Linking social capital provides access and connection to power structures and institutions unlike bonding capital. Bridging and linking capital are characterized by exposure to new ideas (Woolock, 2001). Linking ties may include civil service organizations, voluntary groups, government agencies, service providers, representatives of the public, elicited politicians, political parties and the private sector, e.g. banks. This form of social capital is valuable in the sense that it increases access to key resources outside the community.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Findings from the study revealed that there was linking social capital in form of nongovernmental organizations, both local and international. Non-governmental organizations had initiated and executed various developmental programmes in the area of HIV/AIDS, water and sanitation, provision of infrastructure in schools to enhance education, renovation of bridges, drilling of boreholes among others. Also sensitisation programmes have been carried out in the area of harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation, early marriage and male son preference. Findings further revealed that the private sector such as the network providers were also able to contribute to the development of the area in terms of corporate social responsibilities in form of renovations and repair of bridges. Some of these network providers include MTN, Airtel and GLO. Some of the respondents however raised concerns about the contribution of the government, political leaders and parties in the area. The responses below attest to this. Sometimes we feel forgotten. It’s like the government has forgotten us. We see people during campaigns, they make all sorts of promises but after the elections, we don’t see them. Even some of our sons and daughters in political positions don’t’ help matters. Once we vote and they win, they become very unapproachable. You can’t see them… they become very proud, some of them even see us as beggars (KII/ 45 yr old Lecturer Oju). Some of the things government has done, don’t last at all. Look at the Oju/Awaji road, it was poorly done, the road did not last. When one of our son’s was the economic adviser to Obasanjo, he started a major road connecting Oju to Cross River. Since he left the position, the work has slowed down. We feel some people have collected money and disappeared as usual (IDI/ 50 yr old farmer/ Oboru). In fairness to some of them, they have tried. One was a commissioner who ensured that communities were connected to light. There are others who fixed culverts but some are so shameless. The roads to their villages are bad and they are doing nothing about it (IDI/70 yr old/ retired Lecturer / Ohirigwe). The responses above, show the perception of the people about the presence of government, political leaders and political parties. Most of the respondents see government as far from the people. The political office holders on the other hand, present a situation of their being handicapped in terms of linking their people properly with the government. These responses from the FGDs attest to this; …. Indeed, government is very far from the people. Most of our roads are deplorable. Many communities are inaccessible especially during the rainy season. Our people do not have access to quality education. The health centers are dilapidated and lack basic health facilities….…

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Development Implications of Social Capital among the Igede of Central Nigeria Comfort Erima Ugbem

You know, politics is a game of numbers, in our setting, the winner takes it all…. The Igede are a minority and do not really have a voice. So they are unable to really attract development to their people. Politically, the Igede is weak unfortunately. This makes it difficult for you to achieve much when in political office. Most times you barely struggle to survive and maintain your position. Sometimes, it looks like we are beggars politically. The responses above overtly present a weak linking social capital among the Igede. This has implication as it limits access to key resources outside the community and formal decision making with regards to issues that concern their lives. This weak social capital can lead to social fragmentation and disenchantment from the State, violent conflict and consequently underdevelopment and social exclusion. The social aspect or the social relations that can enhance development is increasingly gaining attention. This is because of the realization that the development of the society does not necessarily lie in the economic exchanges but in social organisation and social transformation of the society. The social relations within a society have to be examined because they are critical in terms of enhancing development. Findings from the study reveal a strong bonding capital among the Igede. This bonding social capital is critical for the survival of the social group (Wellman and Frank, 2001; Scorza, 2004; Omobowale and Olutayo, 2009). These shared norms of love and trust, shared commitment is critical especially in the light of the fact that there is no much presence of government or other such formal institutions in the area. Their bonding social capital provides service in times of pain, lack and stress. On the basis of bonding capital, clannish associational groups are formed so as to provide the needed help during times of difficulty. This implies that the Igede have a strong sense of identity. On the basis of the strong bonding capital, they Igede are of one ethnic identity. Ethnic identity is critical especially in a country like Nigeria where ethnicity is sometimes, the basis of access to resources. Beyond the nuclear and extended family setting, ethnicity provides a basis of collective conceive or organic solidarity. Bonding social capital further contributes to people’s likelihood to engage in any action outside their comfort zone that can improve their lives (Bandura, 1997; Ferguson and Dickens, 1999; Warren, Thomson and Saegert, 2001). Furthermore, bonding social capital provides a necessary antecedent for developing a powerful bridging capital (Ferguson and Dickens, 1999). Bridging social capital among the Igede appears to be low. Their connection with other social/ethnic groups is low. This has far-reaching implications. Bridging social capital is valuable as it opens up social and economic opportunities to those belonging to less powerful and excluded groups. Bridging capital was found to be low as a result of identity contests, inferiority/superiority relations. Bridging capital allows different groups

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 to share and exchange information, ideas, and innovations and build consensus among the groups representing diverse interests. It has the capacity to create an inclusive institutional structure that is more democratic in nature and has implications for broader political and economic development (Kanchan, 2002; World Bank, 2004; Jordan 2015). The low level of bridging capital among the Igede may be a contributing factor for the low level of development in the area. Findings from the study reveal a weak linking capital among the Igede. Linking social capital involves social relations with those in authority and this can be used to access resources and power. It is very important in development as it connects government and government officials with the people and provides information (Stone, Wendy and Hudges, 2002). Linking social capital is also central to wellbeing, especially in poor countries and communities. It opens up economic opportunities to those belonging to less powerful or excluded groups (Woolock, 2001; Jordan, 2015) It is important to note that all forms of capital are important for development. No one form is more important than the other. A possible balance of the three can bring about development among the Igede as well as all such communities. Conclusion/Recommendation Social relations are critical to the development question. They present a departure from the modernist and dependency ideas of adopting development from the West or totally disconnecting from the West respectively. Paying attention to social capital in development matters is critical because the social realities of individuals and groups differ. Their social reality, world view and everyday experiences have implication for the sustainability of any development effort. It is important for a shift in focus from the over generalization of the modernization and dependency perspectives to the examination of the specific realities of individuals in order for development to be achieved and remain sustainable. Focusing on social capital and its place in development represents this shift. Social capital is critical to development because it strengthens social cohesiveness, it contributes to economic, social and political behaviour as it enables the sharing of information, facilitates collective decision making and it also mitigates opportunities behaviour. As critical as social capital is to development, it can also be used to impede development. A lack of balance of the various kinds of social capital can lead to underdevelopment. It is important for an appropriate balance to be maintained so that sustainable development can be enhanced. The study has highlighted the fact, that the Igede have a strong bonding capital and weak linking and bridging capital. Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made; Firstly, bonding social capital among the Igede should be strengthened. The negative aspects of bonding social capital where some exploit the love and trust of others without

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Development Implications of Social Capital among the Igede of Central Nigeria Comfort Erima Ugbem reciprocating such should be discouraged. Bonding social capital should be utilized beyond human development to social development. Secondly, bridging social will have to be developed among the Igede. Their relationships with other ethnic groups will have to be improved upon. Igede is a minority ethnic group in Benue State. It is important for the Igede to reexamine their taboos with regards to other ethnic groups within their social environment. Moving out of their comfort zone to interact more deeply with other ethnic groups is important. Issues of perception of other groups about them can be addressed through interaction and negotiation. Thirdly, the Igede people can mobilize their bonding social capital to ensure that they are not marginalized politically. Weak linking social capital will only worsen and widen the gap to achieving development. Bridging capital can furthermore be developed by conscientisation on positive ways to use identity and its construction. Fourthly, linking social capital which has to do with government and formal institutions relations will have be developed by political office holders as well as non-governmental organizations working in the community. The political office holders as well as other gate keepers will have to make concerted efforts to link the Igede with the government. This will enhance government presence in the area. The Igede can also mobilize their bonding social capital to write proposals that can attract grants for indigenous development from nongovernmental organizations. References Adedayo, A. (1985). The implications of community leadership for rural development planning in Nigeria. Community Development Journal, 20(1), 24-31

Adger, W. N. (2010). Social capital, collective action, and adaptation to climate change. In Der klimawandel (pp. 327-345). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften

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Anderson, A., Park, J and Jack, S. (2007). Entrepreneurial social capital: Conceptualizing social capital in new high-tech firms. International small business journal, 25(3), 245-272 Bandura A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Brisson, D. S., and Usher, C. L. (2005). Bonding social capital in low‐income neighborhoods. Family Relations, 54(5), 644-653 Casey, T., and Christ, K. (2005). Social capital and economic performance in the American states. Social Science Quarterly, 86(4), 826-845 Chopra, K. (2002). Social capital and development processes: Role of formal and informal institutions. Economic and Political Weekly, 2911-2916 Coleman, J (1990). Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge: Harvard University Press DiPasquale, D., and Glaeser, E. L. (1999). Incentives and social capital: Are homeowners better citizens. Journal of Urban Economics, 45(2), 354-384 Eneh, O. C. (2011). Nigeria’s Vision 20: 2020-issues, challenges and implications for development management. Asian Journal of Rural Development, 1(1), 21-40 Evans, M., and Syrett, S. (2007). Generating Social Capital: The Social Economy and Local Economic Development. European Urban and Regional Studies, 14(1), 55– 74. Ewetan, O. O., and Urhie, E. (2014). Insecurity and socio-economic development in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development Studies, 5(1) Hawkins, R. L., and Maurer, K. (2009). Bonding, bridging and linking: how social capital operated in New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina. British Journal of Social Work, 40(6), 1777-1793. Ibietan, J., and Ekhosuehi, O. (2013). Trends in development planning in Nigeria: 1962 to 2012. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 15(4), 297-311 Iganga, I. (2008). Groundwork on Igede history from the pre-colonial era to 1926. Ojo: His Grace Printing Press. Jordan, J. C. (2015). Swimming alone? The role of social capital in enhancing local resilience to climate stress: a case study from Bangladesh. Climate and Development, 7(2), 110-123. Lawal, T, and Oluwatoyin, A. (2011). National development in Nigeria: Issues, challenges and prospects. Journal of Public Administration and policy research, 3(9), 237-241 Leonard, M. (2004). Bonding and bridging social capital: Reflections from Belfast. Sociology, 38(5), 927-944.

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Marcellus, I. O. (2009). Development planning in nigeria: reflections on the national economic empowerment and development strategy (NEEDS) 2003-2007. Journal of social sciences, 20(3), 197-210 Obadan, M. I. (2001). Poverty reduction in Nigeria: The way forward. CBN Economic and financial review, 39(4), 159-188 Obadan, M. I. (2003). National development planning and budgeting in Nigeria: Some pertinent issues. Broadway Press Odey, M. 1980. The political history of the igede from pre colonial era to 1923. An Unpublished Project Submitted to the Department of History University of Jos Nigeria

Ogechukwu, A. D. (2011). The role of small scale industry in national development in Nigeria. Universal Journal of Management and Social Sciences, 1(1), 23-41

Olayiwola, L. M. and Adeleye, O. A. (2005). Rural infrastructural development in Nigeria: Between 1960 and 1990–problems and challenges. Journal of Social Sciences, 11(2), 91-96 Omobowale, A. and Olutayo, O. (2009). Social capital and human development in Nigeria: the case of Lalupon Community, Ibadan, Oyo State, African Identities, 7:1, 77-88 Paldam, M. and Svendsen, G. T. (2000). An essay on social capital: looking for the fire behind the smoke. European journal of political economy, 16(2), 339-366 Putnam, R. (2000). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon and Schuster. Putnam, R. P. (1993). Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press

Sampson, R. J., Ferguson, R. and Dickens, W. (1999). Urban problems and community development Scorza, J.A. (2004). Liberal citizenship and civic friendship. Political theory, 30 (1), 85– 108 Stone, W., Gray, M. and Hughes, J. (2004). Social Capital at Work. The Economic and Labour Relations Review, 14(2), 235–255

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Szreter, S., and Woolcock, M. (2004). Health by association? Social capital, social theory, and the political economy of public health. International journal of epidemiology, 33(4), 650-667 Warren, M. R., Thompson, J. P. and Saegert, S. (2001). The role of social capital in combating poverty. Social capital and poor communities, 3, 1-28 Wellman, B., and Frank, K. (2001). Network capital in a multi-level world: Getting support from personal communities. Social capital: Theory and research, 233-273 Woolcock, M. (2001). The place of social capital in understanding social and economic outcomes. Canadian journal of policy research, 2(1), 11-17 Woolcock, M. (2000). Social Capital in Theory and Practice: Where do We Stand? Paper presented at the 21st Annual Conference on Economic Issues: The Role of Social Capital in Determining Well-Being: Implications for the Teaching and Practice of Development and Environmental Economics. Department of Economics, Middlebury College, Middlebury Woolcock. M. and Narayan, D. (2000) Social capital: Implications for development theory, research, and policy. World Bank Research Observer, 15, 225-250. World Bank Group (2004). Sources of Social Capital. Washington D.C.: The http:// wwwl.worldbank.org/prem/poverty/scapital/sources/index.htm. Retrieved on December 6, 2004.

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Discourse on the Social Responsibility of Journalists and Societal Development. Bello Sani Discourse on the Social Responsibility of Journalists and Societal Development.

Bello Sani, PhD Department of Mass Communication, Kaduna State University, Kaduna, Nigeria.

Abstract The paper examines the social responsibility of Journalists within the context of social responsibility and development media theories. The paper reveals a coverage pattern that does not favour societal development but the dominant class. Thus, the paper recommends a change from event coverage as prevalent today to trend-coverage, which will help in articulating the development needs of the masses.

Keywords: Development, Journalist, Media, Responsibility and Society.

Introduction The mass media are intrinsic part of the society. They are necessary ‘evil’ in every society. From the beginning, the media have been seen as catalysts for development in the society. A society without the instrument of communication is more like a moving car with a blind driver. Though the driver knows he is moving a car, he does not know where he is heading to. Communication in a society is a necessity, if the society is to know where it is heading to. Fiske (1990) describes communication as “social interaction message.” Hence, without the media that provide mass communication, social interaction would be limited to the immediate environment of a people. Institutions within every society (including the mass media) can only be relevant if its “economic, social and political ideologies and instruments are oriented to meet the essential needs of the masses” (Kamath, 1997). Social responsibility of the journalist, therefore, can only be relevant when he is able to meet the needs of the masses through the performance of his duty. Kamath goes on to say that the media are potent instruments, perhaps, second only to politics, for the socio-economic transformation of a people. Social responsibility of the journalist therefore, is necessary for the development of any society. The Nigerian press is viewed as one of the freest in Africa (Ikiebe, 1996). Over the years it has been accused of varying ‘sins’ from sensationalism to junk journalism. Yet it has also been praised (albeit a section of the press) for enthroning democracy. This paper examines the social responsibility of the journalist to societal development.The development of any state is the responsibility of every citizen, however, the journalist has the social responsibility of ensuring that the populace is adequately armed with development information than can transform the lives of the people. The question is, how socially responsible has the Nigerian journalist been within the ambit of news coverage of development activities?

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Social Responsibility Theory The underlying principle of the theory is that the press should be free to perform the functions which the Libertarian theory had granted it to perform, but that this freedom should be exercised with responsibility. Therefore, the theory believes that if journalists cannot control themselves and act responsibly, then the government should control them.The essence of the social responsibility theory is that media have an obligation to their society, the journalist who enjoys freedom should remember that such freedom also carries corresponding responsibility (Okunna, 2002). The social responsibility theory, therefore emphasizes on self-control and self- regulation by journalists and the media. This means that the mass media should control and regulate their activities internally; in such a way that they will act in socially responsible manner; contributing to public and societal good (Jakande, 1993). The major premise of the social responsibility theory is that freedom carries concomitant obligations, and the media which enjoy a privileged position under the government is obliged to be responsible to the society for carrying out certain essential functions of mass communication. The theory allows free media without censorship but at the same time the content of the media should be discussed in public panel, the media should accept any criticism from the public or professional self-regulations or both. The social responsibility theory lies between authoritarian and libertarian theories because it gives total media freedom on one hand, and external control on the other hand. Here, the media ownership is private. The theory moves beyond the simple objective reporting to interpretative reporting of resolving conflicts for a peaceful coexistence in the society for meaningful development (Curran et al, 1979). Development Media Theory This theory emphasizes that the media are important instruments for development in any society. It buttresses the fact that the media should actively participate in the development process of the society. The theory views development as futuristic and a means of improvement in the quality of life, it involves acquisition of knowledge and skills (Okunna, 2002). Development entails changes in the attitudes and ways of doing things. It offers advanced skills to individuals or group of individuals. It facilitates learning and presentation of appropriate content of enhancement and improvement in work ability and behavior (Daramola, 1988). The media, under this theory, ensures that development brings about fundamental sustainable changes to any society. The media, under this theory, also associate themselves with the promotion of political and economic advancement to facilitate comprehensive building of societies. The importance of the media in the introduction and sustenance of development in the society is undeniable. The media can be used to mobilize people at the grass root level for community development. The theory gives emphasis on how the media play up

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Discourse on the Social Responsibility of Journalists and Societal Development. Bello Sani issues in the society by making people to be aware of the need for development, just as programme content shapes people’s perceptions by focusing attention on certain types of actions, the media determine the amount of attention to attach to a specific area or issues towards development (Defleur and Dennis, 1994). Responsibility of Nigerian Journalist The media are an integral part of the society. According to Siebert, Peterson and Schramm (1956), the posture of the media in a given society is a reflection of what the society cherishes. Thus, they have come up with four theories of the press. One of these theories is the social responsibility theory. This theory tries to balance the public’s right to know the responsibility of journalists to the society. It posits that freedom of the media carries concomitant obligations. Some of the tenets of the social responsibility theory include self-regulation, high professional standard, ensuring of media plurality and peaceful co-existence. This theory may have bearing on this work, but the development media theory is more of concern to this paper; because it is of relevance to a developing country as Nigeria. According to McQuail (2006); cited in Ojobor (2002), the development media theory expects the media to join in the development effort of the government by articulating development programmes of the government and needs of the society as well as mobilizing the people for same. The media in this situation, are open to restrictions as the economic and development pendulum may dictate. Journalists and all media workers are to be involved in the process of information gathering and dissemination. The basic idea behind this theory is that development journalism will aid the development process of developing countries. Wherein then does the social responsibility of the journalist lie within the ambit of development journalism or theory? Social responsibility theory as postulated by Siebert, Peterson and Schramm (1956) is that freedom comes with obligation. In essence, just as there is the freedom of expression and media, so attached to this freedom are the obligations of the individual as well as the media to the society which accommodates them. Some of the tenets of social responsibility theory include professionalism where truth, accuracy and objectivity reigns; the media must avoid anything that might lead to crime, violence or civil disorder in the society amongst others. Therefore, if social responsibility theory enjoins the journalist not to influence the society negatively, why is it that journalism teaches that ‘bad news is good news’? Often our newspapers are replete with stories that create fear in the minds of the people. For instance, media report on the recent 2019 elections made it look as though democracy was at the verge of collapse. Other reports that are often presented to the populace are on crime and robbery. If we should fault the media under the social responsibility theory, then they are even more guilty when we attempt to examine them under the searchlight of development media theory.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Development stories in the media are almost lacking. What pervades the Nigerian media today is junk journalism which has threatened not just social responsibility but development journalism. A scrutiny of the media will show that only stories of those people who can pay are flashed on the media. The articulations of the needs of the masses are usually presented with great epilepsy (Moemeka, 1991). In a study carried out by Ndaliman (2003), on ‘‘Social Responsibility of the Nigerian Journalist and National Development”, it was established that national development was not a priority for Nigerian journalists. Indeed, the pursuit of the mundane made it impossible for them to consider reporting issues that enhance national development. The study revealed that media coverage was merely on issues that have no direct impact on the people and national development. Findings from the study revealed that coming after the usual chase of advertisement, crime and insecurity stories were given prominence as most of the newspapers gave less than 10% to development stories. Critical sectors of the economy that have direct bearing to development were allotted meagre percentages. For instance, science and technology had 0.14%, social infrastructure 0.36%, industry 0.33%, education 3.35%, agriculture 1.72%, transportation 1.06% and environment 0.17%. From the study, it is pertinent to note that the Nigerian journalist has not discharged his social responsibility to societal development. Fifteen years after Ndaliman’s study, the scenario still appears not better as much is expected from Nigerian journalists in terms of their social responsibility to the development of the society.

Methodology

This paper, adopts the content analysis technique, as appropriate for the study as it is a design by which the researcher seeks to determine the manifest content of published communications by systematic, objective and quantitative analysis. The essence of this design is to determine specific results and use them to explain situations requiring clarification and understanding. The contents of some newspapers were examined. In doing this, the researcher made a random sample of some national newspapers in the months of September and October, 2018. The newspapers were randomly selected so as to give room for a wide range of interests as may be represented by different individual media houses. The different categories defining the news items were adopted from the different news items found in the newspapers. Out of the flood of newspapers in circulation, the researcher selected randomly two national dailies to represent a portion of the approximate number of national dailies. These were the Daily Trust and The Nation newspapers, from Northern and Southern Nigeria respectively. The table below shows the percentage of the various news categories as reflected in the sampled daily newspapers.

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Discourse on the Social Responsibility of Journalists and Societal Development. Bello Sani Table 1. News categories in sampled Newspapers used in the study S/N NEWS ITEM PERCENTAGE 1 Advertising 19.95 2 Political 15.16 3 Economic 05.32 4 Social Infrastructure 0.53 5 Industrial 01.33 6 Finance 09.58 7 Agriculture 0.27 8 Cultural 0.53 9 Transportation 01.06 10 Education 05.05 11 Sports 05.85 12 Privatization 0.79 13 Environment 0.27 14 Technology 02.4 15 Crime 10.37 16 Religion 01.59 17 Labour 01.33 18 Public sector 03.19 19 Health 02.13 20 Foreign news 08.78 21 Others 04.52 Total 100%

Discussion of Findings Findings have shown that the average Nigerian journalist is not particularly interested in development journalism. Indeed, the table shows that coming after the usual chase for advertisements (which, of course every medium needs for its survival) is political news with 15.16%. This high percentage of political news may be ascribed to the euphoria of our democracy coupled with the fact that elections are around the corner, yet, a closer look into the stories revealed a pattern: public speeches made by political leaders on either their ambitions or on a panacea to a problem in any aspect of life. Though lagging behind, dominant is the news on crime. These are stories, which portray the country as unsafe for foreign investment and tourism. Similarly, a scrutiny of economic, finance, agriculture, education and social- infrastructure news equally revealed two main patterns thus: First, economic and finance news stories were mainly from Annual General meetings where chairmen and directors of companies and banks declare millions or billions as profits and possibly express how much they intend to put into the business in the following year as well as the dividend to be issued. The question is: how does this really affect the common man? Second, political leaders such as Presidents, Ministers, Governors, Legislators etc attend a particular function where a statement concerning a sector of the economy was made. It is these comments that are often reported as news to the populace. For instance, health

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 will only get the pride of place when the president declares open another roll back malaria programme or when he gives a speech on AIDS day. The question is what has been happening to the people after the president had finished his ‘showmanship’? Is malaria being actually rolled back? Our reporters do not find it necessary to report how many people have died from malaria. In the area of political reports, what is often reported are political speeches and parliamentary ‘stunts’ which are dressed in the toga of debates and decisions, what has happened to the avalanche of promises made in speeches and decision? Are the people benefiting from such promises and decision? What are the problems being generated as a result of these actions/inactions? These are some of the issues development journalists should articulate if they are to be seen as socially responsible to the society (Ebeze, 2002). Concluding Remarks Given the prevalent pattern of reporting being pursued by the average Nigeria journalist, it is clear that societal development is not a priority in their minds. What is particularly glaring in the Nigerian media is the reporting of events especially where a public official is in attendance. One cannot but agree with Becker (1983) when he said trends coverage is infinitesimal in the media. Most media report in Nigeria merely gloss over the real issues. The Nigerian journalist has not been able to represent the masses adequately. The Nigerian journalist can only be socially responsible to the people if he can constantly articulate the development needs of the society through trends coverage of events. Recommendations Based on the above, the paper proffers the following recommendations: i. Journalists should always take into consideration the interest of the masses in their reportage by highlighting the problems in the society. ii. Also, reports on crime and insecurity should be minimized to encourage investors to invest in the economy, this would positively affect the people through provision of employment and reduction of poverty. iii. The paper also recommends that areas neglected by journalists should be given priority to especially education, agriculture, science / technology and social infrastructure for societal development.

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Discourse on the Social Responsibility of Journalists and Societal Development. Bello Sani

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Influence of Occupational Stress and Procedural Justice on Organizational Commitment Among Teachers of Selected Secondary Schools in Makurdi Metropolis.

Chinelo Helen Ogwuche1, Akor Uji 1, Joseph Ianna Nyam1, Terngu Solomon Shagher1 Department of Psychology, Benue State University, Makurdi Email:[email protected] Abstract This study examines the influence of occupational stress and procedural justice on organizational commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. A total of 154 secondary school teachers drown from within Makurdi metropolis participated in the study; 84 (54.5%) were males and 70 (45.5%) were females. The study used three standardized instruments which are: work-related stress questionnaire, organizational justice scale, and organizational commitment questionnaire. Results from the tested hypotheses showed that occupational stress significantly influenced organizational commitment. [β = .241; p < .05]. The result also indicated that procedural justice did not significantly influence organizational commitment. [β = -.081; p > .05]. Lastly, the result showed that occupational stress and procedural justice significantly and jointly influenced organizational commitment. [R= .259, R2 = .067, F = 4.642; p < .05]. The study recommends among other things that the management of secondary schools should ensure a stress reduced working environment for the teachers to increase their job commitment. Keywords: Occupational stress, Organizational commitment, Procedural justice, Secondary School, Teachers.

Introduction In today’s competitive world, every organization is facing new challenges regarding sustained productivity and creating committed workforce. No organization can perform at peak levels unless each employee is committed to the organizations objectives (Dixit and Bhati, 2012). Most organizations have realized that the performance of their workers plays a vital role in determining the success of the organization (Ajila and Awonusi 2004). One of the antecedent determinants of workers’ performance is believed to be organizational commitment. As such, it is important for employers and managers alike to know how to get the best of their workers (Ajila and Awonusi, 2004). Organizational commitment can be defined as “an affective response to the whole organization and the degree of attachment or loyalty employees feel towards the

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The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria. Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu organization.” (Ongori, 2007). It can commonly be referred to as the “the degree to which the employee feels devoted to their organization” (Akintayo, 2010). Organizational commitment has become one of the most popular work attitudes studied by practitioners and researchers. It was noted that one of the reasons why commitment has attracted research attention is that organizations depend on committed employees to create and maintain competitive advantage and achieve superior performance (Akintayo, 2010). Dordevic (2004) stated that the commitment of employees is an important issue because it may be used to predict employee’s performance, absenteeism and other behaviors. Meyer, Allen and Smith (1993) suggested a framework with three different types of organizational commitment: affective commitment (staff members’ emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization), continuance commitment (staff members’ assessment of whether the costs of leaving the organization are greater than the costs of staying), and normative commitment (staff members’ feelings of obligation to the organization). One of the organizational factors that have a significant impact on the commitment of staff is occupational stress. Sdrolias et al, (2005) observed that besides energizing employees, excessive pressure may lead to side effects such as the creation of employee dissatisfaction. Kakos and Trivellas (2011) stated that excessive workplace pressure may lead to mental disorders, which in turn, may compromise individual and/or organizational performance. A major source of distress among teachers is the result of failure of school to meet the social needs and job demands of the teachers. Likewise, procedural justice appears to be another significant contributory factor of employees’ organizational commitment. Procedural justice is a part of a multidimensional concept – organizational justice, the perceived justice in a work setting. The term procedural justice was introduced by Thibaut and Walker (1975) and refers to the decision making procedures through which outcome distributions are made. Typically, individuals form judgments about procedural justice by gauging whether those organizational procedures are accurate, consistent, unbiased, ethical, correctable (Leventhal, 1980), and open to employee input (Folger, 1977). According to the instrumental perspective of justice (Thibaut and Walker, 1975), workers are fundamentallyconcerned about their outcomes. In order to maximize long-term outcomes, workers rely upon procedural justice. In brief, workers assess procedural justice in order to make judgments on distributive justice for the economic rewards they have received and will receive in the future.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Statement of the Problem It is a commonly held belief that teaching can be a highly stressful profession (Jarvis, 2002). This is supported by national survey data from the United Kingdom (Dunham and Varma, 1998). Travers and Cooper (1996) found that one quarter of the 1,790 teachers surveyed, from a cross-section of schools reported that they regarded their profession as very or extremely stressful. The National Union of Teachers (NUT) reported that stress is one of the biggest problems facing teachers, and that it is the main health and safety concern in four out of five schools studied (NUT, 1999). Compared to other occupational groups (e.g., doctors, dentists, nurses) teachers experience lower job satisfaction and poorer mental health, such as anxiety and depression (Travers and Cooper, 1993).On the same grounds if an individual perceives that the ratio of his own efforts to his benefits is the same as that of the like, he believes the requirement of justice or equality is met. If he thinks the ratio of his own efforts to his benefit is more or less than that of the like, he considers the case injustice (Yücel and Gülveren, 2007). If employees decide or perceive injustice, they could change their effort level, as well as developing different ways of behavior. The changes of effort levels generally cause them to display negative job related behaviors, because their perceptions about organizational justice affect their job-related attitudes and organizational behaviors (Tansky, 1993). A plethora of studies have been carried out on occupational stress and related factors among teachers of secondary schools. Nevertheless, few of such studies have been conducted in Benue State, particularly Makurdi metropolis that linked occupational stress and procedural justice to organizational commitment. It is based on the above challenges that the researcher seeks to investigate the influence of occupational stress and procedural justice on organizational commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to assess the influence of occupational stress and procedural justice on job commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis.Therefore, the study aimed at determining (1) the influence ofoccupational stresson job commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. (2) to examine the influence of procedural justice on job commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. (3) to ascertain the joint influence ofoccupational stress and procedural justice on job commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. Three corresponding hypotheses were tested based on the three specific purposes of the study.

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The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria. Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu Method Research Design The study adopted a cross-sectional survey design. This is because a cross- sectional survey collects data to make inferences about a population of interest (universe) at one point in time. Cross-sectional surveys have been described as snapshots of the populations about which they gather data. This design allows the researcher to observe variables without any attempt to manipulate or control them. The observations can be done at one or more points in time, and questionnaire can also be used in data collection. Setting The research was conducted in Makurdi metropolis. Makurdi is the capital of Benue State, Nigeria and it was created in 1970. Samples were from secondary school teachers selected from eight government and private secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. Participants The participants in this study involved teachers in secondary schools within Makurdi metropolis. They consisted of both young and old, in the Nigerian civil service working age; 4 (2.6%) were between 21 and 25 years of age, 20 (13.0%) were between 26 and 30 years, 26 (16.9%) were between 31 and 35 years, 23 (14.9%) were between 36 and 40 years, 24 (15.6%) were between 41 and 45 years, 23 (14.9%) were between 46 and 50 years, 20 (13.0%) were between 51 and 55 years old, while 11 (7.1%) were between 56 and 60 years of age as at the time of carrying out the study. The participants consisted of 84 (54.5%) males and 70 (45.5%) female secondary school teaching staff. The number of teachers participating from each schools were as follows; 24 (37.0%) were from Unique Secondary School, 10 (15.4%) Vaatia Model College, 20 (30.8%) Mount Saint Gabriel, 27(41.6%) Command Secondary School, 33 (50.8%) Padopad’s Harmony Secondary School, 13 (20.0%) Baptist High School, 15 (23.1%) Government College, 12 (18.5%) Aveco Model College, giving a total number of 154 participants. All schools sampled in the study were from different geographic location of Makurdi metropolis. Sampling The sample size drawn from the population for the study was 154, using the online sample size calculator (calculator.net). The sampling technique adopted for the study was a non-probability sampling technique, specifically accidental/convenience sampling technique; this sampling technique allows the researcher to have a feeling or an idea of a phenomena. The participants were issued questionnaires at all points seen.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Instruments The study made use of the following instruments: (i) Work-related Stress Questionnaire (ii) Procedural Justice Scale (iii) Organizational Commitment Questionnaire. Work-related Stress Questionnaire: A standardized, 39-item Work-related Stress Questionnaire designed by Health and Safety Executive (HSE), (2009), was used to measure Occupational Stress. The questionnaire was scored using a 5 point likert format (1 = Never, 2 = Seldom, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Often, 5 = Always). Procedural Justice Scale: Procedural justice was measured using the 6-item on Procedural Justice of the standardized organizational justice scale adopted from Al-Zu’bi (2010). The scale used a 5 point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neither Agree nor Disagree, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree). Organizational Commitment Questionnaire: a standardized 18-item Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) by Allen & Meyer (1990) was used to measure Organizational Commitment. The scale also used a 5 point Likert scale scoring format (1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neither Agree nor Disagree, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree). Procedure Secondary schools were visited, and data was collected with the permission of school principals. The participants consent was sought, and participants were assured of confidentiality of information provided. Subsequently, a structured questionnaire was then distributed to the participants to read the statements and tick where it applied to them, while the researcher was around to explain where necessary. The participants were also informed to quit participation when unsatisfied. The collected data was then taken for statistical analysis. The study employed simple linear and multiple regressions, to test the hypotheses stated in the study. Hypotheses i. Occupational stress will significantly influence organizational commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. ii. Procedural Justice will significantly influence organizational commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. iii. Occupational stress and procedural justice will jointly influence organizational commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis

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The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria. Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu Results of Findings Hypothesis one stated that there will be a significant independent influence of occupational stress on Organizational Commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis.

Table 1. Regression analysis showing the influence of occupational stress on organizational commitment Predictor R R2 T P

Constant .241 .058 .241 2.810 < .05

Occupational Stress 2.827

The result in Table 1 above reveals that, there is a significant influence of Occupational Stress on Organizational Commitment among teachers of secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis, given that [ = .241; p < .05]. Hypothesis one is therefore accepted. Hypothesis twostated that there will be a significant independent influence of procedural justice on Organizational Commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis.

Table 2 Regression analysis showing the influence of procedural justice on organizational commitment among secondary school teachers Predictor R R2 T P

Constant .081 .007 -.081 7.755 > .05

Procedural Justice -1.001 The result in Table 2 above shows that there is no significant independent influence of Procedural Justice on Organizational Commitment among teachers of secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis, given that [ = -.081; p > .05].With this result, hypothesis two was rejected and the nullhypothesis upheld. Hypothesis three stated that; there will be a significant joint influence of occupational stress and procedural justice on organizational commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Table 3 Regression analysis showing the influence of occupational stress and procedural justice on organizational commitment Predictor R R2 F t P

Occupational Stress .259 .067 .241 4.642 2.832 < .05

Procedural Justice -.096 -1.129

The result in Table 3 above reveals that, there is a significant joint influence of occupational stress and procedural justice on organizational commitment of selected teachers of secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis, given that [R= .259, R2 = .067, F = 4.642; p < .05]. Based on this finding, hypothesis three is accepted. Discussion of Findings Hypothesis one was tested to find out if there will be a significant independent influence of occupational stress on Organizational Commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. The result showed that there is a significant influence of Occupational Stress on Organizational Commitment among teachers of secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. This implies that an individual’s experience of job related stress significantly determines the degree to which he/she identifies with his/her organization and wants to continue actively participating in it. This is in agreement with the findings of Kotze (2005) in a study carried out to investigate Occupational Stress, Organizational Commitment and ill-health of employees among 950 academic and support staff at the University of Technology, South Africa. She reported that stressful job demands were the only statistically significant predictor of affective commitment. Hypothesis two was tested to determine if there will be a significant independent influence of procedural justice on organizational commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. The result from this present study showed that there is no significant independent influence of procedural justice on organizational commitment among teachers of secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. This is contrary to the findings of a study conducted by Bakhshi, Kumar and Rani (2009) where they reported positive relationship between procedural justice and organizational commitment of medical college employees in India. Hypothesis three was tested to investigate if there will be a significant joint influence of occupational stress and procedural justice on organizational commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. The result from this present study reveals that, there is a significant joint influence of Occupational Stress and Procedural Justice on Organizational Commitment of selected teachers of secondary

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The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria. Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu schools in Makurdi metropolis. This implies that, an employee’s experience of job related stress and the involvement of an employee in the decision making of his/her organization, jointly predicts the degree to which he/she identifies with his/her organization and wants to continue actively participating in it. Conclusion The study investigated the influence of occupational stress and procedural justice on organizational commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. Three hypotheses were stated and tested. Based on the findings, the study accepted hypothesis one, hypothesis three and rejected hypothesis two. Based on the findings of this study, it is concluded that; occupational stress significantly influenced job commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. Also it is concluded that procedural justice did not significantly influence job commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. Finally, occupational stress and procedural justice significantly and jointly influence job commitment among teachers of selected secondary schools in Makurdi metropolis. Recommendations Based on the findings of the study, the study provides the following recommendations aimed at ensuring job commitment among secondary school teachers in Nigeria. i. Future research should examine the determinants of employees’ organizational commitment. This is to have a holistic approach in assessing the impact of organizational justice on various aspects of the workplace. ii. There is a need to carry out a comprehensive comparative study between schools and other organizations on the effects of occupational stress, organizational justice and organizational commitment. iii. The management of secondary schools should ensure a stress reduced working environment for the teachers to increase their job commitment and productivity. iv. The government in collaboration with relevant ministries should organize workshops to enlighten school management officials on the role of organizational justice to ensuring job commitment among teachers.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 References Ajila, C. and Awonusi, A. (2004). Influence of Rewards on Workers Performance in an Organization. Journal of Social Science. 8(1): Pp.7-12, DOI: 10.1080/09718923.2004.11892397. Akintayo, D. I. (2010). Work-family role conflict and organizational commitment among industrial workers in Nigeria, Journal of Psychology and Counselling. Vol.2(1), 1-8. Retrieved fromhttp://www.academicjournals.org/app/webroot/article/article1380359177 _Akintayo.pdf Allen, N. J. and Meyer, J. P. (1990). The Measurement and Antecedents of Affective, Continuance and Normative Commitment to the Organization, Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 63, pp. 1-18 Al-Zu’bi, Hasan Ali. (2010). A Study of Relationship between Organizational Justice and Job Satisfaction, International journal of Business and management, 5 (12): 102-109. Bakhshi, A. and Kuldeep, K. & Ekta, R. (2009). Organizational Justice Perceptions as Predictor of Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment.InternationalJournal of Business and Management.4. 10.5539/ijbm.v4n9p145. Calculator.net https://www.calculator.net/sample-size-calculator.html Dixit, V. and Bhati M. (2012). A Study about Employee Commitment And Its Impact On Sustained Productivity In Indian Auto-Component Industry. European Journal of Business and Social Sciences 34-51. Retrieved from http://ejbss.com/Data/Sites/1/septemberissue/ejbss-12-1147- astudyaboutemployeecommitment.pdf Dordevic, B. (2004).Employee Commitment in Times of Radical Organisational Changes. Economics and Organisation, 2, 2, 111-117. Retrieved from http://facta.junis.ni.ac.rs/eao/eao2004/eao2004-05.pdf Dunham, J.and Varma, V. (Eds.) (1998). Stress in teachers: Past, present and future. London:Whurr Publishers Ltd. Folger, R. (1977). Distributive and procedural justice: Combined impact of voice and improvement on experienced inequity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 35. 108-119. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.35.2.108.

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The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria. Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu Jarvis, M. (2002) Teacher stress: A critical review of recent findings and suggestions for future research. Retrieved, from http://www.isma.org.uk/stressnw/teachstress1.htm Kakkos, N., Trivellas, P., and Fillipou, K. (2010). Exploring the link between job motivation, work stress and job satisfaction. A case study in the banking industry, proceedings of the 7th ICESAL, Rhodes, June 28-29, 211-225. Kotze, C.G.P. (2005). Occupational stress, organisational commitment and ill health of employees at a University of Technology. Unpublished master's dissertation, Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, Potchefstroom, South Africa. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.906.4039&rep=rep1 &type=pdf Meyer, J., Allen, N., and Smith, C. (1993). Commitment to Organizations and Occupations: Extension and Test of a Three-Component Conceptualization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 538-551. DOI: 10.1037/0021- 9010.78.4.538. Ongori, H. (2007), A Review of the Literature on Employee Turnover, Africa Journal of Business Management, 1(3): 49-54. Sdrolias, L., Terzidis, K. and Vounatsou, M. (2005). Significance, defining factors and consequences of mental alienation of enterprises’ personnel from their work environment, in Organisational culture, corporate governance and competitiveness, Selected Proceedings of the First International Conference on Business, Management and Economics, 16-19 June, Izmir, Turkey, Vol.2, pp.27-41. Tansky, J. W. (1993). Justice and organizational citizenship behavior: What is the relationship? Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 6(3), 195-207. Thibaut, J, and Walker, L. (1975). Procedural justice: A psychological analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Travers, C.J., and Cooper, C.L. (1993).Mental health, job satisfaction and occupational stress among UK teachers. Work and Stress, 7(3), 203-219. Tyler, T. R. and Blader, S. (2003). The group engagement model: Procedural justice, social identity, and cooperative behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7, 349- 361. Yücel, C., and Gülveren, H. (2007).Sınıftaöğrencilerinmotivasyonu. M. Şişman& S. Turan (Edt.), Sınıfyönetimiiçinde (s. 69-84). Ankara: PegemAYayıncılık.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria.

1Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu, 1Umar Abdulwahab, 1Tifiti Johnson and 2Danjuma Yusuf Department of public Administration, Taraba State University, Jalingo Department of Political Science and International Relations, Taraba State University, Jalingo

Abstract It is a well-known fact that training enhances skills, knowledge, abilities, and competences (SKAC). Many organizations have come to the realization of the importance of the role of training and development as a catalyst for increasing employees’ performance and organizational efficiency and productivity. Enormous efforts and resources are required to be committed for the organization and application of the programs. Most organizations meet their needs for training in an ad hoc and haphazard manner, while others set about identifying their training needs, then designed training activities in a rational manner and finally assess the results of training. The study set out to examine training and development as a catalyst for improving employees’ performance in the Federal Character Commission. To attain the objectives, the study adopted Kirkpatrick’s learning and training evaluation theory as the theoretical framework. The paper relies on primary and secondary sources of data collection such as questionnaire, textbooks, journals and internet sources etc. The research findings revealed that most organizations organize training and development programs frequently for their employees and it tremendously help in improving the employees’ performance despite the realization that resources and efforts committed are not quite sufficient. The study recommended among others, that organizations should be making much more resources available for training and development, that training and development should be planned and systematically carried out to ensure the attainment of maximum benefits from training and development programs. Keywords: Development, employee, organization, performance, productivity and training

Introduction The need for improved productivity in organizations has become universally accepted and that it depends largely on efficient and effective training and development of staff. It has further become necessary in view of advancement in modern world to invest in training. Thus, the role played by staff training and development can no longer be overemphasized. However, the need for organizations to embark on staff development programs for employees has become obvious. Absence of these programs often manifests in tripartite problems of incompetence, inefficiency and ineffectiveness.

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The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria. Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu The effectiveness and success of an organization therefore lies on the people who form and work within the organization to be able to perform their duties and make meaningful contributions to the success of the organizational goals needed to acquire the relevant skills and knowledge. In appreciation of this fact many organizations conduct training and development programs for the different levels of their manpower. Usually before training or development programs are organized efforts are made through individuals and organizational appraisal to identify the training needs. After the training and development programs, an evaluation is carried out to ascertain the effectiveness of the programs in line with the needs which had been identified. It is worthy of mention that organization development follows the development of individual who form the organization. It follows that no organization becomes effective and efficient until they have applied the required skills and knowledge. Training has been observed as part of human development. Human development is a process of enlarging people’s choice. Scholars, experts and social scientists now recognize the fact that training is obviously indispensable not only in the development of the individuals but also facilitate the productive capacity of the workers. An organized and planned training is expected to return human value to organizations in the forms of increased quality productivity as well as organizational stability. Therefore, training and development of all employees in organization is a kind of human resource investment. Every organization is expected to provide opportunities for its employee to acquire specific skill and knowledge through training and development organized for them. However, the quality and quantity of training carried out vary enormously from organization to organization. According to Cole (2002) factors influencing the quantity and quality of training and development activities include: the degree of change in the external environment, the degree of internal change, the availability of suitable skills within the existing work-force and the extent to which management see training as a motivating factor in work. Training in these organizations is more or less unplanned and unsystematic. Other organizations however set about identifying their training needs, design and implement training activities in a rational manner and finally assess results of training. Let us now attempt clarification of some concepts in the study. Background of the Study Area The application of federal character principle as a way of achieving national unity in heterogeneous federation is not entirely a new phenomenon. The truth is that while the phenomenon takes the name Federal Character in Nigeria, in other countries it takes different names. It was an adapted practice from other plural societies with similar characteristics like Nigeria. Among them are the USA, Canada, Australia, and South Africa. The major societal characteristics that usually call for such approach include but

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 not limited to, diversity in ethnicity, religion and culture. The aim is to foster national loyalty in order to promote national unity. This is done by providing guidelines and formulae that guarantee equitable distribution of public posts, socio-economic amenities and infrastructural facilities among the federating units. Before the establishment of the federal character principle as official state policy, different arrangements had been made by the colonial administration to ensure that Nigeria stayed together as one indivisible nation. One of such was the concept of ‘quota system’ which was used to ensure that the military was not dominated by any particular section of the country. Although quota system did not give attention to merit unlike federal character, the policy implementation was effective. Hence, the idea of applying quota system for appointments into the Federal Public Service rapidly gained popular support in some quarters while attracting resentment from others. However, by 1979 the idea became so entrenched in the national discourse that it was accorded constitutional recognition and became an official state policy not necessarily as quota system but as Federal Character Principle. The provision was made non-justifiable and therefore did not have the desired effect. This made it possible for persons and authorities who were supposed to implement it to ignore it. Thus, it was in recognition of the above fact that the 1994/95 constitutional conference recommended the establishment of a permanent executive body to be known as Federal Character Commission to coordinate, monitor and enforce compliance with the Federal Character principle. Establishment of the Federal Character Commission The Federal Character Commission was therefore established as an independent Federal Executive body by section 153(1) of the 1999 constitution as amended. However, it’s actual existence pre-dates that constitution by three years, having been set up by the Federal Character Commission (establishment etc.) Decree No. 34 of 1996. Its composition, functions and powers are prescribed by the constitution and amplified by the Federal Character Commission (Establishment etc) now cap (7) laws of the Federation of Nigeria 2004. Functions and Powers of the Commission The Constitution and the Commission’s enabling Act empowered the commission amongst other things to: i. To formulate and provide guidelines for the MDAs for the distribution of all cadres of posts in the public service of the federation and of the states, the Armed Forces of the Federation, Nigerian Police Force and other Government Security Agencies and government owned companies.

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The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria. Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu ii. Promotes, monitor and enforce compliance with the principle of proportional sharing of all the bureaucratic, economic, media and political post at all levels of government. iii. Take such legal measures including the prosecution of the head or staff of any ministry or government body or agency which fails to comply with any Federal Character Principle or formula prescribed or adopted by the commission. iv. Ensure fair and equitable distribution of socio-economic amenities and infrastructural facilities throughout the federation, and v. Redress in a fair manner, the problem of existing imbalances in the public services throughout the federation Operational Definition of Terms Training: Training is a learning process where the trainee acquires knowledge, skills, concepts, attitudes and values that can be applied in the achievement of goals. Training is a conscious effort made by the Federal Character Commission to improve or increase an employee’s skills, power or intelligence and to develop their attitudes and schemes of values in a desired direction which is monitoring, promoting and enforcing compliance with the federal character principle. Development: Development here is a course of action designed by the Federal Character Commission to enable the individual to realize his potential for growth in the organization. It relates to further than present jobs. Development enables the employee to view and appraise the functioning and problem of his work and not from his immediate job unit but from his entire organizational view. Organization: Organization is the arrangement of personnel for facilitating the accomplishment of some agreed goals through allocation of functions and responsibilities. An organization is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals, controls its own performance and has a boundary separating it from its environment. Performance: The act of performing is the carrying out of execution or action. Performance means when an achievement or accomplishment or action is successfully carried out. Performance in the Federal Character Commission is when enforcement of federal character principle is successfully carried out. Productivity: This is used interchangeable with performance.Productivity is the ratio of output to inputs in production; it is an average measure of the efficiency of production. Efficiency of production means production’s capability to create incomes which is measured by the formula, real output value minus real input value. Employees: Employees are group of people working as a team in the Federal Character Commission who are employed, trained and paid to work for the commission.Employees are group of people hired by a person or organization to render a particular service such

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 as enforcing compliance with the federal character commission at a given wage or salary for a period of time. Systematic Training According to Cole (1999), a term frequently used to describe well organized training and development is systematic training. Systematic Approach for Training (SAT) is a methodology for managing training programs. It is an orderly; logical approach to determine what people must know and do at a particular job or in a specific profession. The SAT ensures that people are prepared for their work by having the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to do their job. SAT begins with identifying people’s work related needs, it ensures training is delivered properly, the trainees learns what is important and the trainee is competent to be assigned to work. For the entire training and development program to be operated in systematic manner, it has to cover inter related stages and processes as graphically depicted below:

IDENTIFY TRAINING NEEDS

REVIEW & ANALYSE SET TRAINING OBJECTIVES

EVALUATE RESULT PLAN TRIANING

IMPLEMENT TRAINING

Fig. 1. Stages of Systemic Training Source: Michael Armstrong (2006).

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The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria. Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu Effective Training Dena and Patsy (2003) came up with a model of effective training. The resulting model of effective training has four major criteria: i. Effective training is learner focused; Effective training identifies and addresses issues important to the learner, while building on learner strengths. It includes opportunities for active participation by the learner, while recognizing and drawing on the knowledge and experience of the learner. Learning is facilitated through peer exchange, and is culturally and ethnically meaningful. All participants are drawn into the discussion. ii. Effective training demonstrates productive behavior and effective life skills; Effective training integrates decision-making, planning, organization and implementation skill building. It models and reinforces workplace ethics and productive use of time. Local and community resources are an integral part of the learning environment. Opportunities for learners to expand social networks are provided. Learners are challenged to take responsibility for their own lifelong learning. iii. Effective training inspires and motivates; Effective training increases the learner's knowledge about the subject matter, and reinforces worthwhile values and principles. It provides opportunities for humor and fun during learning, while maintaining a positive focus. Learners leave the session with a feeling of accomplishment. iv. Effective training celebrates personal and group achievements; Incentives to mark learning milestones are incorporated into effective training. On-going assessment and learner-based feedback is critical to the success of any training session. Training Evaluation Evaluation is an integral feature of training, but it could be difficult because it is often hard to set measurable objectives. Hamblin (1974) advocated that until control measures are taken to correct any deficiencies after the training, evaluation has not been completed and thereby ineffective. There are several methods for evaluating training. Beardwell and Holden (1993) have cited some of these methods as follows; i. Questionnaires (feedback forms): this is a common way of eliciting trainee responses to courses and programs. ii. Tests or examinations: these are common on formal courses, especially those that result in certification for instance, a diploma in word processing skills. End-of-course tests can also be employed after non-certificate short courses to check the progress of trainees. iii. Projects are initially seen as learning methods but they can also provide valuable information to instructor about the participants’ understanding of subject matter. iv. Structured exercises and case studies also provide opportunities to apply learned skills and techniques under the observation of tutors and evaluators.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 v. Interviews of trainees after the course or instruction period are another technique for gathering information directly from the learners. These can be formal or informal, individual or group, face-to-face or by telephone.

Problems of Effective Training There are several obstacles that inhibit achieving effective training by modern organizations whether public or private. These problems may include the following: i. Training Cost: Training is becoming an expensive exercise. This discourages organizations that are not financially well to do, from embarking in relevant training exercise for their employees. Training cost may include the cost of training materials, accommodation, equipment, feeding and the allowances to be given to trainees. One can imagine what it will cost a less financial able organization to sponsor staff to Administrative Staff College of Nigeria (ASCON) and other related organizations. ii. Absence of well-articulated and clear cut training policies of organizations; This can lead to inappropriate training programs. iii. Inadequate funding: This is a very serious problem particularly in the public sector. The percentage of annual budget that goes to training is usually very small and insignificant. This is particularly so in developing societies and Nigeria in particular. iv. Poor utilization of trained persons: Sometimes one finds a situation when people are not redeployed after training. In extreme cases, training persons are relieved of their jobs under the disguise of rationalization. This is mostly exemplified in Ajaokuta steel company where hundreds of overseas trained staff were relieved of their jobs because the organization wanted to reorganized. The huge foreign exchange spent on them is lost. This is a bad development. v. Lack of adequate, experience and skilled resource persons as trainers. This may lead to the use of wrong persons or non-professionals as trainers. The case of satellite campuses of higher institutions in Nigeria is a good example. Theoretical Framework Training and development is universally recognized nowadays as a crucial aspect of Human resource activities which determines the success or otherwise of any organization. There are many theories in the area of training and development but it is pertinent to state here that Donald L. Kirkpatrick’s learning and training evaluation theory is very relevant in this study. Kirkpatrick’s learning and training evaluation theory has now become arguably the most widely used and popular for the evaluation of training. Kirkpatrick’s four level models are now considered as industry standard across the Human resources and training communities. The four levels of Kirkpatrick (1976) evaluation model include: i. Reaction of trainees’ evaluation: This is evaluation of what they are thought and felt about training or learning experience.

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The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria. Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu ii. Learning: Learning evaluation is the measurement of the increase in knowledge or capability before and after the exercise. iii. Behavior: Behavior evaluation is the measurement of the extent of behavior and capability improvement resulting from training. iv. Result: Result evaluation is the measurement of the effects of the training on the business or environment resulting from trainees’ performance. For the purpose of this research, the Kirkpatrick’s training evaluation theory is adopted as the theoretical underpinning in the study. This is because, evaluation levels and types, as well as their practicality are very relevant as it offers guidelines and opportunity for one to know how the organizations assess their training and development programs. This will help us to know how trainees felt about the training or learning experience which is reaction evaluation, to know if learning has led to increase in knowledge which is learning evaluation, to know the extent of application or implementation of learning back on the job which is behavioral evaluation and finally to know the effect of the training on the organizations or the environment which is results evaluation.This theory is very relevant to the study since the concern of the study is to ascertain the relationship between training and development and their impacts on the employees’ in organizations. Methodology This research adopted the survey design approach. It is simply the framework which specifies the type of information to be collected and source of data collection procedure. The population of this study consist of all the 834 staff of the Federal Character Commission. A simple random sampling technique was used for convenience to ensure that everyone in the population is given an equal chance of being selected and sampled. Data for this study was obtained from primary and secondary sources. The primary data such as questionnaire methods was employed in this study. The questionnaire was probed deeply to examine the effects of training on Employee’s performance in the FCC. The other instrument used was secondary data obtained from relevant literatures such as text books, journals, newspaper, seminars and conference papers, brochures of establishment, magazine and other relevant publication. Simple percentages were used to analyze the data which are classified, organize and synthesized to achieve the objectives of the study. The relationship between the variables outlined in the questionnaire was printed out and their implication were examined and discussed as well. Presentation of Findings This section is basically concerned with the presentation of the findings of the study. Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents. The socio-demographic profile of the respondents in this study include variables such as sex, age, marital status, educational qualification and years of experience in the service.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Table 1. Demographic characteristics of respondents. S/N Variable Percentage 1 Sex: a. Male 75.4 b. Female 24.6 Total: 100.0 2 Age: a. 18-30 years 31.5 b. 31-40 years 36.9 c. 41-60 years 23.9 d. 61 years above 7.7 Total: 100.0 3 Marital status: a. Married 52.4 b. Single 43.8 c. Divorced 3.8 d. Widow 0 Total: 100.0 4 Highest qualification: a. OND 11.6 b. HND/B.Sc. 59.2 c. Masters and above 29.2 Total: 100.0 5 Working experience: a. 0-5 26.2 b. 6-10 44.6 c. 11 and above 29.2 Total: 100.0 Source: Field Survey, 2019

Table 1 shows that the respondents consist of 75.4% male and 24.6% are female. The Table 1 also shows that 31.5% of the respondents were within the age bracket of 18- 30years, 36.9% of the respondents are within the age bracket of 31-40 years, 23.9% are within the age bracket of 41-60 years and 7.7% of the respondents are above 61 years.The table also shows that 52.4 % of the respondents are married, 43.8% are single, while 3.8% are divorcees. From the Table 1 it can be seen that majority of the respondents 59.2% had B.Sc. and HND, 11.6% had OND and 29.2% had M.Sc. and above. Table 1 also revealed that 26.2% of the respondents have served for 0-5 years, 44.6% have served for 5 to 10 years while 29.2% have been in the service for 11 years and above. The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance In order to assess the impact of training and development programs on employees’ performance, the questions in Table 2 were solicited from the respondents and the response are presented in Table 2.

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The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria. Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu Table 2.The impact of Training and Development on employees’ performance

Responses and Percentage N: 130 S/N Questions Yes No No Response Total 1. Are the training and development programs 54.6% 30.8% 14.6% 100 conducted in your organization to meet its goals and objectives? 2. Do you think your performance has improved 54.6% 33.0% 12.4% 100 as a result of training and development programs organized by the commission? 3. Do you agree that your organizational 27.7% 21.5% 50.8% 100 training programs are in line with your training expectations? Source: Field Survey, 2019.

The table above reveals that 54% of the respondents were of the opinion that the training and development programs were conducted by their organization in order to meet its goals and objectives, 30.8% did not agree, while 14.6% did not respond to the question.From Table 2, 54.6% of the respondents accepted that training and development programs have led to improvement of their job performance, 33.1% said no, while 12.4% did not respond. It is the knowledge and skills acquired for the job that makes employees effective and efficient in carrying out their assigned duties. Training is the means by which skills, knowledge and attitudes are impacted to employees to enhance their efficiency and effectiveness. In measuring the impact of training and development in workers’ performance, respondents were asked whether or not training has helped in improving their performances. Their responses are presented in Table 2 above. Table 2 shows that 54.6% of the respondents agreed and in further explanation most of them stated that training helps in improving their performance, aids in solving operational problems, reduces time to reach acceptable performance and thus facilitates meeting organizational targets. On the other hand, 45.4% of the respondents disagreed. Table 2 also reveals that only 27.7% agreed that their organizational training and development programs are in line with their training expectation, 25.5% respondents did not agree while 50.8% did not respond to this question. From Table 2, 50.8% of the respondents were ambivalent in regards to the question. The reason for this manner of response is not clear as most of them did not give cogent reasons for their answers, but preferred to adopt a neutral position in order not to express views which may suggest otherwise to the Commission’s stand. To assess the form of training and development adopted by the Commission, the following questions were solicited from the respondents and their responses are presented in Table 3.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Table 3. Forms of Training and Development Programs in FCC

Responses and Percentage S/N Questions N: 130

Yes No No Response Total 1. Do you think that the Commission is a learning 63.1% 30.0% 6.9% 100 organization? 2. Have you ever attended any form of training and 46.9% 42.3% 10.8% 100 development programs since you joined the Commission? 3. Are In-house training and development programs 36.9% 50.8% 12.3% 100 only the forms adopted by the Commission? Source: Field Survey 2019

Table 3 shows that 63.1% of the respondents are of the opinion that the commission is a learning organization, 30% disagreed, while 6.9% did not respond. From the Table 3, 46.9% of the respondents agreed that they have had training since their employment in the commission, 42.3% said no, while 10.8% respondents did not respond. The response of 42.3% of the respondents shows that they have not participated in any form of training in spite of the known benefits of training and development and the fact that the Federal Character Commission has a clear training policy. Training benefits organization in terms of improving morale of employees, lower cost of production and facilitates change management among others. Table 3, equally shows that 36.9% of the respondents are of the opinion that only the in- house training and development programs are the forms adopted by the Commission, 50.8% disagreed, while 12.3% did not respond. Their responses indicated that very significant number of the respondents have either participated or have knowledge of only in-house forms of training and development programs at the Commission. Systematic Training and Development Programs To find out if training and development programs are planned and systematically carried out the questions in Table 4 were solicited from the respondents and the response are presented in Table 4.

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The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria. Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu Table 4: Systematic Training and Development Programs

Responses and Percentage S/N Questions Yes No No responses Total 1. Do you think training and development 20.8% 72.3% 6.9% 100 programs are planned and systematically carried out? 2. Does your organization carried out Training 40.0% 60.0% - 100 Needs Assessment (TNA) before conducting training and development programs? 3. Is the implementation of training and 41.5% 52.3% 6.2% 100 development programs properly done? Source: Field Survey, 2019. The Table 4, shows that only 20.8% agreed that training and development programs of the Commission are planned and systematically carried out, 72.3% disagreed, while 6.9% did not respond. Inherently every systematic method or approach to training follows sequence of logical activities, starting with the establishment of a training policy and the needed resources for its sustenance. This should be closely followed by the establishment or identification of training needs of organization, either as they relate to the organization, its environment or even to its employees as individuals. Next is the designation of training plans and then effectuation of such established plans. Systematic training procedures shall end with some forms of evaluation or feedback efforts. This is necessary in order to determine the extent of its effectiveness or success. Going by the number of the respondents who disagreed in Table 4, it can be said that the training activities of the Commission do not follow the afore-discussed processes. The table equally illustrates that 40% are of the opinion that the commission conducted Training Needs Assessment (TNA) session before conducting training and development programs while 60% disagreed and this shows a great concern as majority of respondents gave negative answers. Training as a means to an end must of necessity take cognizance of the need to improve the knowledge level of the employee towards higher on the job performance for the all progress of the organization. To be able to appreciate training needs. It is important to undertake an analysis of the organization, the jobs as well as the assessment of the employee. For a successful training program, trainees should be involved in Training Need Assessment (TNA) session. From the table above only 41.5% agreed that the implementation of training and development programs of Commission is properly done, 52.3% disagreed while 6.2% did not respond.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Factors that affect Training and Development Programs in the Commission In order to identify factors affect training and development in the commission the following questions in the table were equally applied. Table 5. Factors that affect training and development programmes in the commission

Responses and Percentage S/N Questions Yes No No Response Total 1. Are there any problems bedeviling training and 59.2% 26.2% 14.6% 100 development programs in the commission? 2. Are there any factors militating against your 84.6% 12.3% 3.1% 100 performance despite training and development you have undergone? 3. Have you ever been given opportunity for self- 26.9% 62.2% 10.3% 100 development or further studies? Source: Field Survey, 2019.

FromTable 5, 59% of the respondents said that there were problems bedevilling training and development in the commission, 26.2% disagreed with this position, while 14.6% did not respond to the question. Furthermore, most of those who agreed cited the following as some of the problems: lack of adequate experience and skilled resource persons as trainers, poor utilization of trained persons, inadequate funding, the utilization of obsolete training techniques and methods, trainees are not adequately motivated which sometimes leads to lack of interest and seriousness on the part of some of the trainees: and lack of political will on the part of the management to fully implement the training programs. The table also shows that 84.6% of the respondents were of the opinion that there are factors affecting their performance of duties despite the training and development programs, 12.3% disagreed with this position, while 3.1% did not respond to the question. Political interference and corruption in recruitment process as well as inadequate funds were identified as the major factors militating against staff performance despite training and development undergone. From Table 5, it is indicated that only 26.9% have in one way or the other, ever been given opportunities for self-development. Majority of the respondents, 62.2% said they have never benefited from sponsoring for further studies or given opportunities for self- development by the commission. Given the bureaucratic nature of the processes and bottleneck in approving study leave with payment, most of their applications for study leave were turned down. Training and Development Evaluation To find out if the commission conducts training and development evaluation and the methods use in doing, the following questions in the table were applied to obtain information.

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The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria. Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu Table 6. Training and development evaluation

Responses and Percentage N: 130 S/N Question Yes No No Response Total 1. Are you motivated and satisfied with the ways 49.2% 40% 10.8% 100 training and development programs are being carried out in your organization? 2. Have you ever been recommended for a 33.1% 49.2% 17.7% 100 training program by HR department based on your schedule of duties? 3. Do you usually give feedback after attending 50.8% 34.6% 14.6% 100 training and development programs? 4. Does HR department properly monitor all the 35.4% 48.4% 16.2% 100 stages of training and development programs conducted by the commission? 5. Do you think the commission usually does 25.4% 53.1% 21.5% 100 training evaluation regularly? Source: Field Survey 2019

Table 6 reveals that 49.2 % of the respondents were satisfied with the way training and development programs are being conducted by the commission, 40% of the respondents on the other hand were not satisfied, while 10.8% of the respondents did not respond to the question. Training is a planned and systematic effort by which managements of organizations aim at altering behaviors and encouraging employees in a direction that will achieve organizational goals. One of the key known benefits of training is the motivation it provides those who receive it. In deed according to Cole (2002), employees who receive training have increased confidence and motivation. That is, training can achieve high morale for an organization. Training is known to increase the availability and quality of staff. The study therefore sought the opinion of the respondents on whether they feel motivated and satisfied with the training and development programs and their application in the commission. As shown in Table 6 above, 49.2% of the respondents feel motivated and satisfied with the training activities of the commission. The number of the respondents that responded negatively and those that did not respond (50.8%) is slightly higher. This means that, efforts should be made to make the trainees motivated and satisfied with the way training and development programs are being conducted. Table 6 also shows that 33.1% agreed that they were recommended for training program by the Human Resource (HR) department based on schedule of duties, 49.2% said no, while 17.7% claimed that they did not know. Selecting participants through a careful process of training needs identification is therefore the proper process of initiating training program. From the table above, 49.2% of the respondents said they were not recommended for training and development program by HR because sending employees for training

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 sometimes are mostly due to connections, while 17.7% did not respond. But from the explanation of HR manager, his response indicates that participants are selected based on various criteria and he was not able to specify exactly whether or not employees were recommended for training based on laid down criteria. He insisted that selection depends on the circumstances. The Table 6 also shows that 50.8% were of the opinion that they do give feedback to the commission after attending training and development programs, 34.6% gave negative response, while 14.6% did not respond at all. From Table 6 also, 35.4% were of the opinion that HR department properly monitored all stages of training and development programs conducted by the Commission, 48.4% claimed otherwise, while 16.2% did not respond to the question. Pearson’s (product-moment) Correlation Coefficient between Responses Rate Pearson’s correlation coefficient is adopted to measure the exact level of association and direction of correlation that exist between two or multiple responses rate on each of the table that reflected the objective of the study. The study computes the exact level of relationship between responses rate of related variables using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 15.0 Version). The result is presented in Table 7. Table 7. Pearson correlation between responses rate of the impact of training and development on employees’ performance related variables.

Responses Analysis Yes No No Response Yes Pearson Correlation 1 .982 -.999(*) No Pearson Correlation .982 1 -.991 No Response Pearson Correlation -.999(*) -.991 1 * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 7 shows correlation measures that exist between responses rate used to assess the impact of training and development on employees’ performance. The Table 7 reveals that there exists a strong significant negative relationship between ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ responses at 95 percent confidence level. Similarly, there exists significant negative relationship between ‘No’ and ‘No Response’ at 87 percent confidence level. It also shows that there exists a significant positive relationship between ‘No’ and ‘Yes’ at 78 percent confidence level. All the significant relationships were moving towards negative direction which shows that responses on the related variables on the impact of training and development on employees’ performance are independent to one another in relation to the employees’ performance.

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The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria. Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu Table 8. Pearson correlation between responses rate of the forms of training and development programmes related variables.

Responses Analysis Yes No No Response Yes Pearson Correlation 1 -1.000(*) -.994 No Pearson Correlation -1.000(*) 1 .991 No Response Pearson Correlation -.994 .991 1 * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 8 reveals that relationship exist between responses rate used to examine the forms and methods of training and development Programs. It revealed that there exists a strong significant negative relationship between ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ responses at 95 percent confidence level. In the same vein, there exists significant negative relationship between ‘No response’ and ‘Yes’ at 89 percent confidence level, also a very significant positive relationship exists between No. and No Response at 86 percent confidence level. The movement of significant relationships towards more of negative than positive directions revealed that very few respondents believed in the forms and methods of training programs adopted by the commission.

Table 9. Pearson correlation between responses rate of systematic training and development programs related variables.

Response Analysis Yes No No Response Yes Pearson Correlation 1 -.948 -.530 No Pearson Correlation -.948 1 .232 No Response Pearson Correlation -.530 .232 1 Sig. (2-tailed)

Table 9 reveals that correlation measures exist between responses rate used to explore systematic training and development programs of the commission. It is clear from the table that there are neither positive nor negative significant relationships between the responses. None of the variables measured reached 95 percent confidence level to be considered as either positive or negative significant relationship. In this case, it shows that, respondents did not find out any elements of systematic training and development programs organized by the commission.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Table 10. Pearson correlation between responses rate of factors that affect training and development programs in the commission related variables. Response Analysis Yes No No Response Yes Pearson Correlation 1 -.983 -.601 No Pearson Correlation -.983 1 .445 No Response Pearson Correlation -.601 .445 1 Sig. (2-tailed)

Table 10 above reveals that relationship exist between responses rate used to assess the factors that affect training and development programs in the commission.The result shows that there exists significant positive relationship between ‘Yes’‘No’ and ‘No Response’ are at a weak confidence level and the directions of responses rates being either negative or positive. Inferences that are derived from this measure shows that there are other factors militating against employees’ performance in spite of the training programs attended.

Table 11. Pearson correlation between responses rate of training and development evaluation related variables. Response Analysis Yes No No Response Yes Pearson Correlation 1 -.995(**) -.937(*) No Pearson Correlation -.995(**) 1 .898(*) No Response Pearson Correlation -.937(*) .898(*) 1 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Table 11 shows that relationship exist between responses rate used to assess evaluation of training and development programs. It reveals that there exists a strong significant negative relationship between ‘Yes’ and ‘No Responses’ at 99 percent confidence level. Similarly, there exists significant negative relationship between ‘Yes’ and ‘No Response’ at 95 percent confidence level. It also shows that there exists a significant positive relationship between ‘No’ and ‘No Response’ at 95 percent confidence level. All the significant relationships were very strong which shows that employees are not giving feedback to the employers on the outcome of training programs attended and that management are not properly monitoring all the stages of training and development programs. This creates a gap of assessing employees’ performance related to training received. Conclusion The study has investigated and assess the impact of training and development on employees’ performance and productivity in organizations. The findings of the

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The Impact of Training and Development on Employees’ Performance in an Organization: A Study of the Federal Character Commission of Nigeria. Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu studyreveals that most organizations’ nature of work requires continuous, extensive and systematic training and development of their human resources. The study findings show that the federal character commission do organize training programs from time to time for their employees to update their knowledge and skills and to ensure that maximum efficiency exists.From the findings of the study, it can be seen that some of the organizations, both public or private (including the FCC), do not have specific and well- established policies on organizing training and development of their employees. On the other hand, where such policies exist, they are not strictly adhered to when organizing training and development programs. Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made; i. Give equal training opportunity to all employees: Organizations should give all their employees equal opportunity to participate in training and development programs. This include opportunity to further their education particularly in areas that can assist the organizations to meet their goals. In the process of planning for training, the employees should be exposed to not only in-house training, but should also be sent out to other organizations or consultancies known for quality and best training practices. ii. Systematic and planned training: Since most organizations have training policies and training units responsible for carrying out training and development programs, identification of training needs should be done more professionally by Human Resources Director or any other officer assigned to do it. iii. Find Solutions to Training and Development Problems: For training and development programs to be effective, organizations are advised to as a matter of urgency, to find an enduring solutions to the problems militating against the successful carrying out of training programs and other factors affecting their performance. iv. Conduct Training Needs Assessment: It is very pertinent that organizations should conduct TNA before selecting employees for training and development instead of resorting to arbitrary selection for training because TNA helps to indicate gaps in performance and the employees due for training. v. Evaluate training for effectiveness: It is very vital for organizations to evaluate training in order to assess its effectiveness in producing the learning outcomes desired. The basis upon which each category of training is to be evaluated should be determined at the planning stage while considering how the information required to evaluate learning events would be obtained and analysed. vi. Commit more resources and effort to training and development: Most times, a reasonable number of employees are not satisfied with the resources and efforts committed to training and development programs. vii. Ensure adequate motivation in order to boost morale: Motivation generally seeks to boost employees’ morale to work hard and thus increase productivity. Motivation include

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 both extrinsic such as more pay, allowances, fringe benefits and intrinsic such as recognition, appreciation, acceptance by fellow workers, opportunities for promotion, career development and consultation for important matters.

References Armstrong, M. (2006). A handbook on personal management practice, 5thed. London: Kogan Page.

Beardwell, N. and Holden, B. (1993). Managing for success, 2nd ed. England: Prentice Hall Publisher.

Bennett, R. (1989). Human resources management. London, Pitman.

Cole, G.A. (1999). Management Theory and Practice, London Guernsey Press Channel Island.

Cole, G.A. (2002), Personnel and human resource management, 5th ed. Continuum London: York Publishers.

Dena, W. and Patsy, E. (2003). Journal of Extension. April 2003/Vol.41/No.2.

Hamblin, A.C. (1974). Evaluation and Control of Training. McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead.

Kirkpatrick, O. (1976). “Evaluation of training, training and development, handbook New York; McGraw Hill. www.learning-theories.com/social-learning-theory-bandura www.lifecircles-inc.com/learningtheories/humanistist/maslow

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev Billboard Advertisements and Religious Evangelism among Pentecostal Churches in Makurdi Metropolis

Caleb Terngu Chile (Ph.D) and Tarer B. Utor Department of Mass Communication, Benue State University, Makurdi-Nigeria Email: [email protected]

Abstract Billboard advertisement, though not a relatively new concept in marketing promotions, is continuously gaining high usage among religious organizations in recent times. The promotion platform adorns all nooks and crannies of Makurdi town. The question on their presence bothers on their effectiveness in religious evangelism. The survey research design was adopted; hence, the use of questionnaire and interview in collecting data on issues surrounding billboard usage as well as its effectiveness on religious evangelism. Revelations from the study showed among other things that billboards are highly effective platforms in promotion given its enormous usage by many individuals and organizations including churches for the purpose of evangelism, thus, it was concluded that churches adopt billboard advertisements in their quest to fulfill the great commission of the Lord Jesus Christ which is to take the gospel to the end of the earth through various evangelistic activities. It was recommended that churches, while taking advantage of the effectiveness of the platform, should ensure that the set rules and procedures to the erection of billboards and placements of advertisements are duly followed there is also need for them to consult advertising specialists in creating billboard advertisements so that elements in advertisements can be properly used. This way, religious evangelism will be more effective. Keywords: Billboard Advertisement, Evangelism and Church

Introduction The world has in recent times become awash with commercial activities. Marketing activities have become the order of the day. In this era, religion has become yet another product sold in the consumer market place, (Einstein, 2008). While the intensity of religious messages is new, marketing religion is not (Finke and Iannaccone, 1993:, Moore, 1994). It has been going on for centuries. Einstein (2008) noted that when Gutenberg invented the printing press in the fifteenth century, much of the early advertising was to sell Bibles. Today, churches; referred to as organized places of worship for Christians who believe that Jesus Christ is the son of God, have become fully involved in advertising, exploring every available medium to reach out to the public. This is particularly true because of the rapid increase in the number of churches as with their billboards adorning strategic locations of major cities in the country, including Makurdi, Nigeria. There have

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 been questions as to why such perceived non-profit organizations spend money erecting many large billboards across the cities. This gave rise to the question: what is the rationale behind the mass usage of billboards by churches in Nigeria cities? The question of their presence bothers on their effectiveness. Edegoh, Nwanolue and Ezeh (2013), for instance noted that billboard advertising could appear fascinating: the crux of the matter lies in its effectiveness in capturing and sustaining attention and in making consumers take required action by buying the product, idea, opinion or service. Many studies have established that billboard advertising is effective. Mustafa, Sukran and Olgun (2010) for instance, concluded that outdoor advertisement, particularly billboard has greater effects on consumers than they are thought to have. Similarly, capitioloutdoor.com (2014), documented that billboard advertising is one of the most powerful means of communication that exists in the advertising world. A study by Nyarko, Tsetse and Avorgah (2015) has shown that in an attempt to create awareness, inform, educate and persuade marketing audience to patronize products, retail companies adopt diverse forms of marketing communication to send messages across to their targets because of its effectiveness. Their study particularly concluded that billboard advertising has been a major contributing factor towards the success of marketing electronic home appliances. Mustafa, Sukran and Olgun (2010)’s study also revealed that billboard as an outdoor medium in terms of advertisement and communication are coming to a very important stage all over the world. They are the advertisement tools to which the consumers are exposed without paying any charge and which have an important influence on purchasing behavior with regards to their capacity to inform consumers and their visual size and effectiveness. However, contrary to submissions of various studies above, Wells 2006 in Edegoh, Nwanolue and Ezeh (2013) argues that because consumers pass on premise signs or outdoor board very quickly and are often distracted, the message could fail to be seen or have any impact. This author further contends that outdoor advertising is a very passive medium, which means that if billboard is some distance away from the road, it can be very easy to miss. Mayyasi (2014) corroborates that billboards advertising are rarely memorable. This stimulates the question: what is the effectiveness of billboard advertising especially as it concerns religious evangelism? The usage of billboards for religious evangelism among Pentecostal Churches has also attracted some criticisms; most of which bother on the use of pictures of Overseers or leaders of Churches on billboards rather than portraits of Christ or the message of God. For instance, Segyemaro (2009) contend that Church billboards today carry either the pictures of presiding pastors, and or their wives posing at 80% of the billboard or the General Overseers and their wives, just living 20% to the information and activities of the Church, and it is now the order of the day. Similarly, Ipaye (2016) observed that Nigerian Pastors and their wives are the new deal, the favourite faces adorning all sizes of billboards across the country. In what seemed the next phase of the obliteration of

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev Nigeria’s productive sector which began with acquisition of warehouses for religious worship, Nigerian clergymen are fast taking over billboard sites from advertisers of goods and services. The outdoor billboard has become the favourite medium for showcasing the Pastors with their well cut designer suits, “Agbada” or “Kaftan”. Since there is no scholarly work documenting the reaction of Pentecostal churches to this criticism, this stimulates the question: what is the reaction of churches to the criticism: usage of pictures of overseers or leaders and their wives on billboards? Based on the above revelations, this study investigates the following;

Research Questions (a) What is the rationale behind mass usage of billboard advertisements in religious evangelism among Pentecostal Churches in Makurdi Urban? (b) What is the effectiveness of billboard advertisement especially as regards its usage by Pentecostal churches in religious evangelism in Makurdi Urban? (c) What is the reaction of Pentecostal churches to the criticism as regards the usage of pictures of their overseers or leaders on billboards rather than portraying Christ? Billboard Advertisement

Billboard advertisements can be defined as an outdoor presentation of sponsored messages about products, services or opinions of advertisers on large erected platforms, electronic, wooden or metallic located usually at strategic area such as root-top or beside busy roads. Billboard advertising, according to Batra (1996) is a type of outdoor advertising that uses erected platforms usually made of wood or built electronically wit h the aim of reaching out to target audience. There are a high number of billboard erected in urban areas by different advertisers. Suggett (2014) corroborates that billboards surround us. We probably see hundreds of billboard add every single week.

Evangelism Evangelism means the preaching of the Christian Gospel or the practice of relaying information about a particular set of beliefs to other with the object of conversion. Parker (1991) defines evangelism as the presentation of Christ Jesus and his work in relation to the needs of fallen men and women, who are without God as a father and under the wrath of God as a judge. It means presenting Christ Jesus to them as their only hope. In this world or the next, exhorting sinners to accept Jesus Christ as their savior, recognizing that in the most final and far-reaching sense they are lost without Him. Evangelism also means summoning men to receive Christ Jesus as all that He is, Lord, as well as savior-and therefore to serve Him as their King in the fellowship of His

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 church, the company of those who worship Him, witness to Him, and work for Him here on earth. In other words, evangelism is the issuing of a call to turn, as well as to trust; it is the delivering, not merely of a divine invitation to receive a savior, but of a divine command to repent of sin (Parker; 1991).

Theoretical Framework To give this study a theoretical background, it is anchored on DAGMAR model

DAGMAR model Russell Colley created DAGMAR when he prepared a report for the association of National Advertisers. The report entitled Defining Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results, shortened down to DAGMAR, and thereof the name, (Belch and Belch, 1995) and was later in 1969 published as a book with the same title (Mackay, 2005). DAGMAR was created to encourage measurable objectives for each stage of the communication (Smith & Taylor, 2002 in Karlsson; 2007) and does not deal purely with the message (Mackay 2005). DAGMAR focuses on the levels of understanding that a customer must have for the organization and on how to measure the results of an advertising campaign (Belch and Belch, 1995). The main conclusions on the DAGMAR theory were expressed in the following quotation: All commercial communications that weigh on the ultimate objective of a sale must carry a prospect through four levels of understanding. 1. The prospect must first be aware of the existence of a brand or organization 2. He must have a comprehension of what the product is and what it will do for him 3. He must arrive at a mental suspicion or conviction to buy the product 4. Finally he must stir himself to action. (Mackay, 2005, pp. 25-26) The communication has to be specific and measurable, and is therefore based on a hierarchical model containing the four stage set out above in the quotation (Mackay, 2005). The DAGMAR approach has had a huge influence on how to set objectives in the advertising planning process and many planners use this model as their base. However, just as the other approaches within advertising, DAGMAR has been met with critique. One of the major criticisms towards DAGMAR is on its reliance on the hierarchy-of- effects theory, just as with AIDA. Customers do not always pass through the stages in a linear way. Another criticism made towards the DAGMAR approach is that it focuses too much on strategies. Many creative people within advertising are looking for the great unique idea that can result in a successful campaign and feels that the DAGMAR approach is too concerned with quantitative measurements on the campaign (Belch and Belch, 1995).

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev

Billboard Advertisement in Religious Evangelism Billboards are used by many organizations in promotion of goods and services. Similarly, churches too appeared to have massively cued into using billboard advertisements. Churches have adopted the advertising platform as one of their strategic ways of communicating with their established and prospective members. Cooperman (2004) corroborates that organized religious is becoming a commodity. We package ourselves carefully for new buyers, emphasizing the selling points that will meet their market researched needs. With this, Einstein (2008) believes that faiths of all kinds must compete not only with each other, but with a myriad of more entertaining and more convenient leisure activities. Brands-of-Faith in Einstein (2008) argues that in order to compete effectively, faiths have had to become brands; easily recognizable symbols and spokespeople with whom religious prospects can make immediate connections. The use of billboard by religious organizations, Spurlock (2014), has become an instrumental vehicle in conveying religious messages to the public. Roadside and or subway posters promoting inspirational ideas or specific church services have captured the eyes of many drivers or passengers. Prehn (2014) corroborates that the church organization uses a variety of communication strategies because no church or ministry is a homogenous group when it comes to what communication tools work best for each person in it. One of such tools is advertising, and it comes via different platforms; radio, posters, handbills, television, newspapers and of particular interest here are billboards. Religious presentation and promotion has become widely acceptable within our culture. Many forms of religions are being advertised and promoted in a way never seen before. Churches now advertise on billboards and in print media, (Einstein, 2008). This is why Shephard, (2015) wrote that some local churches, looking for an edge in name recognition or a new medium to share an inspiration, are taking their message to the skies-or at least higher off the ground. Though many of these churches have been advertising on billboards for years, new technology, changing traffic flows and the need to fill their pews are pushing pastors and their assistants to roadside advertisements such as billboards. It can be said therefore that religious, church and faith based organizations are finding that billboards are a great way to engage and welcome new visitors. Fliphound (2015) corroborates that from informing the community of upcoming events to gaining new visitors, advertising plays a crucial role in keeping religious and faith based organizations alive and thriving. Billboards, specifically, gives religion a platform to spread spiritual beliefs to a vast, diverse audience that may be interested. “Although billboards are not necessarily going to convert anyone, they can be a starting point by influencing people to walk through the doors of the local church”. Obviously, there is a significant relationship between billboards and evangelism. Advocates of religious billboards see their usage as evangelism. For instance, the founder of Billboards-for-Christ writes on priceonomics.com that billboards ministers to those

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 who would never enter a Church, listen to a sermon, or keep on a station/channel where the Lord is exalted. Miller in Mayyasi (2015) similarly noted that billboards both introduce people to Jesus Christ as a savior from a sinful life and help Christians live a Christ-like life. The submissions above connote that billboard advertisements are instrumental in religious evangelism. Whether the usage is for non-Church-goers, people who are reluctant in listening to the gospel or simply for introducing people to Jesus Christ, the overall idea is to promote the activities for the kingdom of God. Detamore (1943) explains the impact of using billboard advertising in religious evangelism. This author observed that: The public is tired of sweeping boasts and wholesale promises found in the advertising of popular preachers today. Over some radio stations the haranguing of various evangelists and churches are heard almost all day long. Turn to the pages of the newspaper and you become disgusted with the quack claims of self-centered would be prophets. Some of their very subject titles are borrowed from representatives of the third angel’s message. The best way to convince the public that the message we represent is something special: that it points the way out; that we are truly interested in people rather than profits is the use of large advertising billboards. Some of these billboards are 9 X 24 feet; others are 10 X 25 feet. They are large enough to make a real impression on passers-by. These billboards are not as yet patronized by cheap, sensational, transient evangelists. Billboards, except for regular commercial advertisements, are used to herald the coming to the city of some major event or some prominent visitor. The minister of God, bearing the last warning message to the world, has a right to just that publicity in arresting the attention of the throng.

This is to say that large billboards cause much more discussion and publicity than newspaper or radio advertising or handbills, though these are not irrelevant, they are also essential in carrying detailed information to the public. But going by Detamore’s 1943 explanation, billboards are more effective in making the public attach value to religious events. When it comes to promoting fellowship, Fliphound (2015,p.7) documented that: Advertising should be welcoming and should communicate to the audience that they are wanted at your place of worship. New church goers congregate for spiritual guidance, worship, inspiration, beliefs, family value, tradition, and to develop fellowship with other members of the community. These are the people you can connect with by showing them your place of worship and encouraging their participation. Through testimony, invitations to join your service or knowledge of your beliefs,

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev your marketing strategy can communicate that you’re there for them. Billboards are the perfect avenue for this type of communication to take place, as it allows contact with people who have never had any experience with church. It places the idea in the minds of drivers, so that they remember you when they decide to seek our spiritual guidance, comfort or fellowship. It can be deduced from Fliphound’s view that billboard advertisement is the perfect communication tool for religious organizations to reach out to both existing and potential members. Based on his submission, billboard advertisements also serve as out- of home reminders. Many studies have shown that one of the significant impacts of billboard advertisements is its ability to pass the message without taking much time. In religious evangelism, billboard advertisements have occupied the position to pass messages with little or no interference in people’s activities. It reaches out to some members of the public who perhaps feel intimidated, constrained by time or reluctant to throw their doors open to preachers visiting neighbourhoods. Fliphound (2015, p.7) corroborates this when he observed that: People who do not currently belong to a faith based organization may have hesitations when it comes to joining a church, chapel, synagogue or mosque. Religious or church advertising and marketing need to be thoughtful in order to reach the right audience. Billboards are a safe way of introducing yourself without seeming too pushy for those who may be intimidated by faith. They act as a starting place and give direction for those who are truly interested in taking action and learning more. This is to say that billboard advertisements are also easily integrated into an organization’s overall media mix. They can take message you are already spreading on your social media, direct mail and website and deliver it to a whole new audience of people. The cohesive message gives possible worshippers a strong understanding of your faith. Billboards, as observed by the Shreveport times in Fliphound (2015) are part of an identify campaign to get people to recognize the church exists. Capitoloutdoor.com (2014) documented that billboard advertisements are effective and that one of the reasons billboard advertising is so good is its ability of garnering attention especially as regards the contexts in which they are displayed. Comparing billboard to other advertising platforms such as television, internet and radio, this author notes that commercials on these platforms all happen when people are already being entertained. But billboard advertising is often most utilized in situations where people are bored out of their minds and looking for anything that can grab their attention. The large pictorial illustrations that come with billboard advertisements are instrumental in first gaining attention. Mandell (1974 p. 485) observed that perhaps the first purpose of

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 the major illustration in an advertisement is gaining attention. Beyond that, however, it should help to create interest. Sandage and Fryburger (1971) in Bowers and Long (1974, p.2) corroborate that; Without an illustration in a print and the full burden of attracting the prospects attention and getting them to read the copy rests on the headline. In modern advertising such ads are scarce. In most cases the illustration is the dominant element ad the headline serves as a caption to add meaning to the picture. In any event, picture, headline, and body text should be interrelated parts and should work together to communicate a unified message. One of the most common places to find billboard advertising is on highways along the course of people’s daily commute. The drudgery of the day-in, day-out drive to and from work or school lends itself to the ideal conditions for billboard advertising. Methodology

The survey research design has been used for this study. In this regard, the questionnaire and in-depth interview schedule were drawn up to address the research questions posed earlier. The questionnaire was administered on residents of Makurdi urban while interview was used on pastors of some selected Pentecostal churches in Makurdi Urban

Sample Size and Sampling Technique A sample of 384 people made up of male and female was chosen for the study. The determination of this was based on Krejcie and Morgan (1970) who worked out the different sample sizes needed at 95 percent confidence level of the following populations.

Population Size (n) Sample Size (S) 1,000,000 384 75,000 383 50,000 381 10,000 370 5,000 357 3,000 341 2,000 322 1,000 278 Note: N is population. S is sample size. Source: Krejcie and Morgan (1970)

As indicated in the table, the population considered is 383, therefore considering the fact that the population of Makurdi Local Government Area is 300,377 which is greater than, 75,000. 383 was considered appropriate for this study.

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev The multi-stage sampling procedure and technique was adopted. First, the cluster sampling technique was used to divide Makurdi town into two major clusters based on its geo-political setting, which included Makurdi-North and Makurdi-South. The reason for the adoption of this technique was to ensure that all the geo-political zones in the urban area are represented. Thereafter, purposive sampling technique was used to select major council wards from the selected zones, to this regard; one council ward was selected from each of the geo-political areas, bringing the total number of two council wards in all. The wards were purposively sampled given the condition that only council wards that have more activities of participants in the informal sector are selected. Based on the above condition therefore, Wailomayo ward from Makurdi South and North Bank 1 from Makurdi North was selected. Next was the selection of streets from those selected wards across the urban area. Here, simple random sampling technique was used to select four streets from each of the selected wards, bringing the total number of eight (8) streets. At this stage, all names of the streets in each of the selected wards were written on a separate piece of paper, folded and dropped in the same container where after thorough shuffling, a research assistant was asked to pick four pieces of papers out of those found in the container. The names of the streets found in the pieces of papers picked constituted the streets sampled within the ward. The same process was repeated in the second ward and a total number of eight (8) streets were selected. The last stage of the sampling procedure was the selection of respondents. Purposive sampling was used to select one respondent from each of the selected houses. At this stage, the researchers sampled only respondents that could attained to the questionnaire. Given this reason, the use of purposive sampling was more appropriate. Therefore, respondents sampled for the questionnaire were 384. Questionnaire administration was done in 7 days by the researchers and two research assistants. At the end of the 5 days, the questionnaire were collected, collated and analyzed, the quantitative data was adopted whereby simple percentages were used to determine the frequency of occurrence of particular responses as they relate to the subject matter. For the oral interview, 8 Pentecostal churches were purposively selected from the two (2) geo-political zones of Makurdi Urban; Makurdi-North and Makurdi-South. Four (4) churches from each zone.

Data Presentation and Analysis From the 383 questionnaire administered, only 344 (90%) were completed and returned while 40 (10%) were not returned. This means that the unreturned questionnaire has no significant effect on the returned questionnaire.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Table 1: Determining the effectiveness of the mass usage of billboard advertisements in religious evangelism among Pentecostal Churches in Makurdi Urban Response option Frequency Percentage Effective 344 100 Ineffective Nil Nil Total 344 100 Source: Field Survey, 2017

Table 1 shows the effectiveness ofthe mass usage of billboard advertisements in religious evangelism among Pentecostal Churches in Makurdi Urban. As indicated in the table, all the sampled respondents, that is, 344 respondents (100%) affirmed thatthe mass usage of billboard advertisements in religious evangelism among Pentecostal Churches in Makurdi Urban is effective. This is a confirmation that such billboards have effects on residents of Makurdi urban. Table 2: The effectiveness of billboard advertisement by Pentecostal churches in religious evangelism in Makurdi Urban

Response option Frequency Percentage

Billboard reaches a high number of people faster with relatively low cost 25 7

Adds prestige to an event and projects an event better 10 3

Helps for easy location of the church. Nil Nil

Its colour and illustration aesthetics attracts people to the message 23 7

It reminds people of the message over and over again 15 4

All of the above 271 79 Total 344 100 Source: Field Survey, 2017 Table 2 has to do with the effectiveness of billboard advertisement by Pentecostal churches in religious evangelism in Makurdi Urban. Responses shown in the table indicate that 25 respondents (7%) said billboard reaches a high number of people faster with relatively low cost, 10 respondents (3%) said billboard advertisement adds prestige to an event and projects an event better, 23 respondents (7%) said its colour and illustration aesthetics attracts people to the message, 15 respondents (4%) said it reminds people of the message over and over again while the remaining 271 respondents (79%) believes that billboard advertisement effectiveness can be measured by the fact that it reaches a high number of people faster with relatively low cost, adds prestige to an event and projects an event better, helps for easy location of the church, its colour and

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev illustration aesthetics attracts people to the message and it reminds people of the message over and over again. These responses by residents of Makurdi Urban affirm the effectiveness of billboard advertisement by Pentecostal churches in religious evangelism in Makurdi Urban.

What is the rationale behind the Mass Usage of Billboard Advertisements in Religious Evangelism? To explain the rationale behind the mass usage of billboard advertisements in religious evangelism, all the interviews share the same view. Based on the deductions from their views, the church was established by God with the objective of publicizing the gospel, so the existence of the church depends on this. The essence of a church is to fulfill the great commission of our Lord Jesus Christ which explains that churches should take the gospel to the end of the earth through various evangelistic activities. Billboard advertisements are such avenues to engage people in our activities. We use billboard advertisement because of the capacity it has in displaying church activities and programmes. Throwing more light on this, the Media Head of Word Aflame Family Church, Makurdi, Mr. Quest Ahundu noted in his view that the church is the hope of the world. As church leaders, we have the responsibility of communicating the greatest message known to mankind; the only message capable of changing a person’s entire eternity. The weight of that responsibility is both profound and incredible. It moves us to action and demands that we communicate it well. Pastor Emmanuel Atooko of Rejoice Worship Centre, Northbank in his view noted further that; As the world advances, things are changing as well. In the olden days for instance, people would stand at the road junctions and preach the gospel to the people. Even though such places still exist in our modern world but that has become a challenging thing to do. As you can see, the population has increased. Therefore, the church needed to find new ways of getting the message to their people and other people in different locations of the town using modern communication platforms such as billboards. This explains why we use various ways in promoting the gospel. Similarly, King Omudu, senior pastor of Shelter of Glory Church observed that as a church, we must come to terms with the fact that no man is an island. You cannot succeed all by yourself. You may be great but if nobody knows what you can do, you will remain in anonymity and obscurity all your life. Even the work we do as preachers is pure advertisement. We are advertising the kingdom of God. Let it not be a surprise that the kingdom of God needs advertisement. The marching orders Jesus gave to the apostles as he was about to ascend into heaven was clearly for them to go into the world and

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 advertize the kingdom of God to every creature. This advertisement would make an impression on the minds of people and this would lead to a conviction in their hearts. Going by the submissions of the respondents on this issue, it can be said that the church is advertizing inclined because the goal of its establishment is to make known the kingdom of God to mankind.

What is the reaction of Pentecostal churches to the criticism as regards the usage of pictures of their overseers or leaders on billboards rather than portraying Christ? Pentecostal churches hold a consensus view as regards their reaction to the criticism as to why they use pictures of their pastors and wives on billboards, but they have also made some defenses as to why that is done. They noted that the use of pictures of pastors and their wives on billboard serve the purpose of attracting people to the messages on billboards. Apart from this, it also serves as identity for church. They further argued that billboard indirectly portray Christ by publicizing the activities of the church; thereby serving as a lead or direction to the house of God for conversion of souls for His Kingdom. The Media Head of Shelter of Glory Church, Abel Edoka, noted that every organization has a face; if you talk about Nigeria for instance; the first face that comes to mind is that of the President. That face serve as identity, easily recognized. Similarly, the Publicity Director of Word Creation Church, Mr. Tersoo Angwe gave an example to justify the use of pictures of Overseers or leaders on billboards. In his words; Multinational corporations such as Globacom display movie stars on billboards as their product ambassadors. They make them ambassadors because they are good enough to represent their brand, and influential enough to be role models to people. So what difference does it make with the church? Pastors or Overseers and their wives are ambassadors of the church. Corroboratively, a Pastor from World Aflame Family Church, Sidney Ahula observed that there is absolutely nothing wrong with using of pictures of pastors and their wives on billboards for religious evangelism just as it is with the face of a book author on book covers. The truth is, God does not work on earth without human involvement. He works through men. The bible says in 1 Corinthians 3:9 that we are God’s co-workers. While Pastor Emmanuel Ocheikwu of Grace Tower Int’l Church corroborated that the whole idea of advertising is to pass the message to your target market successfully. Words without picture makes advertisement boring and less-attractive, therefore pictures of pastors complement the ad message on billboards and make it more attractive. It can be deduced from the views of the interviewees that Pentecostal churches use pictures of church Overseers or leaders and their wives to complement the words in billboard advertisements, and to serve the purpose of drawing attention to the message of church programmes/activities, as well as to serve as identity of the church.

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev Findings and Discussions Research questions were raised to guide this study, answer to those research questions are presented in terms of findings, and discussed accordingly below:

Rational behind the Mass Usage of Billboard Advertisements in Religious Evangelism

Based on the gathered, it was revealed that the church is advertizing inclined because the goal of its establishment is to make known the kingdom of God to mankind. This makes them advertizing inclined by nature; spreading the gospel to all. Their involvement in advertizing particularly the use of billboards is just a way of fulfilling their mission. The church, just like any other organization has their target markets(s), or publics that they strive to reach out to, they need maximum awareness as of their existence and what they can do. More so that no individual or organization can survive in isolation, they exist because they are in relation to other individuals or organizations. This finding is supported by Cooperman’s (2004) view that organized religion is becoming a commodity. Einstein (2008) on his part believes that faith of all kind must compete not only with each other, but with a myriad of more entertaining and more convenient leisure activities. Similarly Spurlock (2014, p.171), opines that the use of billboard by religious organizations has become an instrumental vehicle in conveying religious messages to the public. Roadside ads or subway posters promoting inspirational ideas or specific church services have captured the eyes of many drivers or passengers. This means religious organizations have realized that awareness creation is highly needed in Evangelism. In a consumer-based culture where competition for attention is fierce, churches now strive to create a highly desired want for the potential members by uniquely communicating the message to the public to inform them about Jesus Christ and the activities towards the kingdom of God. This justifies the mass usage of billboard advertisements by Pentecostal churches in Makurdi urban.

Effectiveness of Billboard Advertisements in Religious Evangelism

Findings revealed Makurdi residents affirm that billboard advertisement effectiveness can be measured by the fact that it reaches a high number of people faster with relatively low cost, adds prestige to an event and projects an event better, helps for easy location of the church, its colour and illustration aesthetics attracts people to the message and it reminds people of the message over and over again. Therefore it can be established that billboard advertisement is effective especially at regards its usage in religious evangelism because it helps perform the same function just as it does for other advertisers. This further explains why many companies and businesses are adopting this promotional platform in marketing. This finding is upheld by Capitoloutdoor.com (2014) which documented that billboard advertisements are effective because it is so good at garnering attention

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 especially as regards the contexts in which billboard ads are displayed. Comparing billboard to other advertising platforms such as television, internet and radio, this author notes that commercials on this platforms all happen when people are already being entertained. But billboard advertising is often most utilized in situations where people are bored out of their minds and looking for anything can grab their attention. One of the most common places to find billboard advertising is on highways along the course of people’s daily commute. The drudgery of the day-in, day-out drive to and from work or school lends itself to the ideal conditions for billboard advertising. This is particularly true in the case of dense urban environments where it is not unlikely that people find themselves trapped in horrendous amounts of traffic: sometimes for hours on end. Businesses that rely on billboard advertising to market their brand recognize that this situation is ideal for advertising.

Usage of Pictures of Church Overseers or Pastors and their Wives in Billboards

It was also found that Pentecostal churches use pictures of church Overseers or leaders and their wives to complement the words in billboard advertisements, and to serve the purpose of drawing attention to the message of church programmes/activities, as well as to serve as identity of the church. Of course, illustration/picture is an element of advertising and a key one at that. So it is believed that the pictures of Overseers or leaders of churches serve as illustrations of the commodity been advertised. Mandell (1974, p.485) observed that perhaps the firs purpose of the major illustration in an advertisement is gaining attention. Beyond that, however, it should help to create interest. Sandage and Fryburger (1971) corroborate in Bowers and Long (1974, p.2) that: Without an illustration in a print ad the full burden of attracting the prospects’ attention and getting them to read the copy rests on the headline. In modern advertising such ads are scarce. In most cases the illustration is the dominant element and the headline serves as a caption to add meaning to the picture. In any event, pictured, headline, and body text should be interrelated parts and should work together to communicate a unified message. Cooperman (2004), observed in line with this finding that organized religion is becoming a commodity. Churches package themselves carefully for new buyers. This justifies the usage of pictures of church Overseers or Pastors on billboards that use of pictures in print advertising is acceptable this is because pictures form a central part in print advertisements. By this submission, the criticism as to why churches use pictures of pastors and their wives is refuted.

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev Conclusion This study concludes that churches adopt billboard advertisements in their quest to fulfill the great commission of the Lord Jesus Christ, which is to take the gospel to the end of the earth through various evangelistic activities. In their quest for attention, churches have realized that billboard advertisements are highly advantageous in uniquely communicating their messages to the public to inform them about their activities such as crusades, meetings, etc. This explains the high utilization of billboard advertisements among churches in religious evangelism. The highly effective nature of billboard advertisements in promotion and marketing can also be employed in the fight against corruption and promotion of government policies. Pentecostal churches use pictures of Overseers or pastors and their wives on billboards to represent the ‘brand’ they are advertising which is the church. Pictures also serve as element in attracting attention to billboard messages.

Recommendations Based on conclusions drawn from the study, it is recommended that; given the massive number of billboards popping up all across the major cities, more so that it is cost effective and can reach a significant number of the public, there is plenty of opportunity for advertisers to take advantage of the promotional strategy in media campaigns. However, standards must be emphasized by regulatory authorities such as APCON and Urban Development Agencies on billboard usage by advertisers as billboards have the capacity of contributing significantly to the economy. Based on the effectiveness of the promotional platform, it can also be used in the on-going anti- corruption crusade. Advertisers on their part, while taking advantage of the effectiveness of the promotion platform, should ensure that the set rules and procedures of erection of billboards and placements of advertisements are duly followed. Pentecostal churches on their part, if they must achieve the goal of communicating the message of salvation to mankind, must also ensure that they consult advertising specialists in creating billboard advertisements so that elements in advertisements can be properly used. This way, religious evangelism will be more effective.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 APPENDIX

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 References Belch, G. and Belch, M. (1995). Introduction to Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communications Perspective. (3rd Ed) Boston: McGraw- Hill Bowers, T and Long, E.(1974)The Communicative Power of Advertising Illustrations" A paper presented to the Advertising Division of the Association for Education in Journalism: (19-22) California Capioloutdoor.com (2014). The Power of Billboard Advertising. Retrieved from http://www.capitoloutdoo.com/ooh-media/billboard- advertisement/powerbillboard-advertising. Detamore, W. (1943). Billboard Advertising Values: Promotion Secretary, Voice of Prophecy. Edegoh, L.N., Nwanolue, I.M., and Ezeh, N.C. (2013). Audience Assessment of the Use of Models in Billboard Advertising: A Study of Consumers of Amstel Malt in Onitsha, Nigeria. International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities Vol. 6. No. 1. Pp.217-227. Einstein, M. (2008). Brands of Faith: Marketing Religion in a Commercial Age. New York: Routledge. Faith Facts (2008). Gospel Communications Network (Gospelcom) Retrieved from http://ww.faithfacts.org/bible-101/what-is-the-gospel? Fliphound (2015). Religious Organization Billboard Marketing and Advertising. Retrieved from http://fliphound.com/religon-church-billboard-advertising- marketing. Finke, R. and Iannanccone, I.R (1993). Supply-side Explanations for Religious Change. The Annals of the American Academy. AAPSS, 527, 27-39 Ipaye, F. (2016). Pastors and Wives now dominant faces of billboards. Retrieved from http://thenewsnigeria.com.ng/2016/02/pastors-and-wives-now-dominant-faces-of- billboards/ Krejcie, R. and Morgan, D. (1970).Determining Sample Size for Research Activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement (607-610).

Mustafa, G. Sukran, K. and Olgun, K. (2010). The Effects of Outdoor Advertisements on Consumers: A Case Study. ResearchGate: Studies in Business and Economics. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46513458. Nyarko, I., Tsetse, E. and Avorgah, S. (2015). Is Billboard Advertising an Effective Tool in The Marketing of Home Appliances? Asian Journal of Social Sciences and Management Studies;Vol. 2, No. 3, 101-108. Mandell, A. I. (1974). Advertising, (2nd Ed) Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall, Inc Mustafa, G., Sukran, K. and Olgun, K. (2010).The Effects of Outdoor Advertisements on Consumers: A Case Study. ResearchGate; Studies in Business and Economics

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev Moore, R.I. (1994). Selling God: American Religion in the Market Place of Culture. New York: Oxford University Press Packer, J.L. (1991). Evangelism and the Sovereignty of God. downers Grove, Illinois: Inter Varsity Press Priceonomics (2015).Why Does God Have So Many Billboards? Retrieved from https://priceonomics.com/why-does-god-have-so-many-billboards/ Packer, J.L. (1991). Evangelism and the Sovereignty of God. Downers Grove, Illinois: Inter Varsity Press Priceonomics (2015).Why Does God Have So Many Billboards? Retrieved from https://priceonomics.com/why-does-god-have-so-many-billboards/ Sandage, C.H. and Fryburger, V. (1971). Advertising Theory and Practice. 8th Ed. Homewood: Richard D. Irwin Inc. Segyemaro (2009). Pastors and Their Wives on Billboard. Retrieved from http://www.nairaland.com/296009/pastors-wives-billboards. Shepherd, S.P. (2015). Churches turn to billboards to convey messages. Retrieved from http://www.shreveportimes.com/story/news/local/2015/01/07/churches-turn- billboards-convey-messages/21426619/ Suggett, P. (2014). The Six Basic Rules of Billboard Advertising: How to Create Effective Billboard Ads. Retrieved from http://advertising.about.com. Spurlock, J. (2014). The Efficacy of Religious Outdoor Advertising in the Southern United States. Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies Volume 4-issues: 3-July-2014.

Interview Interview schedule consisted of open-ended questions administered through oral interview with the following respondents: (a) A Pastor and Media Head of Word Aflame Church, Makurdi (b) A Pastor and Media Director of Shelter of Glory Church, Makurdi (c) A Pastor and Publicity Director of Word Creation Church, North-Bank, Makurdi (d) A Pastor and Media Head of Rejoice Worship Centre, North bank, Makurdi (e) A Pastor and Media Head of Dunamis Int’l Gospel Center, Kanshio, Makurdi. (f) A Pastor and Publicity Director of Greater Glory Assembly, North-bank, Makurdi (g) A Pastor and Media Director of Grace Tower Int’l Church, Nyiman Layout, Makurdi (h) A Pastor and Media Head of World Changers Int’l Church, Demekpe, Makurdi

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Political Parties, Electoral Process and Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria

Amos Asongo Jev Ph.D, Hamzat Hamisu Yakubu and Ladi Yusuf Manda Department of Public Administration, Taraba State University, Jalingo Email: [email protected]; [email protected];

Abstract The paper examines the twin concepts of political parties and electoral process vis-à-vis its place in the democratic consolidation in Nigeria. To achieve this objective, a descriptive analytical tool was employed. The elite theory of politics by Pareto and Mosca was adopted as the preferred framework of analysis. This is based on the premise that the elite are a few powerful groups in any society who influences almost all decisions that affect the generality of the people. In the case of our subject matter, the elite in Nigeria greatly influences the formation of political parties and the electoral process, hence the growth or lack of democratic consolidation can be attributed to the role played by the Nigerian political elite. The findings of the study reveals that political parties do not play their role efficiently in order to consolidate our democracy due to the nature of political parties. Findings also suggest that theelectoral process is usually manipulated to a level that the outcome of the process threatened effort aimed at consolidating our democratic systems in Nigeria. The paper therefore, recommend among others that democratic institutions such as political parties, the INEC, the Judiciary and the legislature should be strengthened to ensure stability by acting based on democratic norms and principles. Keywords: Consolidation, Democracy, Elections, Electoral Process, Political Parties

Introduction All over the world, democratic governance varies widely in nature and types and often differs in the political parties’ organization. These differences are often accounted for by disparity in the operating environment and their intervening variables that shape the sociopolitical institutions therein. Such institutions arises both in response to their environmental challenges as well as draw their characteristics from such environment. By extension, those factors both shape the formation and structure of political party systems as well as exert strong influence on their roles in their electoral process. Irrespective of their differences, however, one of the attributes of democracies is representation usually given birth through the electoral process which is in turn influenced and shaped by the dynamics of political system.

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev The basic functions of the political parties are substantially the same in all democracies, but different political party system, and environments usually produce varying outcomes in the electoral process. Diverse operating environment takes cognizance of social, political and economic disposition of societies to shape and fashion the operations of political parties, and the electoral process.Representative democracy requires political institutions such as political parties and their institutional framework to help organize citizens along defined political options for the purpose of enhancing political participation and other activities necessary for the electoral process to function (Chikeleze, 2010). For instance, the outcome of the electoral process in Nigeria since independence is influenced by the nature and character of their political party systems and how they perform their functions in the political system.It is thus, believed that understanding the nature and character of political parties and the electoral system in Nigeria will help in appreciating the role of political parties in the electoral processes and its contribution in the democratic consolidation in the fourth Republic in Nigeria. Theoretical Framework This paper adopts the elite theory whose major protagonist are scholars like Pareto and Mosca as the preferred framework of analysis. According to the theory, behind the diverse facades of government, power is always confined to a few people comprising of the ruling class. As argued by Mosca; “in all societies that are meagerly developed and have barely attained the dawn of civilization, up to the most advanced and powerful societies two classes of people emerged. A class that rules and one that is ruled. The first class always fewer, performs all political functions, monopolizes power and enjoys the advantages that power brings; whereas, the second, the ruled, the more numerous class is directed and controlled by the first” (Mosca, 1939, cited in Plutzer, 2002,p.5). Pareto like Mosca, acknowledge the division of society, into the elite and the masses. However, he refuses to accept the perpetuity of such division as he observes that eventually some leeway is created through perseverance on the part of the masses (Dlakwa, 2008, p.189). This implies that lower class group members are sometimes co- opted into the elite class. Thus, they begin to behave in such a manner that is in the interest of the higher class. This brings us to a phenomenon referred to by Pareto as the circulation of the elite. This is done to avoid a situation that would overheat the masses and cause them to revolt. In Nigeria, it is this less numerous but powerful cliques that rule the Nigerian state. For instance, political power is unequally distributed and that is skewed by the political elite who determine every decision that affects the people. This group has significant political power even though few, while the majority are those who have none. The elite are unified

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 and self-conscious. They know each other very well; they have similar interest and background, although with occasional difference. However, given the characteristics of the elite, political parties and electoral process is just an instrument used by the elites to perpetuate themselves in power. This is true because, prior to any electoral process in Nigeria, the winners are already decided by the elites. The purpose of the election is mainly to suit the interest of the elite group. Thus, the elites have a conception of the Nigerian state, where the majorities are dominated by a few, socially isolated self-seeking leaders The theory is most criticized for the following inadequacies or reasons. At the heart of the elitist theory is a clear presumption of the average citizen’s inadequacies. As a consequence, democratic system must rely on the wisdom, loyalty and skill of their political leaders, not on the population at large. The most unsatisfactory element in the theory is its concept of the passive, political, common man, who pays allegiance to his governors and to the side shows of politics while remaining primarily concerned with his private life, family, or the demands of his job. On the contrary, when the average citizen finds his primary goals threatened by the actions or inactions of government, he may strive vigorously to influence the course of public policy. Despites it shortfall, the elite theory helps us in understanding the roles played by the elites in the consolidation of democracy in Nigeria. It is against the backdrop of the preceding that this theory remains relevant in explaining the phenomenon of political parties, electoral process and democratic consolidation in Nigeria. Conceptual Clarification In his conceptualization of political parties and the electoral system, Chikeleze (2010) posits that for as long as there is a need for a collective agent (the governments) that acts on behalf of the public in the pursuit of their collective objectives, the struggle for the control of the apparatus of government is an imperative. In this struggle, political parties have become central in determining who influences and controls the machinery of government that acts for and on behalf of the rest of the society. Since individual members of the society are rich in ideas, it becomes necessary that they are organized in one form or the other for the pursuit of their political goals according to shared views and choices about how government should be organized, the goals it should pursue and how it should pursue those goals. In that vein, Baker (2007) describes political parties as the most representative, inclusive organization made up of citizens who may differ in race, religion, age, economic and social background, but who share certain perspective on public issues and leaders. To him, parties are the engines that drive the machinery of electoral processes anywhere in the world for democracy to strive and be sustained. Thus, a political party is ‘a social group’ (Simon, 1962, p.1130) as “a system of interdependent activities characterized by a high degree of rational expectation.’’ It is

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev different from other social groups, such as labour unions and other associations because of the unique functions a political party performs for the system, such as organizing for public opinion, communicating demands to the center of governmental decision making and political recruitment. This is why a political party is taken ‘as a useful index of the level of political development’ (Lapalumbara, 1966, p.7). Hence, the relationship between a viable political party system and democratic order is axiomatic (Chikeleze, 2010). Omoniyi (2001) came to the conclusion that what we have in Nigeria today since 1999 to date, as political parties, are just political parties in name. According to him, they are difficult to place in terms of origin, structure, organization and function, to these organizations that call themselves political parties in Nigeria. Omoriyi (2001, p.4) continued: In Nigeria, only those who are living on ... confused state of affairs would tell one that what we have in Nigeria since 1999 are political parties ... For these to be called political parties, they would have to meet the test set by Joseph Lapalumbara (1974, p.510), a political party is so called, if there is an intergenerational transfer of political affiliation. What would these parties be like in 2003, in 2007 and 2015? Do Nigerians believe that these political parties would still be there in 2003 or in 2007 or in 2015? The recent political activities culminating in the merger of several political parties into one political party called the All Progressive Congress is a vindication of Omoriyi’s conceptualization of the nature and structure of the political parties in the current political dispensation. As we all know, this dispensation started with the AD, APP, CPC, ACN, ANPP etc, which have later in 2015, metamorphosed into one formidable opposition party- the All Progressive Congress (APC) and uprooted the 16 years stronghold and continued existence of the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) in the general election in 2015. Political party systems in many societies may be multi-party, two-party or single - party. According to Lawson (2007), the multi-party system refers to where more than two political parties are registered and allowed to present candidates for elective political offices. In this type of electoral arrangement, the number of legislative seats held by any party may depend on the proportion of votes they obtained during election or their candidates garnering the majority of the votes. Nigeria presents a good example of a multi-party system. However, when no political party gains a majority of the legislative seats in a parliamentary (Multiparty) system, several parties may join forces to form a coalition government. Advocates of multiparty system point out that they permit more points of view to be represented in government and often provide stable, enduring systems of government. However, it has been pointed out by critics of this system that multiparty systems have sometimes contributed to fragmentation and political instability (Chikeleze, 2010).

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Furthermore, the two-party system on the other hand, refers to the situation where only two political parties virtually dominate the political scene. More than two politicalparties may actually be registered in such a system, but only two parties dominate and win elections in such societies. Although the U.S. has about thirteen registered political parties, the Democratic and Republican Parties have dominated their political scene. In a two-party system, control of government power shifts from the two dominant parties and only those two parties hold significant number of seats in parliament. The two-party system is believed to limit the dangers of excessive fragmentation and government stalemate. However, critics of the two-party system believe that in time the two parties increasingly tend to resemble each other and leave too many points of view out of the political process. These factors may alienate voters and lead to low turnout during elections (Azeez, 2009). Democracy is that systems that gives individuals the maximum and periodic opportunity to determine who shall be their leaders for a specific period of time, usually four years after which there will be another election. It helps in structuring political parties to consolidate democracy and good governance. Finally, the single party system refers to a system which one political party presents all candidates for elective offices with no competition allowed. The only choices left to voters under this arrangement are to decide whether or not to vote and to vote either “yes” or “no” for the designated official candidate. Single-party systems have characterized communist party governments and other authoritarian regimes of China, Cuba, and North Korea. A single party system is premised on the assumption that it provides a way for nations to mobilize and direct the talents and energies of every citizen toward a unified mission or purpose, especially where such nations possess limited human and material resources. However, single-party systems limit the political freedoms and choices of citizens.

The Electoral Process

According to Chikeleze (2010), the electoral process covers the whole gamut of activities that culminate in a democratic selection of political leaders by the electorate. In Nigeria, it involves different areas of operation covering institutional political party activities and those that concern voters. For him, under institutional activities, the process includes the various electoral programmes of the Independent National ElectoralCommission (INEC) that oversees Federal elections, States and Local elections in the Federal Capital Territory, that of the State Independent Electoral Commission (SIEC) that oversees local government elections, and the Election Tribunals that mediate electoral conflict/disputes. The institutional activities in the electoral process include political party registration, setting deadlines for filing of nomination papers for candidates, certifying the eligibility

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev of candidates, publishing list of candidates, registration of eligible voters and preparation and display of voter register; others are claims and objection on voter registration, setting the dates for possible run-offs, selecting voting devices, designing ballots, organizing the work force, counting and certifying of election results, and announcing of election results. The electoral tribunals are also constituted to attend to petitions arising from the elections. Political parties also play crucial roles in the electoral process by engaging in various activities that include political mobilization, education and the selection of candidates through party primaries. The lot, in the electoral process, that mostly falls on the electorate is the actual voting during elections (IFES, 2003; Traugott, 2004). The way and manner in which electoral process is conducted by the various players impact substantially on the activities of the political parties and the final outcome of elections. The number and nature of political parties registered during an election period influence the polarization of election campaigns and voting pattern during elections. Some party registration may have the tendency to divide the polity along ethnic lines while some others may encourage political integration. For instance, in the 1953 elections, three political parties (NCNC, AG, NPC) that intrinsically approximated the three major ethnic groupings in Nigeria were registered. This engendered election substantially along ethnic lines rather than on obvious party positions (Chikeleze, 2010). Thus, Azeez (2009, p.3) aptly contended that: The scourge of ethnicity had been a common feature in the country’s drive towards achieving democracy and its attendant party politics. It is a fact that Nigeria’s national identity has been at odds, since the colonial era with the appeal on more exclusive ethnic identity. For example, in pre-independent Nigeria, party politics and party formation assumed an ethnic complexion even as it metamorphosed into the post-independent first republic. It was however, the absence of well-organized, strong, visionary and purposeful cross-national political parties with the organizational depth and durable popular support for democratic effectiveness and legitimacy that led in part to the collapse of the first republic. However, the 1979 constitution that ushered in the second republic made regulations which were intended to make political parties national in outlook, even in their operations. Furthermore, Chikeleze (2010) cited the registration of six political parties (NPN, UPN, NPP, GNPP, PRP and NAP) for the 1979 and 1983 elections as an attempt to curtail elections based on ethnic lines. For the 1993 general elections, the then military government of Gen Babangida registered only two political parties; the Social Democratic Party and the National Republican Convention (NRC) with the view to distributing and integrating all ethnic groupings into the two political parties making purely ethnic loyalty more difficult to discern. However, from these few political parties, registered in 1998/1999 electoral process under General Abdulsalami Abubakar, the

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 number of registered political parties rose to thirty for the 2003 general elections and, then, to fifty political parties for the 2007 general elections; making it possible for almost every clan to own a political party. All these have implications for the conduct of elections and outcomes of elections in Nigeria. The system also created a giant party that controlled the majority of elective positions (the PDP) and too many other minority parties, some of which maintained offices only in the houses of their chairmen outside of elections periods (Chikeleze, 2010). The recent election – 2019 saw 91 political parties participating in the general elections. This large number of registered political parties made the process cumbersome. The implication of the foregoing is that it has been difficult to deepen our democracy and consolidate the gains of democracy owning to these factors. Another area in the electoral process that has strong impact on elections in Nigeria is the registration of eligible voters, and the preparation and display of voters’ register. The way voters are registered has very strong implications for the conduct and outcomes of elections in Nigeria. Difficulties and frustrations encountered by eligible voters during registration such as long distances to registration points, shortage of registration materials in some centers, shortage of registration personnel, etc. often discourage eligible voters who are not ready to wait endlessly to be registered for elections. Sometimes too, the voter’s registers are not displayed on time enough for voters to confirm their registration; only for them to be disenfranchised on the day of elections. These encumbrances create room for dubious political parties to harness unregistered space or absentee voter to their advantage during elections (IDEA, 2006). In addition, selecting voting devices, designing ballots, and organizing the workforce substantially impact on the outcome of elections. Voting devices may be electronic or manual; it can also be a secret ballot or the open ballot system like the Option A4 used during the 1993 general elections that gave political parties little or no room to manipulate the elections. Furthermore, political parties that control government machinery have often been accused of influencing electoral institutions to apparently or deliberately make mistakes on ballot paper design and production so as to put other political parties to a disadvantage by either removing their logos or names of opponents from the ballot papers. They have also been accused of fabricating vote-counting and announcing falsified election results. These Schemes are intended to put the ruling political party on advantage over other contending parties in election (Chikeleze, 2010). Indeed, the political parties play crucial roles in the electoral process by engaging in various activities that include political mobilization, education and the selection of candidates through party primaries. The extent to which these functions are discharged creditably impinges on the election outcome. Factors that influence the ability of political parties to discharge these functions include funding, leadership and other variables in their operating environment.

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev Electoral Institutions in Nigerian’s Democratic Process

The primary responsibility of election management in Nigeria rests on some electoral institutions that have the obligation to delimit constituencies, register voters and political parties, organize and declare election results. Over the years, the autonomy and capacities of this body have been criticized. These are reflective in the restructuring of electoral institutions by successive governments in Nigeria. For instance, during the Murtala/Obasanjo political transmission programme, a Federal Electoral Commission (FEDECO) was constituted, while under the Babangida regime it was renamed the National Electoral Commission (NEC). The Sani Abacha regime replaced it with the National Electoral Commission of Nigeria (NECON) while the General AbdulsalamAbubakar administration rechristened it the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC). INEC was established by decree number 17 of 1998 and was later amended by decree number 33 of same year. Like its predecessors, it has not been able to endanger public confidence in the electoral processes or even organized transparent and credible elections. (Anifowose and Babawale, 2003; Leewis 2004). A major weakness of the electoral process is the weak electoral institutions and undemocratic political parties that flaws elections. This now lead us to some of the functions of political parties in electoral process. They include; political education, political mobilization, and selection of persons for political offices, canvassing for electoral support, and participating in an election. Another factor that affects the characteristics of political parties, and by extension elections, is how they raise and spend funds. Funding here covers those raised and spent during and between election campaigns as well as the parties’ routine operations. The ability of political parties to effectively perform their assigned functions and the amount of influence they wield in election is determined by the type, size and sources of funds available to them. The two major sources of political party funding are private and public sources, and almost all political parties receive funds from both areas in varying degrees. A lot of arguments have been raised in favour of either of the alternatives or a combination of both. Arguments have been variously presented in favor of both private and public funding of political parties and their campaigns. In favour of public funding, scholars have argued that the financing of political parties is perceived as necessary cost of democracy that should be borne by the public purse. Public funding breeds the gap between voluntary donation and the necessary spending of political parties, thereby discouraging parties from seeking funds from source that may compromise their independence and democratic values. Public funding helps to level the playing field and ensure that all the parties stand a chance to get elected since it is often the lack of financial resources which prevents certain groups and leaders from achieving political participation through representation (Bakar, 2009).

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 Mandle (2001) further support public funding of political parties and explain that since political party funding influences the outcome of politics, they should be funded from public sources to avoid a hijack of the political systems by the wealthy class. He argues that if only a segment of the society is left to fund political parties and their campaigns, only their interests will be represented in the political systems. He therefore advocated for public funding for the reasons that: i. Funding from public sources would provide funds directly to viable candidates, enabling them to presents their ideas and policies without considering the effects on potential contributors. ii. Public funding pays off more in terms of increase electoral competiveness and accountability, better flow of information to voters, and an increased in the number of well qualified candidates. This is considered beneficial for political mobilization, fairness and competiveness in the electoral process. iii. Elections are a “public good that by their nature are shared not only by those who pay but also by those who do not pay, and that the outcome of elections affects all the people. Whether or not they contribute financially to campaigns. Because of the collective way they are consumed. It is logical that they be purchased socially. Thus, political parties, which are the main agency for providing that “good” should be publicly financed (Mandle, 2001, P.10) McElvoy (1998) contributes to this debate in favour of public funding by asserting that parties always belong, in the end, to those who fund them. In other words, even if political parties command membership from society, the actual people that determined events and direct the activities of the party are those who fund them. Thus, the wider the funding responsibility is spread, the wider is public involvements in the electoral process since it is shaped by those that fund and control it. On the other hand, some other arguments have also been raised against public funding of political parties by IDEA. Some of these oppositions are based on the premise that: i. Public funding may convert political parties into organs of the state rather than independent organizations. ii. There is a difficulty in reaching agreements on the allocation of funds. iii. Such public funding has been unpopular with the public especially where there is competing demands for scarce resources. iv. It is believed that political parties may lose contact and control with its members and constituencies if it does not harness their finance contributions. v. Partisan interest of ruling parties would make them unwilling to fund opposition parties (IDEA, 2006) Furthermore, it is common knowledge that those who finance candidates and political parties exert a lot of influence on such parties as political patrons. Such financier often

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev imposes candidates on the parties with a view to unduly influence the activities and politics of governments when they win election. It need be mentioned that private funding remains one of the major factor that shape and influence the operations of political parties in Nigeria. Let ends the discussion by examining the 2019 general election and some of its challenges. 2019 General Election and its Challenges

Let us begin by saying that the 2019 general elections are the costliest in the history of funding elections in Nigeria. The government funded the election with N242Billion, of which N189billion went to the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) which is the body saddled with the responsibility of conducting a free, fair, credible and transparent election while the remaining N53Billion was shared by the security agencies (INEC, 2019). This colossal amount of money was spent in order to consolidate the nation’s democracy. According to Independent National Electoral Commission Report (2019) 84 million Nigerians were registered out of which 72 milllion collected their PVCs, 91 registered political parties, 120 accredited domestics observers, 36 accredited foreign observers and 23,000 candidates competed for 1558 elective positions. The foregoing analysis is quite necessary in view of the fact that it provides the basis for understanding the challenges faced in the just concluded 2019 general elections (INEC, 2019). Nigeria as a country has for long been in constant search for an effective and efficient electoral processes that is devoid from all forms of irregularities. Sadly, the country has experience a long history of poorly conducted general elections needless to narrate the challenges encountered with the conducts of 1999,2003,2007,2011 and 2015. One can rightly say that the aforementioned elections fell short of basics international standard. In this line, below are some of the challenges of the 2019 general election in Nigeria. Politics of Decamping: although the 2015 general election witnessed an unprecedented level of decamping in the history of decamping, this phenomenon was also witnessed in the 2019 general elections. This time, the old members of the PDP that decamped to the APC in 2015 now gathered themselves within the ruling party. This large influx of decampees in the ruling party made the party conflictual and inconsistence. The conflictual relationship resulted in the late passage of several appropriation bills (budgets) and the failure of the leadership of the National Assembly to approve the appointment of the acting Chairman of the Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC), Mr. Ibrahim Magu among others, greatly affected the activities of the ruling APC government. This has serious implication to our democracy. This conflictual and inconsistency in the ruling party gave the opposition party an edge over the ruling party (APC) as to who decides the direction of government policies and programmes.

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 No doubt, the ruling party (APC) was busy fighting itself in many states in Benue between the Governor, Samuel Ortom and his political patron, Senator George Akume. InTaraba, the party was polarized along the Unity faction and the integrity which led to the former Minister of Women Affairs, Hajiya Aisha JummaiAlhassan to decamped to the United Democratic Party, (UDP). The story is the same in Bauchi, Adamawa, Imo, Rivers etc. In all the states mentioned, the ruling party lost the governorship elections to the opposition party PDP. A close examination on the issues of decamping as it affects the electoral processes reveals that most politicians lack focus and have no any ideology other than achieving their selfish interests. Elections are the backbone of any democratic regime and it’s the sole process of a peaceful transfer of power from one democratically elected government to another. In a situation where the process is marred by inconsistency, violent conflict and the likes, such political process lacks the capacity to meaningfully contribute to the democratic consolidation of that particular nation state. Violation of electoral rules and regulations in the party primaries: Internal democracy within the political party ensures the sustainability of any democracy. Political parties ranging from the ruling to the opposition have not conducted their primary elections in line with the laid down rules and regulations. Flags were only given to the choice candidates of the elites. We have seen during the electioneering period two major opposition or let’s say two anti-party activities from two ruling party Governors Rochas Okorocha and Governor Ibikunle Amosun on the ground of the party ticket. Besides, it was during the 2019 general election that the Court of Appeal denied a ruling party at the centre, the opportunity to contest elections due to the lingering disputes over the way and manners in which congress was held in Rivers and Zamfara states. How then can we consolidate democracy with all this forms of irregularities? On the other hand, there is the urgent need by INEC to ensure internal democracy vis-avis adherents to the rules of the game. No democracy in its serious form can survive if these processes are abused. It is perhaps pertinent to asserts that unless and until this crisis is resolved democracy is likely to be in danger. Another issue of concern with the 2019 general elections has to do with the credibility and trustworthiness of collation and returning officers: Returning and collation officers have a lot of questions to answer as some of them have compromised the process for their selfish interest against that of the larger population. These are intellectuals drawn from various Federal institutions to ensure a credible collation process and return of election results. Unfortunately, the case with a collation of results in Tafawa Belwa in Bauchi State, Rivers, Delta State to mentioned but a few clearly shows the collation/returning officers have not operated within the whims of the laid down procedures. Reports indicates that there was high level of cancelled votes due to violence, non adherence to

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Political Parties and Electoral Process in the Consolidation of Democracy in Nigeria. Amos AsongoJev the Smart Card Reader and over voting. The European Union reports also indicated widespread violence most especially in states where elections were declared inconclusive. The cancelled votes which are in millions brought about five (4) inconclusive governorship elections in Kano, Sokoto, Benue, Adamawa, Bauchi and Plateau States (EU Observer Report, 2019). Violence also characterized the February 23, 2019 general elections specifically in Rivers State, Benue State, Akwa Ibom State etc. The army whose major responsibility is protecting the territorial integrity of the nations against any perceived threat were actively involved in the electoral process. There were cases of violence in Rivers State and electoral malpractice in Benue State and other places. For Instance, elections materials were burnt in Guma Local Government, which is the home Local Government of the incumbent Governor, Samuel Ortom, resulting in the cancellation of results in different polling units affecting 113,000 registered voters. To sum it all, there was widespread violence, vote buying and manipulation of results. Men with sophisticated weapons were seen in most of the states of the federation intimidating and obstructing the process of election. More so, the environment for elections which is expected to be conducive was turned into a theatre of war. There was intimidation of voters which greatly hindered free participation in the process. Party leadership did not take any meaningful measures to prevent violence, intimidation and other electoral misconduct. It is obvious that these thugs are their supporters and they are responsible for buying all the deadly weapons used to intimidate voters during the elections. Going by the elite’s theory, one can rightly observe that the elites disguise themselves under the auspices of ethnicity, religion, and geo-politics to cause all kinds of violence so as to satisfy their selfish interest. Security agencies were around when party agents with party tags were buying votes from electorates. The British Broadcasting Cooperation (BBC) reveals that votes were bargain and re-bargained for material gains. Voters in some cases were given Ajinomoto (spices), Maggi and other food items to sell their votes. This situation indeed has serious implication to our democracy and democratic consolidation. On this note, the 1999 constitution of the FRN as amended and the 2010 Electoral Act section 227 sub section 82 and 92 respectively provides for conduct of election activities, party financing and other regulations. These laws are clearly defined. The essence of any law is to guide human behavior in a democratic settings and the concept of democracy itself is anchored on public accountability, due process, transparency and fiscal discipline. The electoral process was further compromised by the harassments of civil society Organizations, foreign observers and journalist. Some of them were denied access to

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Jalingo Journal of Social And Management Sciences Volume 1, issue 2 April , 2019 some polling unit and this to a large extent compromised the electoral process and the consolidation of democracy in Nigeria. It should be noted that, what we do or do not do right in our electoral processes have serious implications not for the electoral process only, but in the consolidation of democratic governance in Nigeria. Conclusion and Recommendations

The study has examined the twin concepts of political parties and electoral process vis-à- vis its place in the democratic consolidation in Nigeria. The findings of the study reveals that there were a lot of factors that compromised the overall general electoral process in Nigeria; ranging from the failure to use the smart card reader; to vote buying, late arrival of electoral materials, intimidation of voters among others. Most of these problems emanated from poor party primary to anti-party activities. All these and many others have serious implication in consolidating democracy in Nigeria. Based on these findings, the study recommends the following as a way forward for better election, party politics and the consolidation of democracy in Nigeria: i. The use of the smart card reader in accreditation of voters and for the final vote should be made compulsory for future elections in Nigeria. ii. Political parties should adhere to the norms of democratic principles in the conduct of their affair; in order to avoid intra-party conflict and curb unnecessarily decamping. iii. Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) should actively engage the masses in awareness campaigns on the dangers of vote buying, bribery, violence and other electoral offences as specify by the Electoral Act and the Constitution. iv. Security agencies should be strengthened and remain neutral during the conduct of elections. v. INEC must have a rethink of the kind of ad-hoc staff they employ most especially from the Ivory Tower, as most of them have compromised the integrity of the process and most especially the 2019 general elections in Nigeria. References

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