Thomas S. Szasz, Precursor De La Psiquiatría Crítica

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Thomas S. Szasz, Precursor De La Psiquiatría Crítica Institut Universitari d’Estudis de la Dona Programa de Doctorado: Género, Subjetividad, Conocimiento y Cultura FACULTAD DE PSICOLOGÍA THOMAS S. SZASZ, PRECURSOR DE LA PSIQUIATRÍA CRÍTICA TESIS DOCTORAL Presentada por: Carlos García-García Dirigida por: Prof. Dra. Ester Barberá Heredia Prof. Dr. Joan B. Llinares Chover VALENCIA, 2015 A Tana AGRADECIMIENTO Esta investigación parte de mi inquietud, como psicólogo clínico y psicoterapeuta, por encontrar respuestas a preguntas esenciales y establecer los límites y las posibilidades de mi profesión. Agradezco su esfuerzo a todos aquellos profesionales de la psiquiatría y la psicología cuyas obras me han inspirado y que, con valentía y rigor, denuncian el dogmatismo, el reduccionismo y el autoritarismo desgraciadamente presente en nuestras disciplinas. Con igual énfasis, agradezco a los pacientes el haberme enseñado lo que sé de este apasionante trabajo. También quisiera agradecer sinceramente su apoyo a las siguientes personas: A los profesores Joan B. Llinares y Ester Barberá que con generosidad y confianza me han acompañado en esta investigación y transmitido su pasión por el saber. A mis compañeros María Jesús Duato, José Luis Belinchón y María José García de quienes aprendí el difícil arte de escuchar. A Laura Cayuela por lo que construimos juntos. A mis amigos, especialmente a Paco Beltrán por introducirme en la obra de Thomas Szasz, a Marea O´Sullivan por impulsarme a hacer este trabajo y a Luis Fernández de Córdova por querer y saber estar a mi lado en este proceso. Siempre, a mis padres, a mis hermanos y a mis sobrinos. Y, sobre todo, a mis hijos Ana, Elena, Azul y Camilo. Os quiero infinito. ÍNDICE Introducción 9 PRIMERA PARTE. VIDA Y OBRA DE THOMAS S. SZASZ 1. Apuntes biográficos 29 1.1 De Budapest a Siracusa (1920-1955) 29 1.2. Los primeros años como profesor. El “caso Szasz” (1956-1962) 40 1.3. Una vida comprometida con la causa de la libertad (1963-2012) 55 2. Sistema de pensamiento 61 2.1. Szasz, filósofo de la psiquiatría 71 2.1.1. ¿Qué es la enfermedad mental? 75 2.1.2. ¿Qué clase de ciencia es la psiquiatría? 85 2.1.3. ¿Debe la psiquiatría seguir un modelo médico? 91 2.2. Szasz, político liberal y abolicionista de la psiquiatría 104 2.2.1. El liberalismo radical de Szasz 104 2.2.2. Por la abolición de la psiquiatría coercitiva 111 2.3. Szasz, teórico de la conducta y del psicoanálisis 119 2.3.1. El comportamiento humano según Szasz 119 2.3.2. La ética del psicoanálisis según Szasz 126 SEGUNDA PARTE. THOMAS S. SZASZ Y LOS CRÍTICOS DE LA PSIQUIATRÍA 3. Szasz, la antipsiquiatría y la postpsiquiatría 141 3.1. Historia de la antipsiquiatría 144 3.1.1. ¿Qué fue la antipsiquiatría? 144 3.1.2. ¿Quiénes fueron los antipsiquiatras (y quiénes no)? 147 7 3.2. Críticas de Szasz a la antipsiquiatría 167 3.3. La postpsiquiatría, ¿una nueva antipsiquiatría? 175 4. Szasz y la psiquiatría crítica 185 4.1. Fundamentos de la psiquiatría crítica 185 4.2. Las teorías de tres psiquiatras críticos 200 4.2.1. La crítica de David Ingleby al positivismo psiquiátrico 200 4.2.2. La epistemología de la psiquiatría según Germán Berrios 206 4.2.3. El juicio de Allen Frances al sistema diagnóstico psiquiátrico y al tratamiento psicofarmacológico 214 4.3. Szasz y los psiquiatras críticos. Un breve estudio comparativo 221 5. Errores fundamentales de Szasz, una opinión personal y una propuesta 231 5.1. Un error teórico: Banalizar la psicosis 231 5.2. Un error político: Abolir la psiquiatría institucional 241 5.3. Medicina, psiquiatría y psicología. La formación de los clínicos 246 Conclusión 257 Anexo I. Obras completas de Thomas S. Szasz 263 Anexo II. Libros de Thomas S. Szasz 311 Bibliografía 315 8 INTRODUCCION Desde que la psiquiatría1 nació en el siglo XIX, se libra una batalla en relación con sus fundamentos epistemológicos, la naturaleza de su objeto de estudio y los principios que deben orientar su práctica. Algunos de los primeros psiquiatras, como Emil Kraepelin, entendían que la psiquiatría debía de ser una rama de la medicina pues consideraban que su objeto, al que denominaron “enfermedad mental”, era una enfermedad como cualquier otra. Defendieron la causalidad biológica de los trastornos psíquicos, establecieron una clasificación de los mismos en función de los síntomas observados (comportamientos, ideas, manifestaciones de sentimientos, etc.) y aplicaron terapias físicas a los pacientes, generalmente internados involuntariamente en manicomios. Otros, como Sigmund Freud, cuestionaron que tales trastornos tuvieran la misma cualidad que las enfermedades físicas y, por el contrario, opinaban que su origen era psicológico. Propusieron una clasificación diagnóstica basada no tanto en los síntomas como en las estructuras psíquicas de los pacientes (neurosis, psicosis y perversión) y la terapia se ejercía en el ámbito privado por medio de la palabra. En definitiva, en el primer modelo (médico) prevalecía la observación y la clasificación de los objetos (síntomas) y en el segundo (psicológico) la escucha y la interpretación de las experiencias personales del sujeto. 1 En este trabajo, al hacer referencia a la psiquiatría también se alude, en general, a la psicología clínica. La diferencia que existe entre ambas profesiones es, fundamentalmente, que los psiquiatras han cursado estudios de medicina y pueden prescribir medicamentos, mientras que los psicólogos clínicos han cursado estudios de psicología y no están autorizados a ello. Más allá de esto, en España, los psiquiatras y los psicólogos clínicos están igualmente facultados a practicar la psicoterapia tanto en el ámbito privado como en el público. En ocasiones, se nombrará tanto a los psiquiatras como a los psicólogos clínicos como “clínicos”. 9 A la vista de lo anterior, la psiquiatría demuestra ser una ciencia2 harto particular dado que sus practicantes no se ponen de acuerdo sobre cuál es su objeto de investigación ni sobre las formas adecuadas de ejercer el trabajo clínico. Esta multiplicidad de perspectivas teóricas e intervenciones prácticas abre, necesariamente, un interrogante sobre los fundamentos epistemológicos y conceptuales de esta disciplina. Los principales representantes de ambas tendencias quisieron cerrar de golpe las discusiones apelando, como si fueran líderes religiosos, a una fe sin pruebas: la verdad estaba en el cerebro, en el inconsciente, etc. Pocos fueron los psiquiatras que mantuvieron una postura no dogmática, crítica y sensible a los problemas conceptuales y epistemológicos. En todo caso, siempre hubo una mayor autocrítica entre los representantes de la orientación subjetivista que entre los de la objetivista dado que esta última, amparada por el manto de la verdad científica, ha aparentado una mayor solidez conceptual. Encontramos un ejemplo de este posicionamiento crítico con la propia disciplina en las palabras del reconocido psicoanalista Harry Stack Sullivan sobre lo 2 En este ensayo se clasificarán las ciencias siguiendo el planteamiento de Luque y Villagrán (2000, pp. 81-82): “La filosofía occidental de este siglo [XX] ha contemplado dos tradiciones que han influido en la visión que se tiene de la psiquiatría: por un lado, la tradición de la filosofía analítica, propia del mundo anglosajón, con su énfasis en el análisis del lenguaje como medio de objetivación del discurso científico; por otra, la tradición hermenéutica, fenomenológica y existencial, centroeuropea, que pone el acento en los aspectos subjetivos de la existencia humana y cómo estos influyen en la ciencia. Dentro de la tradición hermenéutica pero en su vertiente más epistemológica surge la distinción entre las ciencias naturales y las ciencias del espíritu [aquí también las denominaré humanidades o ciencias sociales], tal y como fue planteada por Dilthey. Mientras las primeras incluirían disciplinas como la biología, la física y la química, utilizarían la observación como método y buscarían la explicación mediante causas, las ciencias del espíritu (sociología, historia, antropología y psicología) buscarían la comprensión de razones mediante la empatía. Estas serían, por tanto, ciencias en primera persona que utilizarían fundamentalmente el estudio del caso individual (ciencias idiográficas para Windelband) mientras que las primeras serían disciplinas en tercera persona que buscarían generalizaciones (ciencias nomotéticas para Windelband)”. 10 inconsciente. A pesar de que este autor se refiere a la teoría creada por Freud, sustitúyase en la siguiente cita “psicoanálisis” por “psiquiatría biológica” e “inconsciente” por “neurotransmisor” o cualquier otro objeto o circunstancia considerada causal, y la conclusión será idéntica: Es difícil construir una ciencia [en alusión al psicoanálisis] cuando hay huecos entre las cosas. ¿Quién sabe qué hay en los huecos? […] El inconsciente es lo que no puede ser experimentado directamente, lo que llena todos los huecos de la vida mental. […] Que nadie se sienta tentado de salir por el mundo hablando del inconsciente, porque es casi seguro que alguien le preguntará cómo llegó a saberlo. […] Uno procede a saturar el inconsciente (ese ente que no es susceptible de experiencia directa) de razonables irracionalidades y de razonabilidades irracionales, y así por el estilo, y de ese modo, a mi entender, se convierte magnífica y completamente en un payaso (Sullivan, 1968, pp. 310-312).3 Históricamente, los dos paradigmas mencionados, el médico y el psicoanalítico,4 con sus distintas versiones (mucho más numerosas y diversas en la segunda vertiente, con 3 Nota sobre las citas y las traducciones: Con el fin de hacer más fluida la lectura de este trabajo, traduciré al castellano toda cita literal menor de 40 palabras escrita en otro idioma. Sólo aparecerán en su lengua original (inglés o francés) las citas que excedan las 40 palabras que no cuenten con edición en castellano. Si la hubiere, me serviré de esta traducción revisándola y alterándola cuando, en mi opinión, se aleje de lo que dicen los originales. Únicamente las citas de los textos originales de Szasz, como autor principal, serán las que cuenten con una traducción a pie de página.
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