RESILIENT DOCTORAL STUDENTS IN CALIFORNIA: A REFLECTIVE STUDY OF THE RELATION BETWEEN CHILDHOOD CHALLENGES AND ACADEMIC SUCCESS
by Randy Layne Bessey B.A. (California State University, Fresno) 1981 M.A. (Fresno Pacific University) 2007
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctorate in Education
Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership at Fresno State Kremen School of Education and Human Development
California State University, Fresno 2017 ii Randy Layne Bessey May 2017 Educational Leadership
RESILIENT DOCTORAL STUDENTS IN CALIFORNIA: A REFLECTIVE STUDY OF THE RELATION BETWEEN CHILDHOOD CHALLENGES AND ACADEMIC SUCCESS
Abstract
This qualitative phenomenological study examined a better understanding of how people with four or more Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) were able to navigate adversity, graduate college, and ultimately pursue doctoral programs. The research question asked, “What are the academic and social experiences of doctoral students who had four or more Adverse Childhood Experiences?” A secondary question also explored “How did resiliency help these participants navigate the educational system leading up to entering a doctoral program?” The case study was conducted with seven participants who all had seven or more ACEs and went on to be academically successful. This research discovered insights into the resilient lives of these individuals. Their historical narratives generated an exploration of the nature of trauma and how certain individuals were able to overcome adversity. Several major themes that emerged from the participants’ personal narratives were being resourceful, staying active, being fearful, fighting through tough situations, ability to hide, feelings of guilt, suppressing emotions, and additional nuances to the existing research on resiliency. Based on these findings, recommendations for educators were made: identify students with ACEs and provide proper emotional and social support systems, the need to overcome barriers and develop relationships, the need to
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Copyright by Randy Layne Bessey 2017
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v California State University, Fresno Kremen School of Education and Human Development Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership
This dissertation was presented by
Randy Layne Bessey
It was defended on April 19, 2017 and approved by:
Juan Carlos González, Chair Educational Leadership
Jennifer Moradian Watson Educational Leadership
Jessica Hannigan Educational Leadership
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To all the people living in chaos, like the Lone Ranger surrounded by bandits, but willing to fight your way through and to everyone who wants to be their Tonto. My sincerest gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Juan Carlos Gonzalez and my committee members Dr. Jessica Hannigan and Dr. Jennifer Moradian Watson for all of their encouragement and guidance. I express my unconditional appreciation to the brave people who came forward and shared their stories of victory. You are an inspiration to all. I want to thank all my teachers, co-workers, and cohort members who along the journey have each given me something very special. I am thankful to all of my friends and family who have always encouraged me and been there for me. And lastly, I am forever indebted to my beautiful wife, Lilli, and my wonderful daughters, Elise, Emi, and Ellie for their unconditional love.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
LIST OF TABLES ...... x
LIST OF FIGURES ...... xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1
Background ...... 1
Statement of the Problem ...... 2
Purpose of the Study ...... 6
Research Questions ...... 6
Nature of the Study ...... 7
Significance of the Study ...... 8
Definition of Key Terms ...... 8
Summary ...... 10
Preview of Succeeding Chapters ...... 11
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...... 12
School-Related Risk-Factors for Adolescents ...... 12
Adverse Childhood Experiences ...... 14
Resiliency as a Means to Overcome Adversity ...... 20 Resiliency as a Framework to Understanding Adverse
Childhood Experiences ...... 23
Summary ...... 26
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ...... 27
Rationale ...... 27
Procedures ...... 28
Research Design ...... 30
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Research Sites ...... 31
Sample and Sampling ...... 33
Instruments ...... 34
Data Collection, Analysis, and Interpretation ...... 36
Role of the Researcher ...... 39
Rapport and Confidentiality ...... 41
Summary ...... 42
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS/OUTCOMES ...... 43
Navigating Academic Settings K-12 Through Doctorate ...... 45
Participants Fought Through Academic Settings ...... 45
Participants Were Resourceful in Academic Settings ...... 47
Education was a Means to Escape ...... 48
Thoughts and Emotions Were Suppressed in School ...... 49
Guilt and Self-Doubt in Academic Settings ...... 51
Academics Provided Activity ...... 52
Participants Navigated Academic Settings with Fear ...... 53
Navigating Social Settings ...... 54
Participants Suppressed Thoughts and Emotions Socially ...... 54
Being Resourceful Helped in Social Settings ...... 56
Participants Fought Through Social Settings ...... 56
Participants Were Active in Social Settings ...... 57
Guilt and Self-Doubt in Social Settings ...... 58
Navigating Social Settings with Fear ...... 59
Escaping, Running, or Hiding from Social Conditions ...... 60
Resiliency Helped Participants Navigate the Educational System ...... 61
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Social Competence ...... 62
Futures-Oriented ...... 67
Emotional Competence ...... 71
Summary ...... 74
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION/SUMMARY/CONCLUSION ...... 76
Discussion of the Findings ...... 76
Recommendations for Practice and Research ...... 82
Recommendations for Practice ...... 82
Recommendations for Research ...... 85
Summary ...... 86
REFERENCES ...... 88
APPENDIX A: EMAIL TO DIRECTORS OF DOCTORAL PROGRAMS ...... 98
APPENDIX B: EMAIL TO DOCTORAL STUDENT PARTICIPANTS ...... 99 APPENDIX C: PHONE INTERVIEW FOR SELECTION
OF PARTICIPANTS ...... 100 APPENDIX D: ACE SCORE INSTRUMENT FOR SELECTION OF
PARTICIPANTS ...... 101
APPENDIX E: CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE ...... 102
APPENDIX F: INTERVIEW FRAMEWORK ...... 103
APPENDIX G: UNIVERSITY INFORMATION AND CONTACTS ...... 107
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LIST OF TABLES
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Table 1 Types of Adverse Childhood Experiences ...... 15
Table 2 Manifestations of Resilience, By Categories ...... 24
Table 3 Participant Demographic Information ...... 35
Table 4 Adverse Childhood Experiences Participant Information ...... 36
Table 5 Common Themes Referenced Amongst Participants by Setting Type ...... 44
Table 6 Manifestations of Resilience Referenced Amongst Participants ...... 62
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page Figure 1. Adverse Childhood Experiences and related health outcomes over the lifespan...... 5
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Background According to The Alliance for Excellent Education (2013), the United States could save tax payers over $18.5 billion in crime costs if the high school male graduation rates improved by 5%. The report found a strong connection between education, arrests, and incarceration especially amongst males. According to Carson (2015), 56% of federal prisoners, 67% of convicts in state prisons, and 69% of persons incarcerated in local jails did not finish high school. In addition, the number of imprisoned persons without a high school diploma was growing. Persons who did not finish high school were far more likely than those who obtained a diploma to be arrested or incarcerated. The Alliance for Excellent Education (2013) also pointed out that African Americans and Latinos are overrepresented in the jail and prison systems. Additionally, the report showed that African Americans and Latinos are assigned to the United States’ most under-performing schools. The report stated that school culture and discipline are large factors in whether a student graduates from high school. The report pointed out that suspended students were twice as likely not to receive a high school diploma as those who had not received school suspension. Additionally, the report found that African American high school students were twice as likely as non-Black students to be suspended. The California Department of Education (2015) reported significant drops in suspensions and expulsions; however, a disparity remained among African American students’ suspension rates. The report also pointed out that African American students were 6.2% of total school enrollments, but account for 16.4% of those students suspended, whereas White students were 25% of total enrollment
2 2 yet only made up 20.6% of students suspended. White student suspension rates decreased from the previous year. Additionally, the California Department of Education (2016) reported improvement in dropout rates in 2014-15; however, a large disproportion remained. The report found the Hispanic dropout rate was 12.6%, the African American dropout rate was 18.8%, and the English-Learner dropout rate was 17.6%; however, the White dropout rate was 7.4%.
Statement of the Problem According to Hockenberry and Puzzanchera (2015), in 2013 over 1.2 million juveniles were arrested, students age 12-18 were victims of an estimated 966,000 in-school violent crimes, and over 33 million juveniles (ages 10-17) were considered “at-risk” of becoming delinquent. Without support from schools, communities, and families, many at-risk youth will reject the idea that they can be successful and will drop out of high school. The trend of high school dropouts in America has become significant. Bridgeland, DiIulio, and Burke Morison (2006) called the high school dropout rates in America an “epidemic” (p. 1). The Bridgeland et al. report stated that each year one-third of all public high school students—and nearly half of all Blacks, Hispanics, and Native Americans—do not graduate high school with their peers. Bridgeland et al. additionally explained that those students who dropped out of high school were much more likely than those who earned a diploma to be without jobs, poor, on welfare, incarcerated, unhealthy, or divorced. These dropouts also became single parents with children who likewise dropped out of high school. Bridgeland et al. went on to say that communities paid the price of high dropout rates because of the loss of workers and the high costs related to increased incarcerations, medical costs, and welfare services. Aud et al. (2012) provided data that showed public schools only graduate
3 3 about 75% of students on time. According to Child Trends (2015), dropout rates were improving; however, in 2014 there were still 2.5 million dropouts in the United States. Child Trends data of dropout rates measured the percentage of young adults aged 16-24 who were not enrolled in high school and had not earned a high school diploma or equivalency certificate. Young adults are not only faced with high dropout rates, they are also more prone to mental and emotional stress. The statistics regarding the mental and emotional health of adolescents in the United States are overwhelming. A recent survey showed that 2.8 million or 11.4% of adolescents age 12-17 had a major depressive episode in 2014 (Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, 2015). That means that 1 in 10 teenagers are struggling with depression on some level. Additionally, according to the National Institute of Mental Health (n.d.) which is a branch of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, 1 in 5 adolescents ages 13 to 18 have a seriously debilitating mental disorder of some kind such as severe depression or mood disorders. Peterson, Freedenthal, Sheldon, and Anderson (2008) found that one-third of all adolescents have attempted some form of non-suicidal self-harm, such as cutting or burning. Additionally, the report found that most adolescents who attempt self-harm do so to control stress and divert away from painful emotions and thoughts (Peterson et. al., 2008). Most concerning is the fact that suicide became the second-leading cause of death among 12-18 year olds in 2014 when 1,668 adolescents took their own lives (National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2014). Based on these statistics, there is a need for improving and supporting the emotional development of all adolescents.
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Felitti et al. (1998) found that risk-factors of adolescents became even more intense when they faced the trauma associated with Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs). In their study, Felitti et al. discovered that a large portion of the population had been exposed to trauma in childhood. The ACE study was originally subsidized by Kaiser Permanente’s San Diego Health Appraisal Clinic and the Centers for Disease Control in an effort to better predict risk factors associated with poor health. The authors categorized ACEs into three categories: (a) abuse, (b) neglect, and (c) household dysfunction. They found that these experiences were related to unhealthy outcomes later in life. People who had a history of ACEs also had effects that influenced poor social, emotional, physical, and mental health. The ACEs defined in the Felitti et al. (1998) study under the heading of abuse were (a) physical abuse, (b) psychological abuse, and (c) sexual abuse. Under the heading of neglect were (a) physical neglect and (b) emotional neglect. Under the heading of household dysfunction were (a) substance abuse in the family, (b) mental illness in a family member, (c) a battered mother or step- mother, (d) criminal behavior or incarceration of a member of the household, and (e) parental separation or divorce (Felitti et al., 1998). In the Felitti et al. (1998) study, close to 10,000 adults participated and completed a questionnaire about their history of ACEs. The questionnaire asked 10 questions which aligned with the 10 categories. For example, the survey asked the person if they had been abused sexually. If a subject answered “yes” to this question, then they would have an ACE score of 1. For each subsequent question, another point was given for any question with a “yes” answer. More than half of the participants reported at least one ACE, and one- fourth reported two or more ACEs. Investigators then examined the completed
5 5 health surveys of the same individuals. They concluded that persons who experienced ACEs as children were more likely to suffer from anxiety and depression, more likely to use alcohol, drugs, and tobacco, and were more likely to have chronic health problems such as obesity and heart disease (Felitti et al., 1998). As shown in Figure 1, persons with ACEs undergo serious health related outcomes over their lifespans.
Figure 1. Adverse Childhood Experiences and related health outcomes over the lifespan. Adapted from “Childhood abuse, household dysfunction, and indicators of impaired adult worker performance.” by Anda et al., 2004. The Permanente Journal, 8(1), p. 36.
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The California Department of Public Health (2016) also found similar increased health-related concerns. In the California study, people with ACEs were four times more likely to have depressive disorders, four times more likely to have Chronic Pulmonary Obstructive Disease, and three times more likely to have a stroke. The California Department of Public Health (2016) found that people with four or more ACEs had less education. According to this study, Californians with four or more ACEs compared to people who had no ACEs were twice as likely not to finish high school and four times less likely to become a college graduate.
Purpose of the Study The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study is to better understand how people in California with four or more ACEs were able to navigate adversity, graduate college, and ultimately pursue doctoral programs. Through their stories of resilience, this researcher hoped to discover common themes that would benefit other students during adolescence and help these future students overcome the hardships of ACEs.
Research Questions Felitti et al. (1998) revealed that childhood trauma such as abuse, neglect, and extreme household dysfunction can lead to high levels of stress and disrupt healthy brain development, the results of which have long-term ill effects on learning, behavior, and health. Within this paper the researcher has identified that individuals classified as having four or more ACEs are widely considered the most at risk for dropping out of school, not attending college, along with having long-term health and behavior issues. However, there are huge gaps in the research when it comes to studies of individuals who had ACEs, specifically four or more,
7 7 and yet went on to be academically successful. For a person with four or more ACEs, to obtain a high school diploma would be considered a success. For the purpose of this study, the researcher considered individuals to be academically successful it they obtained a master’s degree from a 4-year university and entered a doctoral program. This research attempts to discover insights into the resilient lives of these individuals. Their historical narratives could generate a tremendous impact on the ACEs research community. In an attempt to discover and explore the nature of trauma and how certain individuals were able to overcome adversity, the following primary research question was developed: What are the academic and social experiences of doctoral students who had four or more Adverse Childhood Experiences? A secondary question was: How did resiliency help these participants navigate the educational system leading up to entering a doctoral program?
Nature of the Study The nature of this study was to explore the elements of resiliency in successful doctoral students who overcame ACEs. By understanding the streams of research which delve into ACEs, resiliency, and at-risk students, this researcher hoped to add to the existing research. Through the individual voices of doctoral students who successfully navigated ACEs, insights and knowledge are to be gained from persons who overcame adversity first hand. Their stories of resilience will add to existing research and additionally generate new information for use in the field.
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Significance of the Study Today educators have a great stake in ensuring academic success for all children, especially the youth at-risk. As Bridgeland et al. (2006) pointed out, the costs of supporting dropouts who go on to become unemployable, incarcerated, violent, unhealthy, or all of these characteristics put together, is staggering. Adolescent students who have ACEs can no longer be considered disposable people. In spite of extreme stressors, some individuals fare better than others and are considered to be resilient. Education programs and policies that understand the effects of chronic stress and promote resilience may be able to attain similar success in mitigating the effects of chronic stress and in contributing to student success. Such policies and practices would benefit students who have experienced ACEs. By understanding successful individuals who have overcome adversity, despite enduring ACEs, this researcher hopes to enlighten educators with insights into resilience that will have an impact on educational, social, and psychological fields of research.
Definition of Key Terms For clarity of understanding, the following terms needed to be defined: The ACE score—is a measure of adverse childhood experiences. Experiencing an ACE condition is counted as 1 point. If a person was not exposed to any of the experiences in childhood then the ACE score is 0. Points are added and a final ACE score is assigned. There are 10 ACE questions and a point is assigned for a “yes” answer on each question. ACE scores do not account for severity or duplication of any experiences (Felitti et al., 1998). Academically Successful—According to Anastasi, Meade, and Schneider (1960), academic success includes factors such as successful grades, academic achievement, recognition for academic accomplishments, and timely graduation.
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For the purposes of this study, academic success is defined as a student’s ability to graduate high school and continue on to attain his/her higher educational outcomes which meet their desired college levels. Adverse Childhood Experiences—Adverse childhood experience (ACE) describes a traumatic experience in a person’s life which happened before the age of 18. The ACEs categories include (a) physical abuse, (b) sexual abuse, (c) emotional abuse, (d) mental illness of a household member, (e) alcohol or drug abuse of a household member, (f) divorce or separation of a parent, (g) domestic violence, (h) incarceration of a household member, (i) physical neglect, and (j) emotional neglect (Felitti et al., 1998). At-risk student—For the purpose of this study an at-risk student is a student who has four or more ACEs. According to Aces Too High (2016), when a person has an ACE score of 4 or more, the person is more likely to suffer long-term health issues. Aces Too High (2016) reported that a person with four or more ACEs has a 390% increased probability of chronic pulmonary lung disease, a 240% increased likelihood of hepatitis, a 460% increased chance of being severely depressed, and 1,220 % increased possibility that they will commit suicide. There is currently no distinction between the types of ACEs only the number of ACEs. Juvenile Delinquency—is the violation of a law done by a person before his 18th birthday. This violation, if committed by an adult, would be considered a crime (United States Department of Justice, 1998). Resiliency—For the purpose of this study, resiliency is the ability to successfully navigate school and life despite having faced the intense hardships of adverse childhood experiences. Wang, Haertel, and Walberg (1990) talked about resiliency as being successful despite the extreme hardships endured in childhood. In this study, extreme hardships will be specific to the ACE categories of abuse,
10 10 neglect, and household dysfunction. Successful in school in life will be specific to the California subjects of this study who successfully entered a doctoral program. Risk-factor—The Office of the Surgeon General (2001) reported that a risk- factor is anything that increases the likelihood that a person will suffer personal harm. They went on to define risk-factors such as family violence, abuse in the home, divorce, and anti-social behaviors within the family, all of which line up with ACEs definitions for the purpose of this report.
Summary Risk-factors lead to high school drop outs, high school drop outs lead to juvenile delinquents, and juvenile delinquents lead to more incarcerated Americans. Within this population of at-risk Americans there is a subgroup that runs an even higher risk, namely people who endured adverse experiences and trauma as children. Even with the nation experiencing high dropout rates, persons with four or more ACEs are two times more likely not to finish high school than their peers with no ACEs, and they are four times less likely to graduate college. Not only do people with ACEs struggle academically, but children who experienced abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction are also more likely to develop serious health complications. Despite the figures, percentages, and odds, there are people in California who endured ACEs when they were children and yet they overcame these adversities, become college graduates, and enter doctoral programs. It is through the stories of doctoral students who had experienced ACEs that this researcher hoped to discover the truths behind resiliency and overcoming ACEs so that educators can support, encourage, and ensure the success for the future generations of at-risk students.
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Preview of Succeeding Chapters Chapter 2 is divided into four sections: (a) school-related risk-factors for adolescents, (b) adverse childhood experiences, (c) resiliency as a means to overcome adversity, and (d) resiliency as a framework. Chapter 3 is divided into 10 sections: (a) rationale, (b) procedures, (c) research design, (d) research sites, (e) sample and sampling, (f) instruments, (g) data collection, analysis, and interpretation, (h) role of the researcher, (i) rapport and confidentiality, and (j) summary. Chapter 4 discusses the results and outcomes of the study. Chapter 5 includes a discussion of the findings, recommendations for research and practice, and a summary of the study.
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Due to school shootings, youth violence, and growing national concerns, the Office of the Surgeon General (2001) came out with its report on youth violence. Although most of the identified risk and protective factors involved the individual, family, or peer groups, the Surgeon General also stated that poor attitude, poor academic performance, and poor attendance are school-related risk factors that could lead a youth towards delinquency. The report also mentioned that schools can be a protective factor if students were committed to the school and received teacher encouragement. This chapter is divided into four sections: (a) school-related risk-factors for adolescents, (b) adverse childhood experiences, (c) resiliency, and (d) resiliency as a framework. The chapter will conclude with a summary.
School-Related Risk-Factors for Adolescents According to Wasserman (2003), a risk-factor is anything that escalates the likelihood that an individual will suffer personal harm, and a protective factor is anything that can reduce the potential damage. School risk-factors for adolescents include (a) a student’s poor performance in school, (b) schools that are not safe or fail to meet the needs of adolescents, (c) a student’s poor commitment to school, and (d) a student who lacks motivation. Scott and Nelson (1999) pointed out that one risk-factor for an adolescent is being enrolled in a school with high dropout rates. Scott and Nelson’s study discovered three problem levels that added to increased risk for adolescents. They found that schools with negative beliefs about student success, school climate, and family involvement all had higher dropout rates than schools that had positive beliefs.
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According to McKenzie and Scheurich (2006), if schools treat children at a deficit because of their race, culture, behavior, or economic level, then the students are not capable of achieving at a high level. They found that when schools lowered their expectations for students, it communicated to the students that they were less intelligent and incapable of achieving in school. Because of this, the students were held to lower standards. The students in turn tried to find some way to protect their self-esteem in order to maintain a positive self-identity. These students dropped out or acted out. According to the report, these students became very negative towards school, which served to reinforce a negative and downward cycle. Siennick and Staff (2008), who looked at over 24,000 students from 1,057 schools and followed up 2 years later, found that delinquency is connected to low educational aptitude, low academic expectations, low efforts in school, and low grades. Troubled youths compete for grades less than their peers. The research also pointed out that delinquents are disengaged from school and have low academic targets (Siennick & Staff, 2008). Several studies discussed the relationship of academics and delinquency and make the statement that higher grade point average attenuates involvement in delinquency (Hirschfield & Gasper, 2011; Hoffman & Dufur, 2008; Hoffman, Erickson, & Spence, 2013; Siennick & Staff, 2008). Wasserman (2003) found that adolescents with low or no commitment to school and have poor motivation are also at risk for delinquency. Wasserman also found that adolescents who do not do well on academic tasks will also fail to develop any commitment to school. These students will have low hopes of success. As a result, academic success and school attachment are dependent upon each other. An example from the Wasserman study found that boys who engaged
14 14 in delinquency were less attached to school and were much less likely to have plans for any further schooling. These boys labeled themselves as terrible students.
Adverse Childhood Experiences Felitti et al. (1998) pointed out that risk-factors such as race, poverty, behavior, and other factors not accounted for in the original study have been proven to have a negative effect on students. The Felitti et al. research showed ACEs to have a negative impact on students relative to future violence, involvement in crime, long-term health issues, and not properly functioning in society. Because of this study, early childhood experiences became an essential public health issue. Much of the research in this area has been referred to as ACEs. The original Felitti et al. (1998) study done through CDC-Kaiser Permanente was one of the biggest studies into childhood adversities and their subsequent negative health effects. It was conducted from 1995 to 1997 and included data from over 17,000 health members from Southern California who went in to complete physical exams and were asked to complete confidential surveys regarding their childhood experiences and present health status. Based on the original ACE study by Felitti et al. (1998), the 10 individual ACEs items which fall under the categories of abuse, neglect, and a dysfunctional household are depicted in table 1. The original Felitti et al. (1998) study showed that ACEs damage children’s brains so deeply that the effects showed up years later as chronic disease, mental illness, and violence. There are 10 types of childhood trauma measured in the ACE study. Five are personal: physical abuse, verbal abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, and emotional neglect. Five are related to other family members: alcohol or drug abuse, domestic violence, incarcerated family members, family mental illness, and a missing parent because of divorce, death or desertion. Each
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Types of Adverse Childhood Experiences Abuse Neglect Household Dysfunction Physical Physical Mental Illness Emotional/Psychological Emotional/Psychological Domestic Violence Sexual Divorce Substance Abuse Incarceration Note: Adapted from “Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study,” by Felitti et al., 1998. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14 (4), p. 255. type of trauma counts as 1. So a person who has been emotionally abused, with an incarcerated father, and has a mother who is an alcoholic would have an ACE score of 3. The study conducted by Felitti et al. (1998) showed that the higher the ACE scores the worse the long-term effects. Doctors assigned each patient with an ACE score, giving them 1 point for each question they answered “yes” to. The number of ACEs that patients experienced went along the x-axis. The undesirable health issues—obesity, smoking, alcohol abuse, depression, and so on—went along the y-axis. The Felitti et al. (1998) study further showed that, compared to people with no history of ACEs, people with ACE scores of 4 or higher were two times more likely to smoke and seven times more likely to be addicted to alcohol or drugs. The people with four or more ACEs were also two times more likely to have cancer, two times more likely to have heart disease, two times more likely to have liver disease, and four times more likely to have emphysema or bronchitis. As the slopes on the charts of the Felitti et al. (1998) study went up, so did the increased health issues. Persons with an ACE score above 6 were 30 times
16 16 more likely to have tried suicide. Men with an ACE score higher than 5 were 46 times more likely to have inserted drugs into their systems via needle. Tough (2012) explained that the behavior outcomes of the ACE study, though surprising, made sense in the sense that psychologists had long stated that traumatic incidents in children could produce feelings of low self-worth. He went on to say that feelings of low self-esteem could lead to addictive behaviors, severe depression, and even suicide. Tough added that some of the long-term health effects that surfaced in the ACE study were mostly likely the result of self- destructive behaviors like heavy drinking, drug abuse, over eating, and smoking. According to Weiss and Wagner (1998), repeated ACEs can affect the systems of a person’s body and eventually a person’s entire life. This trauma was often related to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which soldiers experienced after being involved with the horrors of war. Weiss and Wagner further explained that complex PTSD, such as childhood trauma, are not well understood. Weiss and Wagner also discussed that abuse, stress, and trauma that occurred during childhood affected the brain systems. They added that children are not able to escape from an abusive or destructive home environment. In these traumatic situations, PTSD occurs before the child’s systems are properly formed. Children in these situations respond to every situation as if it is a threat. Weiss and Wagner further established that this becomes a critical survival strategy for children who grow up in a threatening environment. Weiss and Wagner (1998) explained the way a person’s body reacts physically to trauma: The amygdala responds to small signs of danger, the body’s distress system is activated, and the body sends large amounts adrenaline to help the child fight or run away. They added that unfortunately, most of the time, neither of these options are available to the child and with a body full of
17 17 adrenaline and stress chemicals, the body shuts down. Children often detach or go into a freeze response. Living like this has a tremendous impact on the physical and mental well-being of a child. The chemical overloads have an impact on the child’s immune system. It also contributes to a host of psychological problems. Illnesses can be triggered into existence because of the stress and trauma. Children with ACEs grow up into adults who sense that threats and danger are always present. Many of these adults turn to unhealthy coping mechanisms to escape the pain or forget the stress (Weiss & Wagner, 1998). Tough (2012) explained that our bodies regulate stress using a system called the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA), which describes the way chemicals enter through the brain and body in reaction to extreme situations. Overloading the HPA axis, particularly in childhood, produces very serious and negative effects to the person’s brain, body, and emotional well-being. Furthermore, Tough stated that as a result, children who grow up in stressful environments normally find it harder to sit still. These children also have a harder time rebounding from frustrations and experience difficulties in following directions, all of which have a direct and negative impact on performance in school. ACEs are highly correlated with early alcohol use and dependence. Rothman, Edwards, Heeren, and Hingson (2008) found that ACEs were highly associated with early alcohol use, which is substantial in the development of dependence. They found that ACEs were highly correlated with drinking before the age of 15. The authors reported that individuals with ACEs were more likely to drink as a coping technique. Alcohol used to cope, the authors concluded, may lead to dependence (Rothman et al., 2008).
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Strine et al. (2012) found that the incidence of self-reported alcohol problems in adulthood was higher for those with ACEs than those without. A qualitative study by Rothman, Bernstein, and Strunin (2010) found that adolescents used alcohol and other substances in order to feel less lonely, in order to cope, and because they felt a sense of hopelessness. The authors also reported that the parents of teen participants allowed substance use (Rothman et al., 2010). Smoking, too, is prevalent among people with ACEs. Yeoman, Safranket, Buss, Cadwell, and Mannino (2013) reported a higher risk of smoking for residents of Nebraska with ACEs. Strine et al. (2012) had similar findings, and suggested that persons who have experienced ACEs may smoke as a way to self- medicate. Drug use is also associated with high numbers of ACEs. In addition to the evidence above, Felitti and Anda (2009) also reported increased use of smoking and alcoholism among people with ACES. They additionally noted a particularly striking finding that males with an ACE score of 6 or higher had a 4,600 increased risk of injection drug use. Felitti and Anda (2009) also pointed out that teens with four or more ACEs are more likely to experience teen pregnancy and paternity. Early parenting provides additional responsibilities for students that can induce greater stress. Those with ACEs are also more likely to be involved in violent relationships as adults (Miller et al., 2011). ACEs are also prevalent in California. According to the California Department of Public Health (2016), there are significant differences between racial/ethnic groups in the state of California. The Asian/Pacific Islander subgroup reported the lowest number of ACEs; only 7% reported having four or more ACEs. In the study, 35% of American Indians reported having four or more ACEs,
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20% of non-Hispanic Blacks reported having four or more ACEs, and 18% of Hispanics reported having four or more ACEs. The purpose of this study was to understand how doctoral students were able to overcome ACEs and successfully navigate adolescence to enter college. Risk factors and ACEs are also prevalent at the college level. McGavock and Spratt (2014), in a study in Ireland of undergraduate students utilizing the ACE instrument, identified half of their respondents with at least one ACE, and 12.4% reporting four or more. ACEs are associated with risky behaviors such as smoking, overeating, drug and alcohol use and abuse, risky sexual behavior, and suicide attempts. McGavock and Spratt (2014) postulated that these risky behaviors may be a way of coping with the extreme stress. Felitti and Anda (2009) determined the academic stress of college may trigger the use of substances in individuals with ACEs. Felitti et al. (1998) showed that ACEs are also associated with mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety and this is no different for college students. The American College Health Association (2013) conducted the national college health assessment in spring of 2013. According to its report, anxiety affected the educational performance of 19.7% of college students assessed and depression was to a level of disruption for 12.6% of these students. The same assessment reported that 64.8% of college students used alcohol within the last month, 13.8% used tobacco, 16.7% used marijuana, and 12.9% used other drugs. These mental health conditions and risky behaviors are also associated with ACEs (Felitti et al., 1998). Similarly, in their survey of 2-year college counseling services, the American College Counseling Association ([ACCA], 2013) reported that the top 4 student problems were depression, anxiety disorders, stress, and relational issues.
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ACCA stated that depression and anxiety were listed as problems by more than 90% of the respondents, and a majority of respondents indicated that the severities of issues were increasing.
Resiliency as a Means to Overcome Adversity Denz-Penhey and Murdoch (2008) explained that resilience was a multifaceted idea that had been difficult to measure. Some researchers focused on the individual characteristics of resilient individuals (Campbell-Sills, Cohar, & Stein, 2006; Galatzer-Levy, Burton, & Bonanno, 2012; Simeon et al., 2007). The environment also played an essential role in the development of resilience (Collishaw et al., 2007). Resilience was not necessarily all-inclusive; individuals who showed resilience in one part of their life, such as academic achievement, may have experienced continuing difficulties in another, such as relationships (Smith, Park, Ireland, Elwyn, & Thornberry, 2013). Denz-Penhey and Murdoch (2008) developed a grounded theory of resiliency in health research. They identified being connected to the environment, relationships, and spirituality as key components. Bonanno and Mancini (2012), added to this in their studies regarding post-traumatic stress syndrome. They researched the ways individual variances factor into resilience, and determined that resilience was an intricate mix of individual, environmental, and societal factors. Masten (2001) argued that resilience demanded the presence of a threat, or risk, and despite this presence of risk the individual was able to overcome and something positive developed. Tusaie and Dyer (2004), like Bonanno and Mancini (2012), stated that all individuals have the potential for resilience, but that it is an interface between the individual and the environment that determined the degree of resilience. Tusaie and Dyer introduced the idea of protective and risk factors in
21 21 both individual and environmental areas. Risk factors may be as universal as poverty, or as personal as the death of a family member. Protective factors can also be internal and external. An individual’s ability to think of new solutions to a problem may be as supportive as a community’s ability to shield an individual in times of traumatic situations. Most researchers agree that there is a complicated interaction between the individual and the environment that may strengthen a person’s reaction to stress (Bonanno & Mancini, 2012; Rutter, 2006; Tusaie & Dyer 2004). In a qualitative study that measured resilience in former foster youth, Hines, Merdinger, and Wyatt (2005) identified positive individual qualities such as being assertive, having goals, and having the ability to make changes as factors surfaced in their lives. In a dissertation study of 194 community college students Ponce-Garcia (2012) found that three thinking styles were strong predictors for resilience: (a) executive thinking, characterized by an inclination for structure and productivity; (b) external thinking, with an attention on social connections; and (c) hierarchic thinking, described as a desire to prioritize work. Coping strategies have also been identified with resilience. Campbell-Sills et al. (2006) recognized that task-oriented coping has a positive association to resilience. They also said that people actively engaged in problem solving strategies tend to be more resilient. Individuals who cope with adversity through emotions tend to have low resilience. Galatzer-Levy et al. (2012) described that individuals with the ability to be flexible, and not rigid in their behaviors, were associated with resilience. Beasley, Thompson, and Davidson (2003) researched both coping style (emotion oriented) and cognitive hardiness (the belief that one can control their own environment). The authors discovered that cognitive hardiness played an interceding part in overcoming negative situations.
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Additionally, Luthar, Cicchetti, and Becker (2000) found that resilience was not inborn, but rather it was developmental and changing. This suggested that the positive adaptation and development of a person confronted with challenging conditions, could lead to greater resilience. One emerging concept, according to the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology (2013), is the concept of resiliency or grit. For many years it had been commonly believed that an intelligence quotient (IQ) score, a so-called measure of intelligence, was what set successful people apart from the others. It was also believed that IQ was a better predictor of success than any other gauge (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews & Kelly, 2007). Duckworth (2016) upheld after years of studying numerous groups of successful people that one characteristic stood out as a significant indicator of achievement. It wasn’t IQ, it was grit. According to Duckworth there are other factors that explain why people with equal intelligence can accomplish more. Duckworth believed the main contributor to success was “grit” and defined it as the perseverance and passion for achieving long-term goals (Duckworth et al., 2007). Peterson and Seligman (2004) warned that perseverance does not guarantee success, but they added that success is often unattainable without perseverance. Duckworth (2016), similar to aforementioned studies on resilience, maintained that perseverance is one of the factors to personal achievement. She suggested that with determined effort and deliberate practice an individual is able to reach a far-off, perhaps years to reach, goals. It is this quality that can be a key to success (Duckworth, 2016). It should be explained that grit is the idea of “emphasis on long-term stamina rather than short-term intensity. The gritty individual not only finishes
23 23 tasks at hand but pursues a given aim over years” (Duckworth et al., 2007, p. 1089). Long-term goals are difficult for a person affected by ACEs to ascertain. There are, however, personal characteristics that are related to the concept of grit which carry merit into the discussion of resiliency. Duckworth listed qualities that contribute to grit such as self-control or discipline, resiliency, optimism, persistence, and conscientiousness (Duckworth, 2016). Tough (2012) identified skill sets crucial to success. These skill sets included persistence, curiosity, optimism, and self-control. According to Tough, these skills are called non-cognitive skills. Dweck (2010) also added to the research and talked about resilient people having a growth mindset. She described individuals who viewed themselves as being a building block for development and who also believed that they had the ability for success through effort and practice were considered to be resilient through times of challenge. Cassidy (2015) focused on educational resilience to identify those students who were successful and those who were at risk. Cassidy explained that academic resilience could be encouraged by focusing on factors like social skills, problem- solving abilities, independence, self-motivation skills, and the learning environment. Cassidy further explained that resiliency skills such as being adaptive, resourceful, and innovative can greatly improve and individual’s responses to adversity.
Resiliency as a Framework to Understanding Adverse Childhood Experiences In order to frame this phenomenological research, the Masten et al. (1995) study was utilized to help theme participant narratives of resilience and overcoming ACEs. Masten et al. specified that when young people had supportive
24 24 people in their lives, they were more resilient when confronted with adversity. Supportive adults are identified as a protective factor in the research on resilience. Parents and teachers are identified as critical sources for increasing the resilience of children (Matsen et al., 1995). Drawing on the work of Benard (1991) and Masten et al. (1995), Knight (2007) developed a resilience framework for educators. Knight categorized resiliency into three areas—(a) emotional competence, (b) social competence, and (c) futures-oriented—which are shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Manifestations of Resilience, By Categories Emotional Competence Social Competence Futures-Oriented Positive Self-Concept Communication Optimism Internal Locus of Control Relationships Problem Solving Sense of Humor Empathy Spiritual Autonomous Benevolence Sense of Purpose Critical Thinking Flexible and Adaptive Proactive Note: Adapted from “A resilience framework: Perspectives for educators’” by Knight 2007. Health Education, 107(6), p. 550.
Masten and Obradovic (2006) summarized over 40 research studies that followed the expansion of resiliency theories. The authors defined resilience as the positive forms of adaptations within the framework of adversity that could be applied. The authors reported that research on resiliency has been investigated through several lenses which include behavioral risks, environmental risks, and genetic factors. According to Masten and Obradovic, the research began by
25 25 recognizing what aspects in the lives of young people reinforced successful or unsuccessful adaptation to life’s circumstances. Benard (1991) added to the research by finding that resiliency research validated prior research theories in human development. The capacity of resilience was found in a person’s ability for (a) social competence, (b) problem-solving, (c) autonomy, and (d) sense of purpose. Benard explained social competence as an individual’s ability to be responsive, be flexible, have a sense of humor, have communication skills, and be caring. Problem-solving was explained as a person’s ability to plan, seek help, and possess critical thinking skills. Autonomy was described as a person’s sense of identity, self-efficacy, and the ability to distance themselves from negative conditions. Sense of purpose was explained as a person’s ability to have goals, aspirations, optimism, and spiritual connectedness. Forrest-Bank, Nicotera, Anthony, Gonzales, and Jenson (2014) added to the body of qualitative research that supported resilience as a strategy that could reduce failures and harmful outcomes for children in underprivileged communities. Their research indicated that when youth in high risk environments experienced protective and resilience skill training, they had higher rates of success when moving into adulthood. The Forrest-Bank et al. study developed five categories that designated risk and resilience: (a) challenges that youth face, (b) coping strategies, (c) healthy influences, (d) supportive adults, and (e) goals. Henderson and Milstein (2002) identified six protective factors as important in establishing resiliency within individuals: (a) purpose and goals (b) nurture and support, (c) positive adult connections, (d) meaningful social engagement, (e) life skills, and (f) clear rules and boundaries. According to Henderson and Milstein, each of these mechanisms equally support individual resiliency.
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Each type of study in the field of resiliency has contributed to the body of knowledge that explains how individuals can adapt or fail within a system. The aim of this phenomenological study is to guide future development of research in this field and give educators and practitioners more information about how to design effective interventions that can mitigate or reverse negative impacts of risk factors during adolescence. The research on resiliency guided this study.
Summary As the research has pointed out, today’s educators have a great stake in ensuring academic success for all children especially the youth at-risk. The costs of supporting dropouts who go on to become unemployable, incarcerated, violent, unhealthy, or all of these characteristics put together, is staggering. Adolescent students who have ACEs can no longer be considered disposable people. By understanding successful individuals who have overcome adversity, despite enduring ACEs, this researcher hoped to enlighten educators with insight into resilience. This section provided a review of the literature available on school related risk-factors for adolescents, ACEs, resiliency, and resiliency as a framework in order to have a firm foundation for this phenomenological study. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore the elements of resiliency in successful doctoral students who overcame ACEs. Through the streams of research into ACEs, resiliencies, and insights into educational practices to assist at-risk adolescents, or all students for that matter, hope to be gained.
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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Rationale For this research, a qualitative study to explore the phenomena of ACEs and resiliency was conducted. Research has depicted how people with ACEs were more likely to develop health complications, die early, and not graduate high school yet the research, to date, has not conducted a study of people with ACEs who are in doctoral programs. This qualitative study gained insights into the personal narratives and histories involved in how individuals were able to overcome adversity. By gaining personal stories of a person who had ACEs, insights into the everyday life experiences were gained. Through this approach, multiple layers of meaning can be understood since reality is socially and culturally related (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). It is through these insights into the personal stories in which the study explored meaning and relevance of how individuals were able to successfully overcome ACEs and discover the nature of resilience (Creswell, 2013; Moustakas, 1994; Vagle, 2014; Van Manen, 1990). In line with Vygotsky (1978), who suggested that all reasoning originates as the products of social interactions, the study sought to understand resilience through social interaction with a sample of doctoral students identified as having ACEs yet overcame this adversity and entered a doctoral program. Conducting interviews gained the insights into resiliency that can be utilized for future generations. Titelman (1979) explained that the job is to find reasonable approaches through which the researcher’s experience and understanding of the phenomenon being studied. This can serve as a connection for interpreting meaning. Van Manen (1990) said that phenomenology was the best method to use
28 28 for educational studies. He wanted educators to understand that phenomenology could enhance their understanding of relationships with the world. Within the concept of phenomenology, the study focused on hermeneutic phenomenology, which according to Vagle (2014) is the always changing, believable explanations of indicators that one is being in the world. He said that this is the idea that the mind and the body are interwoven together as people interact with each other. This approach was in line with the researcher’s desire to understand the language that students use to interpret their awareness of resiliency and the worlds through which they navigate. According to Moustakas (1994), the evidence derived from phenomenological research comes from first-person reports of life experiences. The purpose of this phenomenological study is to explore the elements of resiliency that helped people with ACEs to persevere through their school years and enter into a doctoral program. It is through this knowledge of the individual lived experiences and perspectives about ACEs and resiliency that a better understanding surfaced.
Procedures The first step of the study was to gain approval of the California State University, Fresno Institutional Review Board. Once obtained, doctoral students in Doctor of Education Degree (Ed.D.) programs were located to utilize for the purpose of this research. Ed.D. programs were chosen because these programs prepare educational practitioners and their students to be persons employed in, and active with, educational settings. Four universities were selected to represent different geographical regions within the state of California. These universities had Ed.D. programs. California State University, Bakersfield was chosen to gain access to potential participants from a region of Southern California. California
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State University, Channel Islands was chosen to gain access to potential participants from a region of Western California. California State University, Fresno was chosen to gain access to potential participants from a region of Central California. California State University, Sacramento was chosen to gain access to potential participants from a region of Northern California. The Program Directors for each of these universities were emailed to assist in locating participants (see Appendix A). Once qualified participants were located throughout these universities, the researcher sent a follow up email to make an appointment to conduct a phone interview (see Appendix B). During the phone interview, the potential participants were asked about their adverse childhood experiences (see Appendix C). During the phone interview, the original Ace Score Instrument was utilized to validate ACEs as the participant shared their experiences (see Appendix D). For the purpose of this qualitative study, seven participants had four or more ACEs and were utilized. Four potential participants were not utilized for the purpose of this study due to the fact that they were identified to have less than four ACEs. For the chosen seven participants, interview appointments were made and the researcher traveled interview locations convenient to the subject. A $50 gift card was given to participants as compensation for their time. Prior to conducting any interview, participants were presented with a consent to participate form to ensure confidentiality and anonymity (see Appendix E). The inquiry process included data collection using individual semi- structured interviews. The interviews were guided by a series of open-ended queries that addressed the research questions. Each participant was asked uniform questions to guide them in the telling of their narrative. These methods provided
30 30 an environment in which the participants openly voiced their beliefs about ACEs, resilience, at-risk, adolescence, education, allowed a forum for the participants to tell their historical narratives (see Appendix F). Each interview lasted an average of 37 minutes. The interviews were audio recorded and transcribed. Each interview produced an average of 18 double- spaced pages of transcription. Seven participants were interviewed and the researcher had 132 double-spaced pages of transcribed interviews to evaluate. NVivo 11 was utilized to assist in the sorting and analysis of the transcribed interviews. NVivo 11 is a comprehensive database system designed to facilitate the process of qualitative data analysis. It allowed the researcher to upload interview transcripts, select parts of the documents, and label them with particular descriptions. Data were retrieved, labeled, and read alongside each other. NVivo 11 helped the researcher organize a large volume of information and ensured a systematic approach.
Research Design The design for this study was qualitative. Through interviews, the researcher found plausible explanations of how doctoral students were able to overcome the adversities of ACEs. Through a phenomenological approach, interpretations of how certain people were able to show resiliency was accomplished. According to Bogdan and Biklen (2007), using qualitative research provided an interpretation useful in understanding the human condition. In this research, the aim was to discover how certain individuals were academically successful despite the odds. One-on-one interviews with identified participants, was conducted. The semi-structured interviews were completed in person. Each interview was audio
31 31 recorded and ran on average 37 minutes in length. Participants were given an informed consent form prior to conducting the interview (see Appendix E). Semi-structured interview protocols were utilized to gather focused qualitative textual data. This method offered a balance between the flexibility of an open-ended interview and the focus of a structured survey. This process allowed follow up questions to be asked of participants allowing them to explain answers in greater detail.
Research Sites In an attempt to gain access to a diverse population of participants from different geographical regions in California, four universities were chosen. The universities chosen, all had Ed.D. programs, represented different regions, and were within a 3- or 4-hour drive time from the researcher. Bakersfield is in Southern California, Channel Islands is in Western California, Fresno is in Central California, and Sacramento is in Northern California. Bakersfield, Channel Islands, and Fresno State all have affiliations to the program in which the researcher participated. These affiliations helped gain access to participants. Sacramento was chosen as a fourth university to represent Northern California because it is relatively closer than the Bay Area and having previously lived in Sacramento, the researcher was familiar with the university. The basic program information for the universities chosen is discussed below. University and contact information is presented in Appendix G. According to the California State University, Bakersfield (n.d.) website, the Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership at the university is a committed group of teachers and students devoted to working together around central issues in educational leadership and improvement. It is an opportunity for an exchange of ideas and successfully proven practices. It is a program designed to discuss
32 32 important policy issues and explore research into the field of education. The program is designed intentionally for working professionals from the field of education. The Ed.D. program at California State University, Bakersfield is a doctoral degree program in which theory and research are applied to practice- based study of educational problems. According to the California State University, Fresno (n.d.) website, the Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership at Fresno State provides educational chances to students who want to become exceptional leaders in the field of education. These individuals will become people who can transform educational practices in schools and universities. The classes prepare leaders not only in theory, but also practice and research. Classes highlight practice through actual work in the field which brings in real life educational scenarios and problems. The program delivers support through a cohort model. The DPELFS program at Fresno State enhances the education doctorial students with a focus on professional practice. According to the California State University, Channel Islands (n.d.) website, the Collaborative Online Doctorate in Educational Leadership (CODEL) program is a partnership of CSU Channel Islands and Fresno State University. The program is devoted to inspiring and assisting educational leaders who are dedicating their lives to social justice and equality through education. The program includes applying learned practices into the field. Students understand that this applied doctorate maintains a balance between preparation and philosophy. Learning is dedicated to real life educational matters and problems that the educational leaders will face in the future. The doctorate in education prepares leaders to meet all of the educational encounters that student will face not only today but also in the future.
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According to the California State University, Sacramento (n.d.) website, the doctoral program at Sacramento University is designed to produce outstanding educational leaders for schools, universities, and within other areas of education. Doctoral graduates of the program will be ready to be educational leaders who can promote fairness and success for students. The program is designed with real-life learning. The program graduates will be ready to navigate the intricacies of educational systems, affect school change, and form educational policies that have a positive impact on the field of education.
Sample and Sampling All doctoral students in the programs of four California State universities (Fresno, Bakersfield, Channel Islands, and Sacramento) were sampled to see if they qualify for participation. Chosen participants had diverse social and cultural backgrounds. Participants, though sharing the experiences of extreme hardships and adversity as children, grew up in several different towns and regions within the state of California. For the purpose of this research, non-probability sampling was utilized in order to locate and represent a valuable group of participants. Purposive sampling was used for reason that choices of participants needed to meet certain criteria. Non-probability sampling, specifically purposive sampling, allowed the researcher to use judgements based on the research and to locate a specific population. In following a qualitative research design, the study was interested in the details of the sample being studied, namely doctoral students who experienced four or more ACEs. For the purpose of this study, four California universities were chosen to represent different regional areas of the state who meet certain criteria specifically that they have experienced childhood trauma. Members of this population, students with ACEs who successfully entered into a doctoral program, were
34 34 difficult to locate and because of this fact, a purposeful sampling method was utilized. Purposeful sampling helped select cases for in-depth study, dependent on the study’s purpose (Patton, 1990). Since the study was looking for a very specific population, seeking candidates purposefully provided a greater likelihood of success. According to Jupp (2006), purposive sampling is a method of non- probability sampling where choices regarding the individuals involved in the study are made by the researcher, based upon a selection of criteria, which may include ability and readiness to participate in the project. The advantage of using purposive sampling was that the researcher could locate doctoral students who had four or more aces and were likely to provide data that would be relevant to the research. There are disadvantages to using purposive sampling and the researcher needed to be fully clear on the criteria utilized and how the sample was selected.
Instruments An email was sent to the doctoral program directors of the four chosen universities for the purpose of forwarding to all doctoral students. The email briefly described the research project and preliminarily asked potential participants if they experienced childhood traumas and would be willing to participate in the study (see Appendix A). Once preliminary participants were identified, a follow up email (see Appendix B) was sent to explain the nature of the study and ACEs and to set up a pre-screening phone interview. During the phone interview, the potential participants were asked to share their childhood experiences (see Appendix C). As the potential participant shared their experiences with the researcher, the researcher completed the Felitti and Anda (2009) original ACEs questionnaire and identified doctoral students with four or more ACEs (see Appendix D).
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After the phone interviews potential participants were identified and personal interview dates and times were established. Prior to the interview, to gain consent and to protect the confidentiality of those subjects participating, an agreement of consent and confidentiality was provided. Included in the consent form is a statement that a pseudonym would be assigned to each participant (see Appendix E). A semi-structured interview guide (see Appendix F) was developed in order to guide participants through their narratives in an effort to access information behind the phenomenon of doctoral students who overcame ACEs. Table 3 depicts the pseudonym assigned to each participant, demographic information on each participant, and the identified number of ACEs that each participant had.
Table 3
Participant Demographic Information Number of Pseudonym Gender Ethnicity Location Raised ACEs Adriana Female Latina Southern CA. 7 Bailey Female Caucasian Central CA. 8 Chandah Female African American Central CA. 7 Delphia Female Latina Central CA. 10 Efrain Male Latino Northern CA. 9 Francisco Male Latino Central CA 10 Gabriela Female Latina Southern CA. 9
Table 4 shows the Adverse Childhood Experiences that each participant was subjected to prior to the age of 18.
36 36 Table 4
Adverse Childhood Experiences Participant Information ACE Description Adriana Bailey Chandah Delphia Efrain Francisco Gabriela Emotional Abuse- Adult in the house insult you, make X X X X X X X you afraid of physical injury Physical Abuse- Adult in the house push, slap, or hit X X X X X X X you to a point of marks or injury Sexual Abuse- Adult or person 5 years older than X X X X you engage you in a sexual manner against your will Emotional Neglect-Did you very often feel that you were X X X X X X X not loved or supported by your family Physical Neglect- Did not have enough to eat, wear dirty clothes, no one to X X X X X X X protect you, or parents to high/drunk to care for you Household Dysfunction- Divorce- Were your parents X X X X X X divorced or separated Household Dysfunction- Domestic Violence- Was X X X X X X your mother/father physically abused Household Dysfunction- Incarceration- Did a X X X X X household member ever go to jail or prison Household Dysfunction- Mental Illness- Household X X X X X member depressed, mentally ill, try suicide Household Dysfunction- Substance Abuse- Household member a X X X X X X problem drinker or use street drugs
Data Collection, Analysis, and Interpretation The participants in the interviews shared their experiences with trust. The researched recognized that the participant’s understanding of experiences was subjective and that each participant determined significance in his or her own way.
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Each of the interviews were audio recorded using an Olympus WS-822 GMT voice recorder with four gigabytes of memory. The recorder could store over 1,000 hours of recordings. The data files were directly uploaded to the computer using a built in USB connector. The data was stored as an MP3 file for transcription purposes. A semi-structured interview format was utilized. According to Bernard (2000), semi-structured interviews are useful to gather important qualitative data. The method offered a balance. The researcher had the flexibility of an open-ended interview but was also provided the focus of a more structured discussion. This technique allowed the researcher to gain descriptive data and depth during the interview without being locked into a rigid interview which does not allow follow up questions. Information collected during a semi-structured interview allowed the flow of information to be natural. The process from conceptual ideas to more specific experiences occurred in normal conversation. A structured guide was utilized (see Appendix E) but a semi-structured interview allowed the researcher to follow topical directions within the conversation. According to Bernard (2000), semi-structured interviews provide dependable qualitative data that is particularly beneficial when the researcher may not get another opportunity to interview the participant. The interviews centered on the main research questions. Participants were asked to speak about their childhood experiences and the adversities they went through, how they overcame these adversities, their school experiences during adolescence, and how they would suggest helping other children who went through trauma. The semi-structured interview allowed the researcher to ask follow up questions in order to gain deeper insights.
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Transcripts were themed and categorized to better understand the essence of resilience for these participants. Understanding that meanings can be created from experiences in a world, the researcher utilized other qualified researchers to also examine the data to ensure trustworthiness. By systematically searching and arranging the interview transcripts, findings into overcoming ACEs surfaced. At the first level of coding, the data was examined and formed the basic units of analysis. By breaking down the data into nodes or the first levels, the researcher began to classify themes based upon the research into ACEs and resiliency. The themes came from the literature review as well as from the participants themselves. The themes came from the phenomena being studied and from the theories surrounding that phenomenon. The researcher and participants added value to the quality of the themes through personal experience with the subject matter (Bulmer, 1979; Glaser & Strauss, 1970; Maxwell, 1996). The computer software, NVivo 11, was utilized to assist in organizing and analyzing the qualitative data. The researcher attended an NVivo 11 training seminar at California State University, Fresno on October 22, 2016. NVivo 11, allowed the researcher to classify, sort and arrange information; examine relationships in the data; and conduct analysis. In a study done by Ozkan (2004) it was found that NVivo was a prevailing way to do refined coding and it reinforced a lot of ways to build theories. NVivo allowed the researcher the opportunity to look at coded sections of the data within the situation so that one could explore coded sections without removing them from the material. Ozkan went on to report that NVivo was supportive to the researcher by organizing different the data types and references used. The researcher looked at the relationships within the data and conducted complex thinking about the information. NVivo has a sophisticated search that allowed Ozkan to explore
39 39 intricate premises easily. According to Ozkan, the NVivo package supplied help in the data analysis procedure and increased the thoroughness. Ozkan, like most qualitative researchers, used the term believability when discussing the data and conclusions. NVivo helped develop the trustworthiness and believability of the data from the initial idea to the coding of data. According to Bogdan and Biklen (2007), qualitative data analysis means working with the transcripts, shaping them into manageable parts, coding the data, putting the data all together, and then looking for patterns. From there important findings will surface and be framed. The key research question and secondary question were at the forefront of the analysis: What are the academic and social experiences of doctoral students who had four or more Adverse Childhood Experiences? How did resiliency help these participants navigate the educational system leading up to entering a doctoral program? Based on the research, themes of resilience were relative to Knight’s (2007) manifestations of resilience categories of social competence, emotional competence, and futures-oriented surfaced.
Role of the Researcher The researcher is a Vice Principal, and the only administrator on site, for Kings Canyon High School. Kings Canyon High School is a continuation school in Kings Canyon Unified School District and serves 120 at-risk students. It is the only school in Kings Canyon Unified School District authorized to provide childcare services for students who are teen mothers. Many of my students have had to deal with childhood trauma such as physical and sexual abuse. A lot of these students have developed unhealthy coping mechanisms such as involvement with drugs, alcohol, and gangs. As a general observation, most of the students
40 40 have difficulty with school, authority, and in dealing with adversity. These at-risk students tend to fall on one side or the other of extreme spectrums when faced with challenges, they either completely shut down or they become physically and verbally combative. This research is very important. The students who are at Kings Canyon High School are living examples of what the research has reported about ACEs and the adverse effects that accompany childhood trauma. The research on ACEs, to date, has not looked at people who successfully overcame the dangers of hostile experiences of childhood distress. Research of doctoral students who overcame trauma in childhood provided insights into resiliency and ACEs. The topic of study can be extremely emotional and participants were burdened with emotional baggage. The researcher handled himself reflectively and ethically to ensure no barriers existed socially, culturally, or lived experiences. According to Bogdan and Biklen (2007) the key was to have an overt approach to let the subjects know research intensions, and build rapport. The fact that the researcher was an administrator of a continuation high school and wanted to help at-risk students, and the fact that the researcher was a doctoral student conducting research to help people who have experienced childhood trauma, helped develop rapport. The researcher was qualified to discuss emotional issues with participants. The researcher was a trained and certified mediator by the city of Reedley, California and possessed certification in advanced interview training from Wicklander- Zulwski. Additionally, participants were given the option to end the interview at any time if they felt that they were too uncomfortable. The facts that the researcher entered into an agreement of confidentiality and provided pseudonyms for participants also improved comfortability. The researcher did not
41 41 write notes in the presence of participants because it could make some people embarrassed.
Rapport and Confidentiality The fact that the researcher was a doctoral student, interviewing other doctoral students in a research project to benefit others who have experienced similar traumas, gave additional credibility. By being completely transparent, not only with participants, but also with the Internal Review Board, added integrity to the research was gained. By entirely disclosing intentions relative to this research with human subjects’ project, ethical safeguards were scrutinized, discussed, analyzed, and ensured. According to Bogdan and Biklen (2007) discretion and acceptance are critical in obtaining true and factual information from participants. They also said that research must be conducted in a systematic and rigorous way to develop trust. While talking to the subjects the researcher must not reveal knowledge into the topic nor should anything discussed in private be shared. The researcher must be regarded as a person with discretion. Bogdan and Biklen explained that after letting the subjects know of the research intentions, they must be encouraged not to be self-conscious for the sake of the study. By building rapport, providing confidentiality and anonymity, and letting the participants know up front the intention of this research was to gain insights into ACEs as to better support others; participants were transparent in their narratives. All participants were given a consent to participate agreement explaining their rights as a participant. As a part of that contract the researcher honored a participant’s request to end the interview at any time. Given the nature of this study it was understood that reliving deep rooted and ACEs would be an emotional undertaking.
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Summary By using sound qualitative methods, understandings into the phenomena of ACEs were gained though the personal narratives and histories of individuals who overcame adversity and entered doctoral programs. Following disciplined procedures and research design led to consistent and transparent data. Through careful consideration of the research sites and sampling procedures, a population of participants who could provide meaningful insights into children who experience trauma was accessed. Using diligent data collection, instruments, analysis, and interpretation techniques, trustworthy and important data were gained. The role of the researcher, along with developing a rapport and ensuring confidentiality, also added to the trustworthiness of the data collected. By giving specific accounts of the research methods, procedures, and the nature of the data collected a convincing contribution to the research surrounding ACEs and resiliency was made. Through careful, ethical, and credible research methods the results and outcomes of the research provided practical applications of the knowledge produced.
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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS/OUTCOMES
The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological study was to better understand how people in California, with four or more ACEs, were able to navigate adversity, graduate college, and ultimately pursue doctoral programs; there are two overarching research questions. Q1. What are the academic and social experiences of doctoral students who had four or more Adverse Childhood Experiences? Q2. How did resiliency help these participants navigate the educational system leading up to entering a doctoral program? This chapter includes a discussion of the results and an evaluation of the research findings. The results and assessment are presented in the method of participant responses to the individual interviews. Participant responses provided insight into the lived experiences of people with four or more ACEs who were able to navigate adversity, graduate college, and ultimately pursue doctoral programs. The California Department of Public Health (2016) found that people with four or more ACEs had less education. According to this study, Californians with four or more ACEs compared to people who had no ACEs, were twice as likely not to finish high school and four times less likely to become a college graduate. As the slopes on the charts of the Felitti et al. (1998) study went up so did the increased health issues. The California Department of Public Health (2016) found that persons with an ACE score above 6 were 30 times more likely to have tried suicide. Men with an ACE score higher than 5 were 46 times more likely to have inserted drugs into their systems via needle.
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Through diligent research methods, seven doctoral students who had grown up with extreme childhood trauma were discovered. It is through the insights of these participant narratives that the stories of their successes were uncovered. For the purpose of analysis, research question 1—What are the academic and social experiences of doctoral students who had four or more Adverse Childhood Experiences?—began with nodes for each of the ACEs experienced. Seven major themes emerged for participants, with severe childhood trauma relative to academic and social experiences. These themes remained consistent through grade school as well as the participants’ college careers. Participant experiences in both the academic and social settings involved the consistent themes of adapting, flight, fight, suppression, fear, guilt, or being extremely active. The themes, though consistent, manifested themselves in slightly different ways in social settings and academic settings. All seven participants made statements that were directly attributed to all seven themes in both the social setting as well as the academic setting. There were, however, variations in the number of references within each theme as they related to either the social setting or the academic setting, these references are shown in Table 5.
Table 5
Common Themes Referenced Amongst Participants by Setting Type Themes Social Setting References Academic Setting References Being resourceful 28 38 Staying active and busy 25 19 Being fearful 16 14 Fight through 27 54 Fleeing or hiding from danger 12 34 Feelings of guilt 26 28 Suppressing thoughts and/or emotions 41 34
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For the purpose of this analysis, the themes of how participants were successful in navigating the two settings were explored in both contexts. The themes are discussed here by context and in order of references.
Navigating Academic Settings K-12 Through Doctorate
Participants Fought Through Academic Settings All seven participants discussed fighting through situations in academic settings. The participants referenced this skill 54 times. All seven participants experienced being physically abused in their childhoods and all seven participants experienced being emotionally abused in their childhoods. Participants throughout their interviews discussed fighting through tough situations in order to gain validation or fighting against the way things were at home and education provided the opportunity to display toughness. One example was when Bailey said, I think navigating through college; it’s more than just getting an education. It’s being able to validate that I’m capable. Honestly, I think it’s just so I don’t hear the gibberish that’s in my head, the narrative that my mother used to say about, ‘You’re a lazy ass,’ or, ‘You’re worthless,’ or, ‘You can’t do anything or blah blah blah.’ (Bailey, Caucasian with eight ACEs). This quote is representative of how participants used education as a way to validate themselves and gain a sense of worth. Chandah also fought her way through school as a means to obtain endorsement from adults that she was not receiving at home. She stated, “I love validation. Validation at home was real ephemeral. At school, it was more consistent. It’s probably a big reason why I did well in school” (Chandah, African American with seven ACEs). The importance of education as a proving ground was very important to students with ACEs. Delphia explained it this way:
46 46 Grade-wise, I did well. I excelled in school, again because it was my escape, it was my, if you will, my sanctuary. It was to me my way of fighting against the life that I had at home, particularly with my dad. I was told very often that I wasn’t going to make anything with my life and I was a mistake and those things like that. (Delphia, Latina with 10 ACEs) School was an escape from the abuses at home and allowed students to excel in something worthwhile. The participants did not always navigate the academic setting in what would be considered socially acceptable ways. Five of the seven participants received school disciplinary measures for being physically aggressive. A representative example of the fact is when Efrain recounted that story: Anyway, I went in there and the teacher and I got into it for second grade, she kept calling my name in English and I didn’t recognize it. She butchered it horribly, so badly I didn’t even realize she was calling my name. She thought I had an attitude because I wasn’t responding to her; she grabs me by the arm and start shaking me. The environment I grew up in was to fight so I start kicking and shoving back. I was in the principal’s office and that was the first day at that school. When I was sent back there, it happened again. I didn’t recognize what she was calling me. I know my name but she wasn’t even calling me or anything remotely close. (Efrain, Latino with nine ACEs) Participant determination to overcome hardships was reflective throughout the interviews; however educators must also be aware that students with ACEs have grown up in households where physical aggression was the norm. All seven participants would not be deterred with obstacles, be they disciplinary measures or academic rigor, their ability to fight their way through was represented by Francisco when he explained, I would always be getting picked on, and that would go through the factory line where you would get suspended, then the next suspended, and now you’re expelled. Since I didn’t have parent advocates, it went really quick for me. But, even when I was homeless, even when I didn’t have things going my way, when I was on Section 8 and I didn’t think I could make it, I still kept on going to school. That’s what I continue to do today because my grandparents instilled that for me since I was younger that as long as I went
47 47 to school that I could get ahead in my life. I always look at school as a way for me to get ahead because it was always ingrained to me since I was young. (Francisco, Latino with 10 ACEs) Schools can provide a way for at-risk students to get ahead in life, but a lot of students with ACEs do not have parent advocates and schools must ensure discipline options are explored. Francisco described school discipline as “a factory line,” as opposed to being an individualized behavior program to help develop socialized norms.
Participants Were Resourceful in Academic Settings A consistent theme emerged from participants relative to navigating their academic settings. All seven participants talked about being resourceful and the ability to adapt to the educational world. Participants referenced this skill 38 times. Participants often mentioned being able to make do with limited resources and try to fit into their academic settings. An example of this was when Efrain explained, When I was a college student, there was a time that, there was six months that I didn’t have a house, didn’t have food, no financial aid of anything. I was living homeless here on campus. There are some offices that were open 24 hours, and that’s where I slept. (Efrain, Latino with nine ACEs) At-risk students discussed having to be resourceful in finding shelter. Francisco discussed how he did not have educational tools and adapted with what he had to the academic setting: I knew how to express myself, but I hadn’t been going to high school for three years, so I didn’t learn English the way that she wanted me to write English. I also didn’t have a computer. I was homeless, so I hand wrote a lot of the things rather than type it. (Francisco, Latino with 10 ACEs) Francisco, like many of the participants, had to be resourceful and adaptive in order to achieve academic goals.
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Gabriela talked about having to be resourceful without a functioning parent in the household: I didn’t know how to wash clothes so sometimes we were washing; we were wearing the same thing a few times to go to school. I didn’t know any better. My father wasn’t in the picture constantly. My mother was the one who was either too drunk or too high to take care of me. Even to take me to the doctor when I was sick. If it got to a point I knew I couldn’t handle it, I would call my grandmother and she would take me to the where she worked. (Gabriela, Latina with nine ACEs) Gabriela’s comments are very representative of participant narratives. Students with ACEs had dysfunctional households and were forced to be very resourceful in order to try and fit in.
Education was a Means to Escape All seven participants utilized the skill of escape to help them navigate academic settings. This was referenced 34 times by participants. For all seven, school was a means to escape from home lives filled with trauma. Chandah immersed herself in school and used it as a way to escape her home. She explained, Once I hit high school, I structured my life in such a way that I wasn’t home really at all. Once I got a car when I turned 16, it was like I was out and when I turned 18 I moved down to USC. I swore when I left that I would never spend another night in her house. (Chandah, African American with seven ACEs) For students with ACEs school provided a means of escaping the abuses at home. Delphia agreed with Chandah and said it this way: I was ecstatic when I started school when I was younger because that meant of course escape from the environment that I was in. I think that really education as a whole from the very beginning was the root to my safety and security and being able to have a happier life you can say. (Delphia, Latina with 10 ACEs) School not only provided an escape but also a place of safety and happiness.
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For Adriana she literally ran away to escape the abuse in order to pursue a different academic setting. She discussed the night she ran away: I remember my dad telling me that at the end of the school year that I was no longer going to be allowed to live there and I would not ever see my brother again, and he told me all the whole typical spiel of what a loser I was, so that night I ran away, because I had goals, and dammit, I was going to make them happen. I don’t know why I was thinking that at that time, but all I could think about was I will never finish high school if I stay living with my father. (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs) Some participants used school as a way to get away from the trauma at home and others, like Adriana, literally ran away from home after realizing that her educational goals were not going to be accomplished living where she was.
Thoughts and Emotions Were Suppressed in School All seven participants talked about their ability to keep emotions from coming to the surface in academic settings. The skill of keeping urges in check and below the surface was reference 34 times by participants. Being able to numb themselves to the abuses of home, participants tried to navigate their educational worlds with a sense of normalcy. Adrian recalled keeping things to herself: This occurred, I can remember, as early as kindergarten. I remember first day of kindergarten I was in trouble because I wouldn’t let my mom brush my hair, so I was in trouble, so I was slapped that morning and I can remember that, but by the time I got to probably second grade… I started to learn how to turn that off, so if my father or my mother would hit me, the physical pain for me, I didn’t feel it as much as I did when I was younger because I learned how to make myself numb. (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs) Students with ACEs are abused severely in their homes and learn to detach themselves from the pain and suffering. Abused children are sent off to school with complex emotions bottled up inside. Chandah, would make excuses and keep secrets from her friends in order to keep things in her academic world to appear as normal. She explained it like this,
50 50 My mom was drunk every night. If anything came up at night, I was on my own which I was really aware of. I couldn’t participate in activities that my friends did because my mom couldn’t drive me places. (Chandah, African American with seven ACEs) Participants discussed hiding things from the people they came in contact with, some to represent some sort of normalcy and others to build up walls of emotional safety. For example, Delphia kept the home abuses suppressed by creating a wall around her. She discussed that the wall led to some frustrations of being labeled incorrectly but the defense was useful to her as she navigated in and out of the academic world: Being that I was abused a lot in all manners, growing up I dressed a certain way, which was to present a defense, so dressing baggy. It’s just the culture. You have to dress to push people away, if you will, to armor yourself. Because of that, people were confused about how could this person do well in school if they don’t play the part, they don’t fit the image. For that reason I got kicked out of honors English twice, quite frankly because my grades were all A’s and for some reason that class wasn’t happening, I guess you could say, for me, which was very frustrating. I wasn’t flamboyant and talkative. I wasn’t like that. I was very reserved and kept to myself. I had a hard exterior. Yeah, I looked like I was pissed off all the time, mainly because I was. I knew that I wasn’t dumb. (Delphia, Latina with 10 ACEs) Students with ACEs build up walls as defense mechanisms, which can complicate people being able to support them. Efrain recalled a similar situation: She says, ‘You’re not college material.’ In other words, ‘Get out of here.’ The expression on her face was like, ‘You’re dirt, you’re nothing, you’re wasting my time, get away, get out of here.’ At that point, I felt absolutely invisible. The instinct that I had was ... or not the instinct but what I felt was like that’s how I felt throughout my childhood. I just put my head down, I walked out. I couldn’t tell her anything. Just like at home, I didn’t scream or fight back or anything. I just walked away…It was extremely painful. I just wasn’t sure how to deal with it. (Efrain, Latino with nine ACEs)
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Students with ACEs have a hard time expressing frustrations or emotions. In the home, such expressions would be met with abuse. It is often difficult for educators who wish to help at-risk students develop enough trust for an at-risk student to let down their guard.
Guilt and Self-Doubt in Academic Settings All seven participants mentioned having feelings of guilt and self-doubt as they worked their way through academic settings. These feelings were referenced 28 times by participants. Most participants used these feelings of insecurity as self-reflections before pushing ahead. Adriana, for example, said, There are times when I say, ‘You’re not smart enough. Look around you. You should not be in that group.’ I very highly admire and look up to our cohort members, and I don’t think there’s been a week that I don’t have that little voice saying, ‘You don’t belong in that group of people. What are you doing there?’ (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs) Participants referred to feelings of self-doubt, which is another layer of adverse conditioning brought on by abusive homes. Bailey, provides another example: Hearing compliments about myself are physically uncomfortable. I can’t cope with them so for somebody to say, ‘You’ve done a good job,’ … That kind of stuff makes me physically uncomfortable to hear. I’ve been conditioned, I think, to be comfortable heading negative rhetoric about me if that makes sense. (Bailey, Caucasian with eight ACEs) This statement by Bailey is representative of the participants’ low levels of self- efficacy. Being conditioned since early childhood to have feelings of guilt and self – doubt were common adversities that participants shared. Tough (2012) explained that traumatic incidents in children could produce feelings of low self-worth and often led to self-destructive behaviors. Participants in this study did not self- destruct. Their ability to fight through these thoughts was discussed earlier.
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Feelings of guilt did surface in the individual participants, but in a way where they felt a need to give back. For example Francisco stated, During that master’s program is when my brother had got shot, and that’s when I realized that I really want to work in schools. I started to do a lot of research, and I started to find out about these things that I’m going through and this trauma, and that’s why I wanted to start to give back. (Francisco, Latino with 10 ACEs) Francisco’s statement was indicative of participant’s ability to funnel guilt towards a passion to help others. Efrain also explained that it took a while for him to realize that pushing the emotions deep inside was harmful: It was a very slow and very hard process. Sometimes, there was probably sometimes there was digressions. I realize…this is a great thing. Back then, I was seven years old and nobody ever knew anything about [childhood trauma]. I pushed that deep, deep, deep. I never shared it with anyone till after I finished my master’s degree. (Efrain, Latino with nine ACEs) Efrain later discussed how sharing and helping others became a passion for him. Participants reflected upon personal guilt, shame, and embarrassment and yet looked to find ways to help others who had also gone through trauma.
Academics Provided Activity All seven participants discussed staying active in their academic settings. Participants were involved in extracurricular work or taking a high number of courses. This was referenced 19 times and manifested itself as a means of staying at school so they would not have to go home, as another way to validate themselves, or as a way to stay active and keep their mind off of the trauma. Chandah made a representative statement when she said, I was in clubs. Anything I could do to stay out of the house, I did. I was always super involved with clubs and activities. Starting in junior high and then very much in high school. I did band first and then theater. (Chandah, African American with seven ACES)
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Chandah, like all participants, was extremely active and busy. Bailey talked about staying active and busy while in college and beyond when she stated, “I took 21 to 24 units a semester and worked two jobs and graduated with honors with my BA and my MA and a couple of teaching credentials and I’ve been a workaholic ever since,” (Bailey, Caucasian with eight ACEs). This is very representative of the continuous need to be active, participating, and staying busy. Higher education provided that opportunity. Delphia summed up a representation when she explained her situation: I was so involved, as far as I would be in sports, I would be in, it was Peach Blossom, it’s a poetry-type thing, I would be in after-school program that would help my mom out with PTA, and all that types of things. I did that my whole life, since I walked into campus as a little girl. (Delphia, Latina with 10 ACEs) Students with ACEs overcame adversity by being constantly on the go. School and school activities provided the escape that the participants needed. Weiss and Wagner (1998) explained that abused children are not able to escape from a destructive home environment, yet these participants found a way through school activities.
Participants Navigated Academic Settings with Fear All seven participants talked about the theme of fear in an academic setting. It was referenced 14 times. Participants talked about fear in the educational setting more as a fear of not achieving success, not being able to reach certain goals, or not being able to obtain a level of validation. Chandah explained these fears very well when she said, I would say that I was just really afraid of failing, or being perceived as a failure, so much so that when I was confronted with obstacles I didn’t even perceive them as issues. I just plowed ahead. Honestly I don’t feel
54 54 particularly resilient, just really motivated to not fail. (Chandah, African American with seven ACEs) Chandah’s statement was representative of fear for participants. Their fear was not debilitating, instead it was motivating. Adriana talked about the fear of finishing her doctorate and stated, Fear, to be quite honest, I am a little bit worried about any kind of down time that I might have after we finish the program, because I don’t think I can sit in those thoughts yet. I will need to find something to stay busy. (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs) Participants not only feared falling short of their goals, but also feared not being able to quickly set new goals in an effort to stay active. Gabriela put it simply when she discussed getting her doctorate, “The fear would be now if no one wants me.” Gabriela had moved from foster home to foster home and worked towards her doctorate as validation and being wanted. Her constant drive for proving and validating helped her be successful in the Ed.D. program. Weiss and Wagner (1998) discussed fear as the way a person’s body reacts physically to trauma. The amygdala responds to signs of danger and the body’s distress system is activated. The body sends large amounts adrenaline to help the child fight or run away. Weiss and Wagner said that children with ACEs often detach or go into a freeze response. For participants in this study fear was used to move forward, to push ahead, and to validate self-worth.
Navigating Social Settings
Participants Suppressed Thoughts and Emotions Socially All seven participants talked about having to suppress thoughts and emotions either to survive in the home or as a way of keeping their home lives
55 55 private while in a public setting. This skill was referenced 41 times by participants and Adriana made a statement that a lot of participants echoed when she talked about having to internalize the pain: I always felt like I could take myself out of the situation so my physical being was enduring whatever it was that they were doing, whether it be hitting, slapping, pulling my hair, pinching, whatever it was, but internally I felt like I was above the situation or outside of the situation. (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs) Participants internalized pain and thoughts to portray a sense of normalcy in social settings. Participants also suppressed their thoughts to avoid abuse. For example, Bailey talked about suppressing her thoughts: I know other people have had similar experiences and what works for them is to be loud and fight back and then their parents or whoever back off. I would have literally probably been killed if I ever spoke back to my mother or looked like I was rolling my eyes at her. I really think that she probably would’ve killed me in one of her drunken rages. (Bailey, Caucasian with eight ACEs) Participants kept thoughts and emotions to themselves which made it difficult for adults to identify the abuses that had occurred and provide support. Gabriela illustrated what participants went through when she said that she could not talk about things in public: I didn’t get any counseling for the things that happened when I was younger and testifying against my uncle [who had sexually abused me] …I never dealt with that. I never talked to anyone about that, so I guess they didn’t catch that I needed some assistance when I was having those thoughts and nightmares. (Gabriela, Latina with nine ACEs) All seven participants talked about suppressing their thoughts, emotions, words, and actions to navigate social settings. This defense mechanism makes it difficult for caring adults to provide the care, supports, and interventions needed to assist a person living in trauma.
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Being Resourceful Helped in Social Settings All seven participants talked about having to be resourceful in social settings. This skill was referenced 28 times. Participants had to find ways to acquire food, obtain clothes, and keep bills paid because the adults in the house were not attending to these things. Bailey made a representative explanation when she said, Then I started getting job … when I was like 15 so money I brought home would start to pay the rent or sometimes we didn’t have electricity. PG&E would be turned off or the water would be turned off but I was really good at having friends and being adopted by their families so I got a taste of what a family really should look like or a healthy family maybe should look like. (Bailey, Caucasian with eight ACEs) Delphia put it this way, I started working when I was 15 to help out my mom. I didn’t get to have a quote unquote ‘childhood’ or teenage life. It was more childhood survival switched to being a second mom, even now, to my family. (Delphia, Latina with 10 ACEs) Gabriela added this explanation, “My mother would spend the welfare money that she would receive monthly on drugs so we would often not have enough for rent or even for food. I made a lot of macaroni and cheese.” These participant statements are representative of how all seven of the participants had to be resourceful to survive in social settings. Participants had parents who were incapable of providing their basic needs, because of addictions or incarcerations, and this left the participants to find ways to survive on their own.
Participants Fought Through Social Settings All seven participants talked about fighting back in a social setting. This was referenced 27 times and for most participants it meant fighting back against
57 57 the abuser or trying to protect someone they loved. Gabriela explained a situation when, The neighbors had called because they heard my mother physically abusing me, so the police officers were called and they saw the injuries on me, I protected my little brother so I made sure that I took the physical injury. (Gabriela, Latina with nine ACEs) Francisco also recalled, One of the very vivid memories that I remember is being about 5 or 6 and my mom getting pushed through a glass table and her elbows being really bloody and stuff. I remember me trying to help my mom and my mom then going to my dad and then helping him out. (Francisco, Latino with 10 ACEs) These two examples by Gabriela and Francisco were common amongst participants who felt they had to be assertive to protect someone that they cared about from an abuser. Participants also discussed times when they actually started fighting back against the abuser. For instance, Adriana discussed the time when she started fighting back: My aunt’s husband was also a predator and I was the target of that, and I think that at that point I understood, of course, much more than I did when I was younger, and I think that’s what caused me to be more pissed off at my dad because he wasn’t protecting me from this. He was actually dropping me off to this… and at that point I was hitting back, so when my dad would hit me I would hit him back. (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs) After enduring years of abuse and trauma, all seven participants talked of fighting back in a social setting either to protect someone they loved from an abuser, or protect themselves from the abuser.
Participants Were Active in Social Settings All seven participants talked about the importance of staying active and busy. Keeping busy was referenced 25 times and for participants, staying busy was a way to keep their mind on other things. Adriana represented this very well when she said, “I still was struggling with how do you have an intimate relationship in
58 58 your marriage and not have flashbacks of stuff that had happened to you, so I made myself very, very busy” (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs). Bailey put it very succinctly, “I’ve never ever, ever, ever had less than two full-time jobs and a part-time job, ever, since I was 18” (Bailey, Caucasian with eight ACEs). Francisco also stayed extremely active, keeping several jobs and he explained why: I’m always keeping myself busy so I don’t have to think about a lot of these things. It’s almost like a coping mechanism but, at the same time, it’s not because, whenever the record stops, you don’t hear that music playing anymore and you go back to thinking these things. (Francisco, Latino with 10 ACEs) In educational settings, participants were extremely active and did anything they could to stay away from the abusive household. In social settings, even later in life, participants still expressed a need to stay extremely busy in order to keep their minds and thoughts away from their abused childhoods.
Guilt and Self-Doubt in Social Settings Seven out of seven participants talked about having to work through guilt and self-doubt in social settings. Participants referenced this 26 times. Participants discussed these feelings associated with the trauma they went through. A very representative example was when Adriana said, “I went through all of that… and I think that’s where it was very difficult to deal with the sexual abuse stuff. A lot comes with that, a lot of feelings …guilt, embarrassment, shame” (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs). For these participants the feelings of shame affected their interactions at work and in other social settings.
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For example Gabriela explained that even at work today the shame and worry of her childhood situation of moving from one foster home to another has an effect: Now at work, I try to please so much and not piss anyone off because I don’t want to be moved without notice. I don’t want to give anyone any reason to take me out where I’m comfortable with. It still happens but every time I hear my name and so and so wants to see you, my heart just stops and my stomach clenches. (Gabriela, Latina with nine ACEs) The guilt, shame, and embarrassment of participants who went through trauma affected the way they navigated social settings. All seven participants would rather keep those emotions to themselves and not made public. Efrain made a representative statement to this effect when he recalled people trying to come to his defense and the emotions that went with that situation: I really felt horrible about it, here these guys are advocating for me and I’m like, ‘No. Don’t do it. Shhh! Don’t say anything’ ... They weren’t broken. I think I was. (Efrain, Latino, with nine ACEs) Shame made navigating social settings difficult for all seven participants, which they often referenced back to the need to suppress and keep hidden from others.
Navigating Social Settings with Fear Seven participants talked about fear in social settings and it was referenced 16 times. Participants talked about fears in a sense that they were afraid they would be like their parents or fears from their past coming to the surface. For example, Adriana explained it like this, “I knew that I didn’t want to have children because I was afraid that I’d be like my parents” (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs). Efrain said, “Well, you know, the resiliency and the fear of going back emotionally, I think those are, there are scars there. They will not ever go away,” (Efrain, Latino with nine ACEs). Gabriela put it simply, “The fear would be if
60 60 now no one wants me” (Gabriela, Latina with nine ACEs). All of these statements are representative of how all seven participants still have to deal with fears from their childhoods even to this day. Navigating social settings with childhood fears that will never go away can be taxing on people who endured childhood trauma.
Escaping, Running, or Hiding from Social Conditions Seven participants talked about having to flee or hide through social settings. It was referenced twelve times and participants discussed physically having to hide. For example, Bailey recounted, I think learning how to survive, to be honest. My mom…would beat us. I mean she would scream things or whatever, say horrible things but she would physically beat us to a pulp and then we would all sort of hide together in the bedroom, my dad included. (Bailey, Caucasian with eight ACEs) Bailey’s example was representative of how participants had to physically hide from an abuser. Participants also talked about not being able to go places or were forced by the abuser to hide inside of the house. Delphia represented this when she stated, “Us girls were not allowed to go outside; we had to stay inside, very sheltered, very enclosed” (Delphia, Latina with 10 ACEs). Participants found themselves either hiding from an abuser or forced by the abuser to hide from others. Participants also looked to physically escape their abusive homes. A representative example was when Efrain fled to better surroundings, “Those families, they’ll provide a meal, dinner for me. If I couldn’t get home, they would provide a bed and clothes even for me” (Efrain, Latino with nine ACEs). Others like Francisco fled to situations less nurturing: I was really heavily into gangs. I went to juvenile hall when I was about 14 years old for a few months. I saw a lot of people get murdered and shot. I
61 61 sometimes would have to sleep in the park because I didn’t have nowhere to sleep and then, when I did have somewhere to sleep, some days I would have to sleep over people’s houses that maybe weren’t the best influences, and then I would probably partake in behaviors that weren’t the best because that’s what you were doing so it like that’s what I had to do because we were hanging out. I learned how to be good at a lot of bad things. (Francisco, Latino with 10 ACEs) All seven of the participants found ways to escape and were able to navigate their social settings by hiding in closets or bathrooms, or fleeing their homes to find other places of shelter, some nurturing and some not. Another common theme was that the abusers often hid their abused children from the outside world. They kept them inside, or did not allow them to attend social events. Participants were often trapped inside their own homes.
Resiliency Helped Participants Navigate the Educational System For the purpose of analysis, research question number two and the elements of resiliency was divided into fourteen parts based on the manifestations of resiliency which was adapted from Knight (2007). For participants in this study, resiliency primarily manifested in relationships, having a sense of purpose, being autonomous, and having an internal locus of control. The purpose of this study was not to validate a resiliency framework; rather it was to identify nuances for these participants who were successful students in doctoral programs that had four or more ACEs. The results, though themed on an existing framework, are presented based on relevance to the participants of this study. Discussion will focus on resiliency components where four or more participants referenced the theme and are presented in the relevance in which the participants’ resiliency helped them to navigate their lives towards
62 62 academic success. Manifestations of resilience were referenced amongst the participants of this study as depicted in Table 6.
Table 6
Manifestations of Resilience Referenced Amongst Participants Emotional Competence Sources References Autonomous- having a well-developed sense of identity 6 18 Internal Locus of Control-having power over your life 6 10 Positive Self-concept- have positive beliefs about oneself 2 2 Sense of Humor- ability to perceive humor 1 2 Futures-Oriented Sense of Purpose- having something meaningful in life 6 24 Spiritual- having beliefs related to the soul 5 18 Flexible and Adaptive- ability to modify responses 4 7 Problem Solving- demonstrate metacognition 4 6 Critical Thinking-having clear and rational thinking 2 5 Optimism- see the future as a protective factor 1 2 Social Competence Relationships- connectedness and belonging with others 7 58 Benevolence- ability to show kindness 5 7 Empathy - ability to care for others 4 11 Communication- ability to exchange thoughts and feelings 3 7
Social Competence The categories under Social Competence are Benevolence, Communication, Empathy, and Relationships. Social competence was referenced 83 times by participants. Relationships were discussed by all seven participants. Benevolence was mentioned by five of the seven participants. Empathy was discussed by four of the seven participants Communication was only mentioned by three participants. These manifestations of resiliency are presented in order of reference.
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Relationships were critical to the success of participants. All seven participants had been physically abused and emotionally abused by their parents. Seeking relationships outside of the home provided participants the support to navigate out of childhood trauma. Adriana recalled when she shared with her future husband the fact that she had been sexually abused as a child: I knew I was going to sleep with him, because I hadn’t slept with him, and then he would know. At least in my mind he would know, so I figured I had to tell him and part of me hoped that he would walk away, but he didn’t…He looks at me like, he still does, like if I am flawless. That sounds weird to say it, but that’s the way he looks at me, so I did tell him, and he didn’t walk away. (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs) This statement is very representative of how participants found the support they needed through the relationship of a spouse of significant other. Another common theme was that participants developed relationships with friends and the families of those friends. Bailey explained that she was able to navigate through school by having several friends with healthy families to “adopt” her. She said, I got a taste of what a family really should look like…I thought I was crazy because my mom would say something in her drunken stupor. Maybe she’d give me permission to go with friends after school the next day and so I’d go with friends and then I’d come home and I’d get the you know what beat out of me because, ‘she never gave me permission.’ I really thought that I was kind of coo-coo. (Bailey, Caucasian with eight ACEs) Many other participants referenced finding support and love from relationships developed outside of their own household. Efrain had also found love in the form of a friend’s family who took him in, “I felt more loved and more encouraged by them than my own family,” (Efrain, Latino with nine ACEs). The theme of relationships surfaced time and time again with participants. They attributed their success and resiliency to the relationships that they formed.
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Another critical relationship formed by six of the participants was with a professional therapist. Participants sought out professional help and this relationship assisted participants in overcoming adversity. Bailey explained, I’ve gone to a therapist a couple of times… I sort of get obsessed. I have an obsessive personality so when I feel like my obsessive personality is getting out of control; I mean really, really out of control, I went to therapy. I’ve been to therapy a couple times for issues like that. Like when I perseverate on something. (Bailey, Caucasian with eight ACEs) Participants who went through therapy found that relationship very helpful. Another representative example of this was Adriana who explained how therapy helped her, “I went to therapy, and that was probably the most difficult thing for me, but it was very good for me, too, because at that time I started pushing my husband away,” (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs). The relationship with a professional therapist was beneficial to participants; however people who have ACEs are difficult to reach. As mentioned before, they have suppressed many emotions deep inside and they are very adaptive, resourceful, and “street- smart.” For example, Francisco had also gone through therapy but explained why it is difficult for therapists when dealing with an individual, who has been on the streets: I have been to therapy. I’ve sought counselors but, unfortunately, I’m very street-smart… it’s very hard for me to be counseled because I see what you’re trying to tell me. I feel your approach. I almost need somebody who is very clever in the way that they work with me. (Francisco, Latino with 10 ACEs) Six of the participants in this study discussed the benefits of developing a relationship with a professional therapist, yet they also pointed out that people who have lived and survived through trauma are not always the easiest people to provide therapy for.
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Benevolence was discussed by five of the seven participants. For participants showing kindness was therapeutic in a sense because they felt they could give back to others going through trauma or to prevent someone from going through the same experiences they had as a child. Francisco talked about realizing, after his best friend was murdered, that he wanted to help others: I wanted to be a good person at this time, and I wanted to change, and I wanted to change the community for my son and for everybody. I knew that if I continued to live the same lifestyle that I was living, that I wouldn’t be able to make the dreams that I wanted for my son. (Francisco, Latino with 10 ACEs) Adriana also wanted to help others and offered, I think kids who go through traumatic experiences, they’re always fighting to be loved, but they don’t, I didn’t, always understand the whole, ‘I’m worthy of unconditional love,’ so they don’t always get to experience that in childhood, so as an adult you don’t always know what that is and you have to seek it out and learn about it. (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs) Gabriela, discussed what it meant when others showed benevolence towards her and in turn she wanted to keep her children and others from the life she had lived: When people took the time to care, I knew I was not nothing. They made me feel some specialness. Each time I was encouraged. I am not nothing. I can do something. Be better than my parents and definitely work to not be in a position where my kids would be in foster care. (Gabriela, Latina with nine ACEs) Francisco, Adriana, and Gabriela made representative statements of the five participants who found themselves wanting to give back and help others. Empathy was discussed by four of the participants. Participants felt empathy towards others who had gone through similar experiences. Delphia spent years to make amends to persons she may have hurt: If I ever hurt somebody in some way, form, or capacity, I’ve done that as well. I feel like I’ve really mended and healed those stages in my life. I feel like I had to do that in order to become more cohesive with myself. The fact
66 66 that I cry or get emotional, it isn’t so much anger or hate or nothing like that, it’s just more of joy that I pulled through it. (Delphia, Latina with 10 ACEs) Delphia’s need to help others to “pull through” was representative of how participants felt a need to give back. Francisco, talked about his feelings for others going through trauma and the need for a paradigm shift in the way others need to empathize for those in need: I think that, for people that are in trauma, it’s hard for you to see how resilient you are because people continue to oppress you. Until you can get out of that cell or you can remove that blindfold over your eyes, it’s hard for you to see how resilient you are or for you to believe how resilient you are. I think that our world does a really good job of judging people, and it makes it hard for people to be resilient because when you judge people, it’s hard to be resilient, especially when you already have people telling you that you’re not good enough. I think that, in order for these things to work, we need to have a paradigm shift a shift of caring within our community. We need to have a philosophy shift. We need to really watch what we tell our kids. (Francisco, Latino with 10 ACEs) Participants speaking about caring for others or actually going out and living it, was common. For example, Gabriela expressed her feelings for others by moving to a location where she felt she could better serve children going through trauma: This school district [where I moved to] has a very high percentage of low socioeconomic status. I think it’s 94%. We have a high EL, 44% English learners; some kids are in foster care. Kids come in when I have parent conferences. Grandparents are there instead of the parents because the parents are in the prison that’s down the street so I was definitely a lot more happy because I felt more needed. I felt like I was serving the kids I care for, like I was serving myself growing up. (Gabriela, Latina with 10 ACEs) Participants often discussed feeling uncomfortable when others gave them praise or showed them emotions, yet a common theme for participants was their desire to show others how much they care either through actions or words.
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Futures-Oriented The categories under Futures-Oriented are Critical Thinking, Flexible and Adaptable, Optimism, Problem Solving, Sense of Purpose, and Spiritual. Being futures-oriented was referenced 62 times by participants. Having a sense of purpose was mentioned by six of the seven candidates. Being spiritual was mentioned by five of the seven candidates. Being flexible and adaptive as well as possessing problem solving skills were discussed by four of the seven participants. Being a critical thinker was only mentioned by two participants. Possessing optimism was only mentioned by one participant. Having a sense of purpose for participants meant pursuing a doctoral degree or a level of higher education in order to give back to others going through trauma. Delphia represented this when she said, It always pleased me to help others in some capacity. I’ve done it in the mental health world so far. I’ve done that in going out to families and giving them food, giving them clothing. I love that. I love that part of my existence because I didn’t have that much when I was growing up. If somebody would’ve done it to us, I think it would’ve made all the difference in the world, so that’s what I want to do. My doctorate, I want to give back. (Delphia, Latina with 10 ACEs) Participants were future-oriented but more for the sake of others. Participants often expressed they felt uncomfortable when speaking of personal successes, yet readily expressed future plans to care for others in trauma. Efrain added to what Delphia was saying and explained that he entered the profession of teaching to help less fortunate children: I get a chance to work with hundreds of children every day in the public school. Somehow, I suppose because of my experience, I’m able to see things within children …. If they’re fostered, they will be able to blossom greatly. Some are orphaned, some are fostered, some are just busted up families, similar upbringing that I had. (Efrain, Latino with nine ACEs)
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Francisco, like the other participants, shared that he wanted to help people living in trauma to become resilient. He discovered this when he was in the master’s program and his brother was shot. Francisco decided to use his research to help others in similar situations: I started to do a lot of research, and I started to find out about these things that I’m going through and this trauma, and that’s why I wanted to start to give back. This was one of the reasons why I pursued my doctoral program because I really want to teach other people who are going through this type of adversity that you can be resilient. (Francisco, Latino with 10 ACEs) The participants in this study were futures-oriented, but tied their futures to the success of others. Participants also set goals with a sense of purpose, specifically the purpose of proving others wrong. They felt that the higher the level of education the more validation they received. Validation was a very common theme and was attached to participant goals. A representative example was when Adriana explained how setting and achieving goals was a way to prove her abusive father wrong, I kept setting these goals…I set a goal to finish college and then I just kept going and kept going, so as I went on through school my dad has always told me it’s such a waste of time, I’ve always been stupid. I’m just trying to prove that I’m not stupid. I don’t know if that plays a role in my drive to finish school. (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs) Delphia also pushed forward to validate herself, My father was afraid of me being educated, because if you’re educated that means you become stronger in a place that he doesn’t have strength. Obviously when I was younger he had strength over me because of course he’s bigger and he’s a man and all that stuff. If intellectually I was smarter than that, if I became stronger and smarter in that way, that was my defense, if you will. It was no longer this being passive and those types of things. That’s what pushed me through. (Dephia, Latina with 10 ACEs) Chandah, simply stated, “I think a lot of the things that I accomplished along the way were just external ways to get the validation that I didn’t have
69 69 internally” (Chandah, African American with seven ACEs). Goal setting was very important to participants as referenced by these three participants. For these participants, goal setting manifested itself with a unique twist. People often associate setting goals as a means to lose weight, have a healthier life style, obtain higher status and pay; however participants in this study focused their goals and work towards validation. They often sought out ways to achieve certain goals as a means to prove others wrong or to seek internal validation. Participants had undergone years of being told they were unworthy and set out to prove to themselves, the world, and their abusers that, “I’m not stupid.” Belief in a higher power was important to participants as they navigated through trauma by providing hope. Adriana represented it this way, “The birth of Christ and the reason why he was born and that he was born to save, really, a wretch like me,” (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs). The ability to find strength through a higher power was a common theme. Delphia also discussed the comfort in being able to talk to God daily: I have a really strong connection with my faith. I believe in God. It’s weird, I don’t identify with a specific religion because I just have a bias about that, but I have a really strong relationship with Him in that I talk to Him daily, I thank Him daily. (Dephia, Latina with 10 ACEs) Efrain, had a vision that he was to use his talents to help others: God called me and spoke to me. I saw a picture of helping people. It was a huge auditorium, it was an outdoor auditorium. I heard God say, ‘Go and help.’ …I’m an instrument that God is using to encourage and empower other people. The resiliency comes from this, knowing that God will provide. (Efrain, Latino with nine ACEs) Participants found power and hope in their beliefs in and relationships with a higher being. Participants were often not allowed to go to church or be seen socially because their abusers kept them in recluse, yet they were somehow able to develop relationships with a higher being.
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Participants described having to be flexible and adaptable in situations. Participants learned to avoid abuses by adjusting to the abuser. Chandah gave a representative explanation when she described her situation: I was very much a pleaser, so I would just try to fix whatever the situation was. Just anything could set her off. If it was something that I felt like I could fix, I would try to fix it …the presents [got] wet on the bottom. My mom realized this and flipped out, and started screaming, ‘Christmas is ruined!’ …I stayed up and re-wrapped everything. That’s just an example of how I managed to adapt. (Chandah, African American with seven ACEs) Bailey, also expressed a similar description of adapting to avoid abuses, I would have literally probably been killed if I ever spoke back to my mother or looked like I was rolling my eyes at her. I really think that she probably would’ve killed me in one of her drunken rages. I think people learn adapting skills and survival skills depending on their situation for the most part. (Bailey, Caucasian with eight ACEs) For Francisco, he represented adapting in a different way. He used what he learned on the streets and adapted it to college life: Beyond this, when I went to community college, initially I had only went because it was a financial aid check. It was $1,000. I had never had $1,000 ever in my whole entire life, so that was an initiative. As I started going, people started telling me if you get good grades, you can get more money. That quickly became my hustle. I came from the streets, and I used to do a lot of illegal things to make money, so this was the way for me to adapt and make money in a good way. (Francisco, Latino with 10 ACEs) Participants adapted in many situations. They used their skills to avoid abuse, put food on the table, and acclimated what they learned on the streets to adjust to other settings. Participants encountered many unique problems as they navigated towards a doctoral program. They learned how to problem-solve in a variety of fashions. Bailey talked about how her mother would get into drunken rages and beat her or her father, “We solved that problem and learned how not to tick her off or how to tippy-toe around or when she did hit the fan, we would sort of huddle together”
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(Bailey, Caucasian with eight ACEs). For most educators, problem-solving refers to a student’s ability to figure out a problem on paper; however for participants with ACEs, problem solving was often a daily, real-world experience. Francisco, was homeless, and wanting to graduate, he had to solve that real- world issue: Because I was homeless…I was able to become emancipated, and that’s how I solved that and was able to graduate from high school. I wasn’t able to go to grad night or any of those things, but I was able to walk. Because I was able to walk, I ended up going to community college. (Francisco, Latino with 10 ACEs) Francisco’s example was one of the many stories that participants shared about how they had to adapt and overcome adversity by figuring out solutions to situations. Most participants recalled situations and problems that they resolved independently, but the importance of relationships was important also to participants. Participants were reluctant to admit getting help from others when it came to solving problems, yet Gabriela recalled a situation where she finally opened up to help in solving her issues. She was resistant to help and decided a changed outlook could assist her in solving problems, “I didn’t solve that problem until I let people help me and I listened to what they were saying. My two months in a mental facility could have been shortened” (Gabriela, Latina with nine ACEs). Participants utilized many skills to resolve problems. As described throughout the participant narratives, they often had to be adaptive and resourceful problem solvers. The problems they faced in life often involved survival.
Emotional Competence The categories under Emotional Competence are Autonomous, Internal Locus of Control, Positive Self-Concept, and Sense of Humor. Having emotional
72 72 competence was referenced 31 times by participants. Being autonomous was discussed by six of the seven participants and having a strong internal locus of control was mentioned by six of the seven participants. Positive self-concept was only mentioned by two participants and having a sense of humor was only mentioned by one participant. Being autonomous for participants meant having to make up for missing or ineffective parents. Chandah as an example explained the inabilities of her mother: She kind of went off the deep end and lost her ability to manage the day-to- day parts of being an adult. I think I had to step up and take responsibility for making sure that things were managed in the house. (Chandah, African American with seven ACEs) Chandah’s situation was very common for participants. Often without a parent being mentally or physically equipped to care for their children, the participants often took matters into their own hands. Another representative example is when Bailey discussed that she had to make up for her mother’s absence, “If I needed clothes, I would either borrow clothes [or] I just stole clothes for my sisters and myself because we literally didn’t have clothes. We didn’t have shoes” (Bailey, Caucasian with eight ACEs). Participants not only had to take care of their own needs but also the needs of other family members. Delphia echoed Chandah and Baily when she explained that without an effective father she had to support her family, “I started working when I was 15 to help out my mom. I didn’t get to have a quote unquote ‘childhood’ or teenage life. It was more childhood survival switched to being a second mom” (Delphia, Latina with 10 ACEs). Participants from abusive homes were forced to take on extensive parental roles in order to fulfill basic needs.
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For participants having control in their lives was very important. Participants mentioned control in many forms. For some it meant having a control over pain, as represented by Adriana who explained, I suppose I have a high tolerance for pain (both physical and emotional). Even though people have hurt me in the past, I find myself keeping a spirit of forgiveness. I see pain as a temporary state of being…I felt like I was destined to live a different life a better life than the one I was enduring. (Adriana, Latina with seven ACEs) The need to survive the pain and suffering in order to push forward was a strong motivator. Participants also looked for other ways to access control, such as reading, to gain insights into what a family should be. Francisco as an example said, Since I don’t have a mom or a dad, I look at male role models, and I look at people that I inspire to be like. I try to read books like them so I can see how they think like so I can partake in some of these philosophies and maybe try to be that type of man, rather than being the man that I was brought up to be. (Francisco, Latino with 10 ACEs) Most participants sought to gain control as a way of removing it from their abuser. They controlled their capacity for pain, they looked outside of their own family units for normalcy, and they assertively grabbed control away from their abuser. Delphia, represented this need to grab control when she said, I would say my way of pulling out of that… is I wanted control. I did not want to prove my father, at the time anyways, right, and prove those in my family, cousins, and I even had aunts and uncles at the time that would tell me this, that I wasn’t much and blah blah blah blah. To me, it would piss me off, the thought about me giving them that power, so that’s what made me pull through it. (Delphia, Latina with 10 ACEs) The tenacity and ability for participants to be persistent was referenced over and over again in their narratives. The need to gain control in their lives was another example of that resolve.
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Summary Seven major themes emerged for participants, with severe childhood trauma, relative to research question one: What are the academic and social experiences of doctoral students who had four or more Adverse Childhood Experiences? These themes remained consistent through grade school as well as the participant’s college careers. Participant experiences in both the academic and social settings involved being resourceful, staying active, being fearful, fighting back, fleeing or hiding from danger, feelings of guilt, and suppressing emotions. The themes were evident in both academic and social settings. The participants’ referenced the need to fight back or through a situation mentally or physically, as well as, fleeing or hiding from danger much more often in an academic setting. In social settings, participants were more likely to suppress their thoughts and try to stay active. Nine major themes emerged for participants with severe childhood trauma relative to research question two: How did resiliency help these participants navigate the educational system leading up to entering a doctoral program? The elements of resiliency were divided into fourteen parts based on the manifestations of resiliency which was adapted from Knight (2007). The major themes that surfaced under the category of Emotional Competence are Autonomous and Internal Locus of Control. The major themes that surfaced under the category of Futures-Oriented are Flexible and Adaptable, Problem Solving, Sense of Purpose, and Spiritual. The major themes that surface under the category of Social Competence are Benevolence, Empathy, and Relationships. The manifestations of resiliency, adapted from Knight (2007).which did not surface as major themes were Positive Self-Concept, Sense of Humor, Critical
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Thinking, Optimism, and Communication. The manifestations of resiliency were discussed based on the nuances which surfaced from doctoral students with four or more ACEs. The results will be discussed, along with implications and recommendations, in chapter 5.
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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION/SUMMARY/CONCLUSION
The problem examined in this study was, how doctoral students were able to successfully navigate early childhood trauma. The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to better understand the phenomenon of ACEs and resiliency. For the purposes of this research, a phenomenological approach was used. Use of a phenomenological approach provided an opportunity to further understand ACEs. This approach allowed the researcher to obtain an understanding of the lived experiences of doctoral students who had four or more ACEs and the challenges they identified, faced, and understanding of their personal journey to success. Phenomenology provided an effective research approach to uncovering the ways in which this group of participants was able to successfully navigate ACEs. This chapter includes a discussion of the findings, recommendations for research and practice, and a summary of the study. The discussion of the findings and the implications of the study come from the information collected during participant interviews. The recommendations are based on the research findings and give suggestions for future research along with applications.
Discussion of the Findings The research had clearly shown that as the numbers of ACEs increase the level of success decreases (Anda et al. 2004; Felitti et al., 1998). All participants in this study had seven or more ACEs. Each of the participants had been physically abused, emotionally abused, physically neglected, and emotionally neglected. Participants had undergone severe childhood trauma (see Table 4, p. 36) and yet were able to navigate social and academic settings to enter into doctoral programs. Through participant narratives their stories of achievement were able to add
77 77 insights into overcoming adversity. Their unique perspectives on personal resilience add nuances to existing resiliency research. The goal of this research was to assist educators in helping at-risk students become successful. Students with ACEs, like the participants in this study, have had to overcome extreme amounts of trauma in their lives. Educators can gain insights, through these participant narratives, how best to support students in trauma. Even though, the students themselves may be so immersed in chaos and survival they might resist help. Chandah explained that most people who are living with trauma feel surrounded and helpless at times. She told the story of two goldfish in their bowl: They’re swimming along, chit-chatting about whatever. This other older goldfish swims by and goes, ‘The water’s nice today.’ The two other younger goldfish look at each other and go, ‘What’s water?’ When you’re just in it, you’re in it and you don’t even know the thing that is surrounding you. I was in this stew of self-hatred and chaos and negativity, but when you grow up in it, you have to pull yourself out. Educators must realize that a lot of the times students living in trauma feel that they are alone and responsible for pulling themselves out of their situation alone. Yet, developing supportive relationships with students with ACEs is important. Relationships were a very important protective factor to participants. Educators played a role in the success of the doctoral students in this study. The teachers who were effective in having a positive impact in the lives of participants saw beneath and beyond the hard exteriors and defensive walls. For Francisco it was a teacher who let him handwrite assignments when she discovered he was homeless. For Delphia it was Miss P. who saw beyond the rough dress, which Delphia admittedly wore on purpose to put up walls, and invited Delphia to join her on a trip to Stanford. For Adriana it was Mr. W. who told her that he could see through her barriers and thought she had so much to give as a teacher. Efrain was
78 78 wrongfully placed into a special education class by one teacher because he did not speak English, yet the special education teacher quickly built his self-efficacy back up when she gave him a position of prestige. Chandah was not as much of a challenge for teachers because she undoubtedly was a “pleaser,” however she identified several educators who allowed her into their worlds so that she could escape hers. Gabriela was bounced around from one foster home to another, yet she recalled a teacher who kept track of her and would bring her back to the school for assemblies and events. She said, “I still felt part of the school. When people took the time to do that, I knew I was not nothing.” The district eventually allowed Gabriela to stay in one school despite her living in revolving foster homes. All seven participants had been physically abused. Fear was very real. Adriana told the story of her first day of kindergarten and when she did not want her mother to brush her hair, her mother beat Adriana with the brush across the face and sent her off to school. Fear manifested itself differently in the academic world for the participants of this study. They were afraid to fail. All seven had been verbally abused, told they were worthless time and time again in their homes and when they entered the classrooms they feared being made to feel worthless there too. School for them was a constant battle to gain validation and prove that they were not, according to Adriana, “stupid.” Educators can play a big role in helping students in trauma to feel worthy. School was also a place of safety for participants. Delphia summed it up when she said, “School…was my escape…my sanctuary. It was to me my way of fighting against the life that I had at home.” Participants joined as many clubs, sports, and co-curricular activities as they could in order to stay at school and away from their households. School was their escape from the trauma awaiting them at home. Participants reported being very active in schools and needed to
79 79 stay busy. This transferred to their social settings as well. Participants structured their lives so that they would not have to go home. Participants reported that they still have a need to stay active. Francisco said that he feared not being active because when the music stops he feared reverting to his “youth of Hell.” Bailey was already thinking about not being as active when she finished her doctorate and replied, “I have fears about that. I guess I will go for my PhD next.” Leaders in Ed.D. Programs can help guide students with ACEs to set goals for the future and inspire them to think of the doctoral program as platform for being extremely active in the future. Participants reported not being easy students or people to read or understand. Their mental toughness and ability to fight through situations helped them to be resilient but on the other hand they also wanted to fight back or put on their “armor,” as Delphia called it, in situations of duress. Participants referenced several other coping mechanisms which made it difficult for people to help. They suppressed their thoughts, their emotions, their feelings of guilt, and they tended to try and hide or disappear either physically or into themselves when pressured. Delphia explained it this way, “You’re constantly at an alert fight-or-flight type place in your life…no one’s there to support you and care for you…when you’re in chaos that’s what it feels like.” Educators must be patient in developing relationships built on trust in order for students with ACEs to let their guards down. Participants discussed having a sense of purpose in helping others through trauma and having a higher sense of purpose in their spiritual beliefs. Participants talked about earning a doctorate degree not only in terms of validation, but also in the sense that the degree would allow them more of a voice for those less fortunate. Delphia explained that she loved helping families and children in need
80 80 because, “If somebody would’ve done it to us, I think it would’ve made all the difference in the world.” Five of the participants reported themselves as being spiritual and believing in a higher power. Efrain was exposed to God through classmates’ parents, or as he called them “his adopted families.” Adriana ran away from her abusive home, where her father would not allow the family to go to church because he forbid Adriana’s mother from wearing dresses, and was taken in by her grandparents. She was exposed to church through her grandfather who was a preacher. Delphia’s abusive father would not allow the family to go to church, he would not allow them out of the house at all for that matter, yet her mother would find a way to sneak Delphia to church. When asked about it, Delphia simply said, “My resiliency came from my faith in God. That though His will I can endure all.” Encouraging students with ACEs to identify and seek out a purpose is extremely valuable. Participants were autonomous, flexible, adaptive, resourceful, and had a good internal locus of control. They learned to navigate in and out of different worlds. Say a wrong word at home and they would have to “Peel their face off of the wall,” as Bailey put it. Francisco learned to get financial aid from colleges by taking more classes; he likened it to his “hustles” on the streets. Participants had to find creative ways to obtain food, clothing, and shelter. Participants got jobs at very young ages, stole clothing, or found “adoptive families” just to survive. Participants referenced many skills that seemed contradictory in nature, yet in their worlds it made sense. Their mental toughness pushed them forward and through tough situations and yet they were empathetic and benevolent. They tended to hide things, suppress their feelings, thoughts, and lived with guilt, yet they lived very active and busy lives both socially and academically. Participants did not reference optimism, rational thinking, communication skills, a positive
81 81 self-concept, nor having a sense of humor, however they were excellent problem solvers who were able to develop important relationships with others. Participants navigated in and out of social and academic settings in different and complex ways. As Bailey described, “People learn coping skills and survival skills depending on their situation.” Students with ACEs lived complex and sometimes seemingly contradictory lifestyles. All but one of the participants had received professional help through therapy. Francisco warned that the therapist had to be very good to work with him because he was “street smart” and could “feel your approach.” Participants arrived to therapy through diverse means. Some sought help, others were encouraged by loved ones, and some were mandated by legal systems. Participants tended to suppress emotions and therapy helped them disentangle their complicated lives. Chandah said of her therapist, “She was a huge influence in helping me unravel the coping mechanisms that I developed that enabled me to get through childhood.” Having emotional and professional support systems available for students living in trauma is important for educational systems. Participants in this study set goals through the lens of proving others wrong or receiving validation. Participants did not reference having positive beliefs about themselves; however they tended to feel that higher levels of education meant more self-worth and confirmation. Constantly being beaten down both physically and emotionally at home, participants sought to prove their abusers wrong by obtaining higher and higher educational objectives. To Delphia “more education” was “more power” over her abusive father. Bailey said that education was a way to validate and quell her mother’s negative rhetoric. Chandah frankly said, “I’m addicted to validation.” Francisco said that education allowed him to be “the man he ought to be”, and not “the man he was raised to be.” Adriana continued to set
82 82 new and higher goals and said, “I’m just trying to prove that I am not stupid.” Efrain described growing up in a home where he was constantly told that he was “not good enough” and found the doctorate program as a means to blaze new trails. Gabriela said she set goals because, “I did not want to be like my mother.” For students with ACEs, goal setting is important, but goal setting for a person living in trauma is atypical to the current goal setting practices in education.
Recommendations for Practice and Research Educators have a great stake in ensuring academic success for all children, especially the youth at-risk. Despite living with extreme stressors, participants in this study would be considered resilient. Educational programs and policies that understand the effects of chronic stress and promote resilience may be able to contribute to student success. By understanding these successful individuals who had overcome adversity, despite enduring ACEs, this researcher hopes to enlighten educators with insights into resilience that will have an impact on educational practices and make suggestions for future research. In this section there will be five recommendations for practice and four recommendations for research are presented.
Recommendations for Practice Educators must first identify students with ACEs in order to help and support at-risk youth with social and emotional supports. Participants tended to keep thoughts and emotions to themselves, which is problematic for educators who wish to help. Being able to recognize the signals of students living in trauma is important in providing them the assistance they need. Schools must devise ways to identify students with ACEs. For participants in this study, professional therapy was valuable. Schools that have social workers or psychologists on staff that can
83 83 refer or provide at-risk students with proper social and emotional supports are essential. Educational systems must help students develop self-efficacy and build self-worth. Participants in this reported not having very high self-worth just as Tough (2012) explained that traumatic incidents in children could produce feelings of low self-worth. He also went on to say that feelings of low self-esteem could lead to addictive behaviors and self-destructive behaviors like heavy drinking, drug abuse, over eating, and smoking. Participants in this study did not engage in self-destructive behaviors, rather they focused their energy into validating they were worthy. Educational systems played a major role in providing a platform for participants. They felt that the more education they had the more worthy they became. The participants in this study expressed a great fear of failure in their academic lives. Educators must work to improve the self-efficacy of at-risk students. Providing students with relevant and challenging assignments benefits their growth. Assignments should be just rigorous enough to stimulate the at-risk student, but not so rigorous that it paralyzes them. All seven of the participants were emotionally and verbally abused in their homes, they came to school to escape those abuses. They were told they were “stupid and unworthy” in their households, schools should provide the environment where students are guided to feel intelligent and worthy. Linda Darling-Hammond (2010) talked about the fact that students’ willingness to commit to school and their own futures is interwoven with their perceptions whether their schools and their teachers believe they are worthwhile investments. Educators must develop relationships. Participants admitted to putting up barriers as a self-defense which could push educators away and at times certain teachers were viewed as a threat by the subjects of this study. According to Weiss
84 84 and Wagner (1998), repeated ACEs can affect the systems of a person’s body and eventually a person’s an entire life. Children in these situations respond to every situation as if it is a threat. However, every single participant referenced an educator who made a difference in their lives. Relationships were important to the success of participants. Educators who took the time to see through the participant’s walls were able to make a positive impact in the lives of participants. Educators must learn to help at-risk students set goals differently in a safe environment. Participants were adaptive, resourceful, and active as they navigated in and out of their chaotic worlds. As Dephia put it, “Home was dirt…school was my refuge.” This is encouraging for educators. Establishing school environments that are safe and provide activities for at-risk students is critical. It should also be encouraging to educators that participants were adaptable since Luthar et al. (2000) found that resilience was developmental and changing. This suggested that the positive adaptation and development could be taught and could lead to greater resilience. Students living in trauma could be helped to set goals. Educators need to be careful when helping at-risk students set goals and objectives. Participants in this study set goals to validate themselves and prove others wrong. Educators who are constantly having students set menial goals to obtain a higher score on this test or a get that B- to a B+ next semester, might find students with ACEs unreceptive. Schools must provide many co-curricular or extra-curricular opportunities to for the at-risk student. Participants in the study expressed overwhelming the need to stay active. Staying busy not only provided participants with the ability to keep their minds off of trauma at home, but also provided them an opportunity to physically be away from the abusive household.
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Recommendations for Research The population of doctoral students who had four or more ACEs was not an easy population to locate, however additional research with a larger national sample size could prove to be beneficial in adding additional insights into resiliency and ACEs. The participant population of this study was primarily raised in California. The researcher sought candidates from four California State Universities with different geographical locations inside the state of California. Future research across different states and different educational settings could further develop the findings of this research. This research focused on themes and references from participants and did not focus on differences between the types of ACEs experienced, nor the number of ACEs experienced, by the participants in this study. The researcher observed participants who had been sexually abused tended to be more emotional during the interview and they also tended to be more guarded in academic and social settings, however these differences were not explored. Future research into participants with different types of ACEs might provide deeper insights into how best to support children living in trauma. The participants in this study were a diverse group of students: two Latino males, three Latina females, one Caucasian female, and one African American female. Future research of singular populations, such as African American males, could provide additional insights specific to culture or ethnicity. Research into ACEs pointed out long term health concerns for people with ACEs. Participants in this study also expressed fears about their future. A longitudinal study of the seven participants would be helpful to determine if the same resiliency skills, which helped them navigate into doctoral programs, transfers into long and healthy professional lives.
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Summary This qualitative research study examined the academic and social experiences of doctoral students who had four or more Adverse Childhood Experiences and how resiliency helped these participants navigate the educational system leading up to entering a doctoral program. Research has revealed that childhood trauma such as abuse, neglect, and extreme household dysfunction can lead to high levels of stress and disrupt healthy brain development. The results of which have long-term ill effects on learning, behavior, and health. Within this paper the researcher has identified that individuals classified as having four or more ACEs are widely considered the most at risk for dropping out of school, not attending college, along with having long term health and behavior issues. However, participants in this study all had seven or more ACEs and went on to be academically successful. This research discovered insights into the resilient lives of these individuals. Their historical narratives generated an exploration of the nature of trauma and how certain individuals were able to overcome adversity. The seven participants, two male and five female, five Latino/a, one Caucasian, and one African American were doctoral students who had seven or more ACEs. The participants shared their personal experiences and added insights into childhood trauma, resiliency, and academic success. Several major themes that emerged from the participant’s personal narratives were: being resourceful, staying active, being fearful, fighting through tough situations, ability to hide, feelings of guilt, suppressing emotions, and additional nuances to the existing research on resiliency. Based on these findings recommendations for educators were made such as identifying students with ACEs and provide proper emotional and social support
87 87 systems, the need to overcome barriers and develop relationships, the need to promote a student’s self-efficacy and self-worth, the need to provide opportunities for students to be active, and the need for proper goal setting within safe environments. Additional recommendations for research were presented by the researcher and included: a longitudinal study, a larger national sample, a sample of similar populations, and samples focused on the types of ACEs in order to expand upon the existing research relative academic success for persons with childhood trauma.
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APPENDIX A: EMAIL TO DIRECTORS OF DOCTORAL PROGRAMS
Dear Dr. (insert name) My name is Randy Bessey. I am currently a doctoral student at California State University, Fresno and I am involved in a research project involving childhood trauma. We hope to add insightful information to the current available research, in an effort to better understand and help students with adverse childhood experiences. We are looking for research participants who are doctoral students and may have experienced childhood trauma. I would greatly appreciate your help. If you could please forward this email to all doctoral students in the educational leadership program at your university. If there is any doctoral student in the educational leadership program who may have experienced adverse childhood experiences such as; household dysfunction, abuse, or neglect, and is willing to participate in this important study, please contact me for more information:
Randy Bessey [email protected]
Thank you very much for your time and consideration. Sincerely,
Randy Bessey
Doctoral student, California State University, Fresno 5005 N Maple Ave, MS ED117 Fresno, CA 93740 Phone: (559) 278-0427
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APPENDIX B: EMAIL TO DOCTORAL STUDENT PARTICIPANTS
Dear (insert name) Thank you very much for your interest in our research project. I know you are extremely busy and your willingness to explore and assist others with childhood trauma is commendable. If you could please reply to this email and provide me with a phone number, and a date a time that would be convenient for me to reach you, I would like to discuss the project and ask you a few questions about childhood experiences. Our phone call will be strictly confidential. If you are one of the doctoral students chosen to participate, we would ask that you be willing to sit down with me for an interview. I would drive to a location of your choosing and the interview should not take more than 1½ hours of your time. I will provide a $50 gift card to compensate you. Again, I cannot thank you enough for your willingness to assist us in this very important research. If you have any questions at all please do not hesitate to email me.
Sincerely, Randy Bessey [email protected] Phone: (559) 977-7202 Doctoral student, California State University, Fresno 5005 N Maple Ave, MS ED117 Fresno, CA 93740
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APPENDIX C: PHONE INTERVIEW FOR SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS
Intro: My name is Randy Bessey. I am currently a doctoral student at California State University, Fresno and I am involved in a research project involving childhood trauma. We hope to be able to add insightful information to the current available research in order to better understand and help students with adverse childhood experiences. Thank you very much for your interest in our research project. I know you are extremely busy and your willingness to explore and assist others with childhood trauma is commendable. Everything we talk about is highly confidential, completely voluntary, and I will never use your real name. ACEs discussion: You expressed that you had experienced adverse childhood experiences such as household dysfunction, abuse, or neglect. Would you mind sharing your experiences with me? *Note: Using the Ace Score Instrument, I will check off reported ACEs as the potential participant explains their experiences. I may need to ask gentle follow up questions to identify ACEs. Closing: Would you be willing to sit down with me for a confidential and voluntary interview to add some depth to our conversation? I would drive to a location of your choosing and the interview should not take more than 1½ hours of your time. I will provide a $50 gift card to compensate you. Can we set up a date and time to meet? Again, I cannot thank you enough for your willingness to share your story in an effort to help others and assist us in this very important research. I appreciate your time and I remind you that everything we’ve talked about is highly confidential. If you have any questions at all please do not hesitate to call or email me. I will be in touch with you.
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APPENDIX D: ACE SCORE INSTRUMENT FOR SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS
Prior to your 18th birthday:
1) Did a parent or other adult in the household often or very often… Swear at you, insult you, put you down, or humiliate you? or Act in a way that made you afraid that you might be physically hurt? If Yes, enter 1____
2) Did a parent or other adult in the household often or very often… Push, grab, slap, or throw something at you? or Ever hit you so hard that you had marks or were injured? If Yes, enter 1___
3) Did an adult or person at least 5 years older than you ever engage with you in a sexual manner against your will? If Yes, enter 1___
4) Did you often or very often feel that … No one in your family loved you or thought you were important or special? or Your family didn’t look out for each other, feel close to each other, or support each other? If Yes, enter 1___
5) Did you often or very often feel that … You didn’t have enough to eat, had to wear dirty clothes, and had no one to protect you? or Your parents were too drunk or high to take care of you or take you to the doctor if you needed it? If Yes, enter 1___
6) Were your parents ever separated or divorced? If Yes, enter 1___
7) Was your mother or stepmother: Often or very often physically abused? If Yes, enter 1___
8) Did you live with anyone who was a problem drinker or alcoholic, or who used street drugs? If Yes, enter 1___
9) Was a household member depressed or mentally ill, or did a household member attempt suicide? If Yes, enter 1___
10) Did a household member go to prison? If Yes, enter 1___
Adapted from Felitti et al. (1998)
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APPENDIX E: CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE
Research project title: RESILIENT DOCTORAL STUDENTS IN CALIFORNIA: A REFLECTIVE STUDY OF THE RELATION BETWEEN CHILDHOOD CHALLENGES AND ACADEMIC SUCCESS
You have been asked to participate in a research study conducted by Randy Bessey from The Doctoral Department of Educational Leadership at California State University, Fresno. The purpose of the study is to help other children who have experienced adversities in childhood. You were selected as a possible participant in this study because of your responses to the Adverse Childhood Experiences Survey. You should read the information below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand, before deciding whether or not to participate.
• This interview is voluntary. You have the right not to answer any question, and to stop the interview at any time or for any reason. I expect that the interview will take about one to one and a half-hours. • You will be compensated for this interview in the amount of $50. • Unless you give us permission to quote you in any publications that may result from this research, the information you tell us will be confidential. • I would like to record this interview so that I can use it for reference while proceeding with this study. I will not record this interview without your permission. If you do grant permission for this conversation to be recorded, you have the right to revoke recording permission and/or end the interview at any time.
This project will be completed by June 2017. All interview recordings will be stored in a secure work space for two years after that date. The tapes will then be destroyed.
I understand the procedures described above. My questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have been given a copy of this form.
(Please check all that apply)
[ ] I give permission for this interview to be recorded.
[ ] I give permission for the following information to be included in publications resulting from this study: direct quotes from this interview
Signature of Interviewee ______Date ______
Signature of Investigator ______Date ______
Please contact Randy Bessey (559) 264-0457 with any questions or concerns.
If you feel you have been treated unfairly, or you have questions regarding your rights as a research subject, you may contact the Chairman of the Committee on the Use of Humans as Experimental Subjects, California State University, Fresno. Phone: (559) 278-2985
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APPENDIX F: INTERVIEW FRAMEWORK
Introduction: Thank you very much for your readiness to be a part of this study.
My name is Randy Bessey and I am a Doctoral Student at Fresno State University. The purpose of our research is to talk to academically successful persons, specifically doctoral students who overcame Adverse Childhood Experiences. We hope that through your story of resilience we might be able to help others be successful too. Your personal narrative is valuable to helping other people, and I thank you for your willingness and generosity. Though our conversation will be recorded, so that I do not get distracted with writing notes, I want to assure you that everything said will be anonymous and confidential. This discussion is completely voluntary and you can end it at any time.
Thank you again very much for participating in this important study.
I know speaking of the past may be emotional, but understanding the adversities you went through as a child is critical to reaching out and helping others. I am very interested in hearing how you navigated the challenges in your childhood and became accepted into a doctoral program. Your story must be amazing. I understand that we spoke briefly on the phone about your childhood experiences but I am going to ask you some specific questions and I hope you would retell your story in as much detail as possible.
Specific interview questions:
104 104 Introduction
If I can ask you a couple of demographic questions before we start.
1. How would you classify your ethnicity?
2. How would you classify your gender?
3. Where did you grow up?
4. In looking over the ACE survey. How many questions would you say “yes”?
5. Please tell me about your childhood and upbringing?
6. What was that like?
7. What challenges did you experience?
ACEs
1. You mentioned that you had been experienced:
a) Physical abuse b) Emotional/Psychological abuse c) Sexual abuse d) Physical neglect e) Emotional/Psychological neglect f) Mental Illness in the home g) Domestic violence in the home h) Parental separation or divorce i) Substance abuse in the home j) Incarceration of a household member
8. Tell me about your experience with ______(I will insert the ACE described by the participant over the phone)
9. How were you able to overcome this adversity? (See Manifestations of Resilience
for more probing questions)
10. How did this affect your school work and schooling experience?
11. I will repeat questions 2-4 for each ACE identified by the participant.
105 105 Schooling and Support Experiences
1. Were there people or persons that assisted you in your efforts of determination?
(probe) What did they do? How did they do it? Can you explain that relationship in detail? What kind of a person were they? What did they do for a living? How would you describe their character?
2. Thinking back to the school system during your most trying times, what did
schools or teachers do to help you during times of struggle, what could they have
done better to help?
(probe) Elementary? Middle School? High School? Junior College? Four Year
University? What did they do? How did they do it? Can you explain any of those
relationships in detail?
3. Do you find that you still need to find ways to cope now? How/In what way?
4. Additional probing questions around the following manifestations:
Positive self-concept Communication Optimism Internal locus of control Relationships Problem solving Sense of humor Empathy Spiritual Autonomous Benevolence Sense of purpose Critical thinking Flexible and adaptive Proactive
Concluding Questions
1. How would you suggest helping someone who went through the traumas you did?
2. Do you have anything else to add?
106 106 I want to thank you again for your time and willingness to be a part of this essential study. I will remind you again that our conversation is confidential and you will only be referred to in my paper as a pseudonym.
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APPENDIX G: UNIVERSITY INFORMATION AND CONTACTS
California State University, Bakersfield 9001 Stockdale Highway Bakersfield, CA 93311 Phone: (661) 654-3055 http://www.csub.edu/ Contact: Dr. Danny Whetton, Program Director, Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership, California State University, Bakersfield. Email: [email protected]
California State University, Fresno 5005 N Maple Ave, MS ED117 Fresno, CA 93740 Phone: (559) 278-0427 http://www.fresnostate.edu/ Contact: Dr. Kenneth Magdaleno, Program Director, Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership, California State University, Fresno Email: [email protected]
California State University, Channel Islands 1 University Drive Camarillo, Ca 93012 (805) 437-8400 http://education.csuci.edu/ Contact: Dr. Gary W. Kinsey, Program Director, Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership, California State University, Channel Islands Email: [email protected]
California State University, Sacramento 6000 J. Street Sacramento, Ca. 95819 Phone: (916) 278-6011 http://www.csus.edu/ Contact: Julian Vasquez Heilig, Program Director, Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership, California State University, Sacramento
Email: [email protected]