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POLISH INDEPENDENT PUBLISHING, 1976-1989 a Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate Scho

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POLISH INDEPENDENT PUBLISHING, 1976-1989 a Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate Scho MIGHTIER THAN THE SWORD: POLISH INDEPENDENT PUBLISHING, 1976-1989 A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Georgetown University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History. By Siobhan K. Doucette, M.A. Washington, DC April 11, 2013 Copyright 2013 by Siobhan K. Doucette All Rights Reserved ii MIGHTIER THAN THE SWORD: POLISH INDEPENDENT PUBLISHING, 1976-1989 Siobhan K. Doucette, M.A. Thesis Advisor: Andrzej S. Kamiński, Ph.D. ABSTRACT This dissertation analyzes the rapid growth of Polish independent publishing between 1976 and 1989, examining the ways in which publications were produced as well as their content. Widespread, long-lasting independent publishing efforts were first produced by individuals connected to the democratic opposition; particularly those associated with KOR and ROPCiO. Independent publishing expanded dramatically during the Solidarity-era when most publications were linked to Solidarity, Rural Solidarity or NZS. By the mid-1980s, independent publishing obtained new levels of pluralism and diversity as publications were produced through a bevy of independent social milieus across every segment of society. Between 1976 and 1989, thousands of independent titles were produced in Poland. Rather than employing samizdat printing techniques, independent publishers relied on printing machines which allowed for independent publication print-runs in the thousands and even tens of thousands, placing Polish independent publishing on an incomparably greater scale than in any other country in the Communist bloc. By breaking through social atomization and linking up individuals and milieus across class, geographic and political divides, independent publications became the backbone of the opposition; distribution networks provided the organizational structure for the Polish underground. With time, independent publishing also provided Polish society with experience with a proto-market. Independent publications therefore became one of the most important mechanisms accelerating the growth of Polish civil society. iii This dissertation demonstrates that the success of Polish independent publishing was predicated on the unique nature of Polish civil society in which a mythologized national history and tradition played a vital role in encouraging opposition. Independent publications bore testament not only to the ways in which these traditions were reinterpreted and reinvented thereby encouraging the growth of Polish civil society, but also to Polish civil society’s pluralism, diversity and activism. This dissertation therefore proves not only the decisive role of independent publishing in the creation of Poland’s vibrant civil society, but also its role in the achievements of Solidarity in 1980-1981 and the overthrow of the Communist regime in 1989. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction…………….………………………………………..…………………………….…..1 Chapter 1: Independent Publishing, 1976 to the Summer of 1980………………………………36 Chapter 2: Independent Publishing and the Democratic Opposition, 1976-1980 …….……….114 Chapter 3: Solidarity and Independent Publishing……………………………………...……...162 Chapter 4: Solidarity’s First National Congress and the Union Press…………………….……245 Chapter 5: Independent Publishing, Martial Law to the Summer of 1989……………………..298 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………...403 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………417 v Introduction Polish civil society was born anew between 1976 and 1989, making possible Solidarity’s initial successes from August 1980 to December 1981 and ultimate victory in June 1989; independent publications bore testament to the growth of Polish civil society and were one of the most important mechanisms accelerating its development. Between 1976 and 1980, independent publishing steadily gathered and connected various social groups: intellectuals, students, workers, and peasants. This web was joined by millions between August 1980 and December 1981 as Polish civil society emerged to act publicly in producing thousands of independent publications through Solidarity, Rural Solidarity and the Independent Students’ Union. The imposition of martial law brought radical changes not only to Polish civil society but also to independent publishing which dramatically decentralized with the destruction of Solidarity’s legal organizational structure. The continuing existence of independent publishing helped to prevent the eradication of Polish independent life while distribution chains provided the underground with a structure. Although the number of independent publications produced between 1982 and 1986 steadily decreased, an increased diversification and vitality occurred as society became progressively exacting in reference to independent culture and a new generation and new social segments began to embark on a variety of innovative publications in response to society’s demands. Accordingly, when the quantity of independent publications began to rise again, a proto-market had developed so that independent publishing progressively became the authentic voice of a truly pluralistic and increasingly politicized civil society rather than that of 1 the democratic opposition or Solidarity. It was this newly energized civil society which made Poland unique in the bloc and made possible the overthrow of Communist dictatorship.1 Hannah Arendt’s presentation of civil society is most pertinent in discussing the growth of Polish civil society. Arendt derives her presentation of civil society from her understanding of the ancient polis. She argued that “the raison d’ être of politics is freedom and its field of experience is in action.” She rejected freedom as being tied to inner, non-political ideals or to free-will; she insisted that free action with political guarantees is the only authentic freedom. For Arendt, politics is about creation and the establishment of something new. Arendt’s civil society therefore is based on a form of modern communitarianism in which direct participation and federalism are emphasized over representation and unity and where a plurality of free, spontaneous, dynamic actions are carried out. This dissertation will illustrate that this is precisely the type of civil society which arose in Poland between 1976 and 1989, creating something radically new.2 Arendt argued that in the nineteenth century, the distinction between the private and public spheres blurred as man as a laborer and organism came to dominate what was once the political, public sphere leading to a diminishment of the public and private division. She argued that this situation became more dire in the twentieth century as mass society and totalitarianism closed avenues to individual political action, destroying freedom based civil society. Arendt 1 Between 1976 and 1989, thousands of newspapers, journals and books were produced by Polish independent publishers. The majority of these efforts were small scale and ephemeral but some were extremely widespread with print-runs in the tens of thousands and publications lasting throughout the period, making independent publishing in Poland entirely unique in the Communist bloc. Certain independent publishing houses were represented at international book expos, had salaried full-time staffs and paid authors royalties on their works. This is why the term ‘independent publishing’ is more appropriate than samizdat in reference to Polish ‘underground publishing’ in this era. Authors were not self published; they were published by independent publishing houses which were not entirely ‘underground’ since their editors and authors often signed their works. 2 Hannah Arendt, “Freedom and Politics: A Lecture”, Chicago Review vol. 14, no. 1 (Spring 1960) 68, Hannah Arendt, “Society and Culture”, Daedalus, vol. 89, no. 2 (Spring 1960); Hannah Arendt, Between Past and Future (New York: Viking Press, 1968) 146, 154; Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998) 30-31. 2 therefore rejected Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel’s focus on civil society as a structure of economic partnerships and corporations which regulate and are enclosed by the state as she saw state bureaucracy and a focus on corporal man and economic interests as the negation of freedom.3 The Polish opposition also emphasized economic issues to a lesser degree than political freedom and evinced serious suspicion toward state bureaucracy making Hegel’s definition inappropriate for the Polish context. In spite of Arendt’s reservations about economic foci and her acknowledgement that the lines between political and economic/social emphases in the European workers’ movement blurred, she also argued that the workers’ movement, between 1848 and 1956, had “written one of the most glorious and probably the most prominent chapter in recent history.” However, underlining her emphasis on the importance of creation in politics, she also argued that “[t]he trades unions were never revolutionary in the sense that they desired a transformation of society together with a transformation of the political institutions in which this society was represented…”4 But Arendt did not live to see Solidarity which indeed demanded political transformation. While economic disaffection was a focal part of dissention, the demands made between 1976 and 1989 in independent publications were not primarily economic; they were about individual freedom of action. Jürgen Habermas’ emphasis on culture and the non-political public sphere is, like Hegel’s presentation
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