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James Jeconia Odanga CLIMATE CHANGE INDUCED-EFFECT ON BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF AVOCADO INSECT PESTS ALONG ALTITUDINAL GRADIENT OF TAITA HILLS AND MOUNT KILIMANJARO JAMES JECONIA ODANGA BSc. (Zoology), Master of Environmental Science (KU) A THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN CROP PROTECTION OF UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCE AND CROP PROTECTION FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI NOVEMBER, 2017 i DECLARATION This study is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university. __________________________ __________________ James Jeconia Odanga Date Declaration by university supervisors This thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval as University supervisors. ___________________________ __________________ Prof. Florence Olubayo Date Department of Plant Science and Crop Protection __________________________ __________________ Dr. Richard Nyankanga Date Department of Plant Science and Crop Protection __________________________ __________________ Dr. Sunday Ekesi Date International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Nairobi __________________________ __________________ Dr. Samira Mohamed Date International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Nairobi i DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my beloved father; the late Mwalimu Nicholas Odanga. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I pass my sincere gratitude to my supervisors for their scholarly advice and commitment that led to the completion of this thesis. Special thanks are to my entire family and friends for their understanding and support throughout the PhD study period. I appreciate technical advice from Geoffrey Mwachala, Mary Gikungu, Marcel Peters, Esther Kioko, the late Joseph Mugambi, Laurence Mound, Martin Gathendu, Sizah Mwalusepo, Nancy Khadioli, Khamis Fathiya, Faustine Muga, Peterson Nderitu, Laban Njoroge, Karen Wambui, Nyambeki Okemwa, Margret Ochanda, Jairus Anale, John Kennedy Oduori, Aura Joel, Charles Lange, Pekka Hurskainen, Irene Akinyi, George Cheminingw‟a, Ratemo Michieka, John Kimenju, and Tino Johansson. I thank my research assistants; Filbert Mlingi, Granton Mwadime and Alex Lumumba, for their help during field sampling and laboratory experiments. Much appreciation also goes to the entire members of the African Fruit Fly Laboratory at ICIPE for their assistance with insect phenology experiments. I also thank National Museums of Kenya for taxonomic verification of avocado insect pest specimens. This research was funded by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Finland, through “Climate change impacts on ecosystem services and food security in eastern Africa” (CHIESA) project. It was supported by International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), University of Helsinki, Dar Salaam University, University of York, Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Taita County government, University of Nairobi and the National Museums of Kenya. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iv LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................. xi GENERAL ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. xiii CHAPTER ONE ..............................................................................................................................1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................1 1.1 Background information ............................................................................................................1 1.2 Problem statement ......................................................................................................................6 1.3 Justification of the study ............................................................................................................6 1.4 Broad objective ..........................................................................................................................8 1.4.1 Specific objectives ..................................................................................................................8 1.4.2 Research questions ..................................................................................................................9 CHAPTER TWO ...........................................................................................................................10 LITERATURE REVIEW ..............................................................................................................10 2.1 Avocado biology and ecology .................................................................................................10 2.2 Avocado Farming in East Africa .............................................................................................12 2.3 Previous studies on insect pests of avocado and their natural enemies ...................................14 2.4 Historical weather patterns of some sections of the study areas ..............................................17 2.5 Climate change and agriculture ...............................................................................................19 2.6 Species distribution models .....................................................................................................21 2.6.1 Insect life cycle software (ILCYM) ......................................................................................22 2.6.2 Advantages of using insect life cycle modeling software (ILCYM) ....................................22 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................................24 DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE OF ARTHROPOD PESTS ASSOCIATED WITH AVOCADO CROP IN FARMLANDS AT TAITA HILLS AND MOUNT KILIMANJARO ....24 v 3.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................25 3.2 Materials and methods .............................................................................................................27 3.2.1 Study areas ............................................................................................................................27 3.2.4 Study design and collection of weather data .........................................................................32 3.2.5 Sampling of arthropods inhabiting the avocado crop ...........................................................34 3.2.6 Sampling of the Asian invasive fruit fly and false codling moth .........................................36 3.2.7 Assessment of damage levels to avocado fruits by insect pests ...........................................37 3.2.7.1 Asian invasive fruit fly (Bactrocera invadens) ..................................................................37 3.2.7.2 False codling moth (Thaumatotibia leucotreta) ................................................................37 3.2.7.3 Green house thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis) ............................................................38 3.2.8 Taxonomic verification of the pest species ...........................................................................38 3.2.8.1 Fruit fly species and false codling moth ............................................................................38 3.2.8.2 Thrips and other arthropods ...............................................................................................39 3.2.9 Statistical analysis .................................................................................................................39 3.3 Results ......................................................................................................................................41 3.3.1 Arthropod species associated with avocado crop in Taita Hills and Mount Kilimanjaro ....41 3.3.2 Overall abundance of key avocado insect pests ....................................................................44 3.3.3 Avocado fruit damage by key avocado insect pests .............................................................45 3.3.4 Changes in mean abundance of key avocado insect pests along altitudinal zones ...............50 3.3.5 Seasonal changes in population density of avocado key pest species ..................................58 3.3.6 Annual population trend of the key avocado pest species ....................................................63 3.3.7 Characterization of abundance of avocado insect pests using environmental variables ......71 3.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................................76 CHAPTER FOUR ..........................................................................................................................88 INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON PHENOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF KEY AVOCADO INSECT PEST; THE ASIAN INVASIVE FRUIT
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