'YOU CAN'T HAVE IT ALL FRENCH, ALL AT ONCE': FRENCH LANGUAGE RIGHTS, BILINGUALISM, AND POLITICAL COMMUNITY IN SASKATCHEWAN, 1870-1990 A dissertation submitted to the College of Graduate Studies and Research in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan By Dustin James McNichol June 2016 © Copyright Dustin James McNichol, 2016. All rights reserved. Permission to Use In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis. Request for permission to copy or to make other use of material in this thesis in whole or part should be addressed to: Head of the Department of History Room 522, Arts Building 9 Campus Drive University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5A5 i Abstract This study is about the place of French and French speakers in the Saskatchewan political community. Beginning with the political foundations of western Canada in 1870, it argues that exclusion of the French language and francophone culture became central to how Saskatchewan understood itself politically. Saskatchewan was to be part of a new British-Canadian nation which left behind the problems of language, religion, and culture plaguing central Canada. English would be the province's only official language. Over the next century this understanding of the Saskatchewan political community was reinforced during key moments of provincial history. Whenever there was a crisis of state legitimacy or a threat to the cultural definition of the region -- the founding of Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan (1870 and 1905 respectively), the First World War and the interwar years (1914 to 1931), and the rise of the new West (1968 to 1990), the English-speaking character of Western Canada was reinforced by successive provincial governments and their citizens, while the French language and francophone culture were cast as alien to the region's cultural character. From the beginning, however, this vision of Saskatchewan was threatened by proponents of a bilingual and bicultural Canada. These political leaders and activists believed equality of francophones and anglophones to be part of western Canadian history and an important value for the Saskatchewan political community. The battle over official bilingualism and language rights between 1968 and 1990 provides new insights into how Saskatchewan understood itself and its history. Although after 1968 it was no longer fashionable for Canada to define itself as principally British, bilingualism remained a problematic notion for the provincial political community. New provincial cultural policies after 1968 led to a pitched battle involving politics of memory. Saskatchewan francophones insisted that Saskatchewan declare itself bilingual because the Fransaskois had opened and helped found western Canada, while Saskatchewan governments insisted that multiculturalism was the real (hi)story of the West. Faced with increasing Fransaskois activism and the choice of making French an official language in the province during these years, both New Democratic Party and Progressive Conservative governments chose not to do so, arguing that such a move had no historical, political, or demographic justification. By 1990 the battle over bilingualism was largely over. The Fransaskois left their mark on the modern Saskatchewan political community by scoring key victories in certain areas, but also by surviving bitter defeats in others. ii Acknowledgments I am indebted to many people who have helped bring this work to fruition. My supervisor, Bill Waiser, was unfailing in his direction during the various stages of thinking, research, and writing. Bill helped me choose which paths to follow and which ones to leave for later projects. He also taught me that the historian must first aspire to be a writer - one who pays attention to the subtleties of language and diction, writing not only for the reader's mind but also his heart. Bill's work was a continual inspiration to me as I wrote this dissertation, and his encouragement helped me get through the more difficult moments. My dissertation committee was steadfast in its support for this project from the beginning. Thanks to Professor Raymond Blake, who graciously accepted the role of External Examiner and showed great enthusiasm for the research. Martha Smith-Norris challenged me to think more critically about my own views on official bilingualism in Saskatchewan and Canada. Gordon Barnhart provided key expertise, and some interesting anecdotes, on procedural politics and Saskatchewan political history. Robert Englebert pushed me to expand my historical understanding of francophone and Métis communities in North America. Roy Romanow was generous with his time, sharing many great insights about language politics during his long career in office. I am particularly indebted to Wilfrid Denis, who offered me the use of his personal archives pertaining to francophone Saskatchewan, as well as his expertise as a Fransaskois sociologist and citizen who participated in some of the contemporary Saskatchewan language debates. Despite being in the early years of retirement, Wilfrid agreed enthusiastically to work with me as a committee member. He warmly and kindly discussed ideas with me as the research progressed, and helped me understand the bigger picture of language politics in Saskatchewan. Wilfrid's dedication to helping and studying the Fransaskois community is admirable, and I experienced this dedication first hand as he helped me with this dissertation. The bulk of the archival documents for this study were drawn from Saskatchewan Archives Board (now the Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan). Thanks to Bonnie Wagner Dahl, Christine Charmbury, Lise Thring, Nadine Charabin, and the Regina staff, all of whom responded to my endless requests (which included reviewing thousands of pages of restricted documents!) and newbie questions with patience and kindness. Their professionalism and dedication to Saskatchewan history are inspiring, and made this work possible. Thanks also to the staff at the University of Saskatchewan archives and special collections, who helped me track down hard to find documents and access some of the various treasures at the University library related to francophone history. My friends and colleagues sustained me as I worked through this dissertation and my other professional obligations as a doctoral student. I enjoyed good, long conversations about history and all other things with Scott Berthelette, Jessica DeWitt, Michelle Desveaux, Laura Larsen, Cheryl Troupe, Glenn Iceton, Erin Spinney, Anne Janhunen, Sarah York, Carling Beninger, and many others in the department. Adam Montgomery gave extensive commentary on final drafts, and was always up for a pint. Kota Kimura showed me what solidarity really meant as we spent several difficult months unionizing graduate students on campus. Chris Berger and Nathan Pinkoski led me through many discussions on the humanities, Platonic philosophy, classical history, and the Western Canon. They reminded me to look beyond our immediate context and remember the wisdom of the greatest thinkers. Thanks also to my new friends and colleagues at the Saskatchewan Teachers' Federation - Ellen, Laura, Derek, iii Karen, Marc, Ron, Bisi, Catherine, Joan, and everyone else - who encouraged me to finish my graduate work even as I began full time employment. My Fransaskois friends welcomed me with open arms into their community despite me being an outsider and new to Saskatchewan. I will always remember the generosity and kindness of Zoé Fortier, Daniel Fontaine et toute la gang. They humoured me as I regaled them with the occasional history lecture. Brett Williams and Étienne Fortier took me out for beers and made me laugh when I needed to. Others - and there are many - invited me to sit on committees and be an active member of the Fransaskois community. Mes amis Franco-Albertains, et tous mes amis en Alberta, m'ont aussi inspiré à mener ce projet à bien. J'ai rédigé cette thèse pour eux, et pour tous les véritables francophones de l'Ouest canadien qui n'ont jamais cédé le terrain, et qui portent toujours le flambeau de la langue française dans la région. Merci aussi à mes amis, historiens et collègues francophones partout au Canada - Mario Giguère, Edmund Aunger, Stéphanie Chouinard, Martin Normand, Joël Belliveau, Serge Dupuis, Suzie Beaulieu, Daniel Pâquet, Michelle Landry et autres. Dissertation work inevitably takes a toll on those closest to the researcher, and as such, I am enormously grateful for the love and support of my family. Thanks to my father, Douglas Oliver McNichol, for talking me out of quitting on more than one occasion, as well as for help proofreading final drafts. Thanks also to Mom, Tyler, Kyle, and Scott, all of whom supported my pursuit of a life dedicated to matters of the mind and soul (even if we do not always agree on everything!). Anne Ferré and Paul Dubé kindly offered up their home in Edmonton for archival visits, and gave us extra family support when we most needed it. Paul, merci de nos discussions littéraires et philosophiques. I owe my largest debt and deepest thanks to my wife, Maria Ferré. Maria was my editor, sounding board, critic, and intellectual partner throughout the various stages of my graduate studies.