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UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
FRAMING OF SELECTED DANCEHALL ARTISTES ON BLOGS
SAMUEL TAKYI SELBY
2017
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UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
FRAMING OF SELECTED DANCEHALL ARTISTES ON BLOGS
SAMUEL TAKYI SELBY
A THESIS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION AND
MEDIA STUDIES, FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES EDUCATION
AND COMMUNICATION, SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE
STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA, IN PARTIAL
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR AWARD OF THE MASTER
OF ART DEGREE IN COMMUNICATION AND MEDIA STUDIES
(MEDIA STUDIES).
DECEMBER, 2017
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DECLARATION
STUDENT’S DECLARATION
I, Samuel Takyi Selby declare that this dissertation, with the exception of quotations and references contained in published works which have all been identified and duly acknowledged, is entirely my original work, and it has not been submitted, either in part or whole, for another degree elsewhere.
SIGNATURE: …………………………..
DATE: ……………………………………
SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this work was supervised in accordance with the guidelines for supervision of Dissertation as laid down by the
University of Education, Winneba.
NAME OF SUPERVISOR: MR KWESI AGGREY
SIGNATURE: ……………………………………………………….
DATE: ……………………………
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my deepest gratitude to each and every person who has influenced my life, directly and indirectly to this point. My greatest gratitude goes to God almighty, the one who gave me life, knowledge, wisdom and understanding to sail through graduate school successfully. To Him who networked me to great and wonderful people who helped shape my narrative. Indeed, He makes all things beautiful in his own time.
To my supervisor, Mr Kwesi Aggrey, I say, “Nyame nhyira wo”. Your advice and guidance have led me this far. I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr Andy
Ofori-Birinkorang, Mr. Yaw Boadu-Ayeboafoh, Ms. Joyce Mensah, Ms. Christine
Hammond, Dr. Mavis Amo-Mensah, Ms. Abena Abokoma Asemanyi, Mrs. Gifty Tetteh,
Phyllis Paintsil and Mr. Asare Okae-Anti for moulding that hustler into a researcher.
I highly appreciate the participants of this study for making time for the interview and also giving out information freely. God bless and increase your territories.
To my friend and manager Nana Yaw Owusu-Ansah, thank you for being there always and to the entire INM family, “to the world wi seh”.
I would finally love to express my sincerest gratitude to my family for their support. To my father Mr Albert Takyi Selby, my Grandmother Mrs Bertha Akonowah Entsiwah, and my sisters; Takyiwah, Baaba, Araba and Nkumah. I doff my hat to you all.
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DEDICATION
To the entire INM family. “4lyf”.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
DEDICATION iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
ABSTRACT viii
CHAPTER ONE 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background of the study 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 4
1.3 Research Objectives 5
1.4 Research Questions 6
1.5 Significance of the study 6
1.6 Scope 7
1.7 Summary 7
CHAPTER TWO 9
LITERATURE REVIEW 9
2.0 Introduction 9
2.1 Blog 9
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2.1.1 Classifications of blogs 11
2.2 Dancehall Music 13
2.2.1 Dancehall artistes and culture 15
2.3 Theoretical Framework 18
2.3.1 Framing 18
2.3.2 Agenda-setting 20
2.3.2.1Priming theory 23
2.4 Relevance of the Theories to this Study 24
2.5 Summary 24
CHAPTER THREE 26
METHODOLOGY 26
3.0 Introduction 26
3.1 Research Approach 26
3.2 Research Design 28
3.2.1 Case study. 28
3.3 Sampling Strategy 29
3.4 Sampling Size 32
3.5 Data Collection Method 33
3.5.1 Interviews 33
3.5.2 Document Analysis 34
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3.6 Data Collection Procedure 35
3.7 Method of Data Analysis – Content analysis 38
3.8 Ethical Issues 39
3.9 Chapter Summary 40
CHAPTER FOUR 42
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 42
4.0 Introduction 42
4.1 RQ.1. What are the dominant frames used to portray the selected artistes? 42
4.2 Q2. What is the rationale for the frames used to portray the selected artistes? 48
4.3 Summary 50
CHAPTER FIVE 51
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS. 51
5.0 Introduction 51
5.1 Summary 51
5.2 Conclusion 52
5.3 Limitation 53
5.4 Suggestions for further research 53
5.5 Recommendations 54
Reference 56
Appendix 64
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ABSTRACT
The study examined the dominant frames used to portray dancehall artistes and the rationale for such frames on blogs. This research, through the lens of framing and agenda setting theory, and anchored on a case study design interrogates articles from three purposively selected blogs on two purposively selected dancehall artistes. Findings from the study showed that the selected artistes had been presented in the frames of inspirational, prim, prominence, dissociation, prolific, charismatic and impulsive. Also, the study revealed the rationale for such dominant frames as a strategy to market the artistes as well as the blogs, and also as a reinforcement of the artistes various characters. The study concludes that all the frames employed by the various blogs to present the two dancehall artistes were geared towards projecting their (artistes) brands to the target market.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
This introductory chapter discusses the background to the study, statement of problem, objectives and research questions. It further provides the significance, scope of the study and the organisation of the research.
1.1 Background of the study
According to Lavie-Dinur, Karniel & Azran (2013), the news media plays an important role in liberal pluralist societies by providing much of the information in the public discourse. They serve as valuable sources of information and powerful modes of communication. This power controls much of what people understand of events that occur around the world on a daily basis, and the way information is transferred to mass audience, which comes through various forms all of which are framed to meet the goals of the providing source (Cissel, 2012). The news media has the power to set agenda, shape debates, and also reproduce the dominant ideology (Van & Dijk, 1988, Korn 2004) and construct the consensus for the social order (Hall, 1978, Korn 2004). Studies have shown that the media tend to report the news along explanatory frames that cue the reader, listener, and viewer to put events, issues, and social actors(eg, musicians) into contextual frameworks of reference (Norris 1997). It is by focusing on one aspect of an event and presenting it to an audience that media outlets construct reality (Carter, 2013).
This construction operates by making certain aspects of stories more salient than others.
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This salience further “frames” an event and provides a reference point for viewers in which all subsequent information is judged upon.
Entman (1995) posits that a frame operates to select and highlight some aspects of reality and obscure others in a way that tells a consistent story about problems, their causes, moral implications, and remedies. Ibrahim (2010) avers that framing considers the relationship of content to ideological structures and institutions. In the same vein, she states that the process of framing involves the construction of meaning through structured discourse. Analysing this discourse helps media scholars understand how messages are packaged and disseminated.
According to Chong & Druckman (2007), a frame in communication or media refers to the words, images, phrases, and presentation styles that a speaker (e.g., a musician, a media outlet) uses when relaying information about an issue or event to an audience. Similarly, Kaid, Fernandes and Painter, (2009) defined frames as “the information presented to an audience and how the selection of one method or content of presentation over another affects how an audience perceives a person, events or issues”
(p.18). The chosen frame therefore reveals what the speaker or media outlet sees as relevant to the topic at hand. For example, a particular media house may decide to frame a dancehall artiste in either a positive or negative way such that, audience will get used to such frames and thus associate such frames with the specific artiste even outside the media. Framing research in media studies therefore attempts to understand how journalists as well as their editors and/or producers, organise and explain events and issues (Reese, Gandy and Grant, 2001).
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Just like other media, blogs also highlight certain aspects of reality while obfuscating others, thus limiting the boundaries of discourse on selected issues. Garyyan (2012), defined blog as a space on the Internet where a single person or a group of people record their information, opinions, photos, videos, among others. Blogs are frequently updated webpages with a series of archived posts, typically in reverse-chronological order and they are becoming important components of the internet landscape, providing authors and readers with an avenue for unedited expression, reaction, and connection, without the censorship of mediated chat rooms or formal media outlets (Schmidt, 2007). Due to its unique features, Bestbusinessblogging, (2005) posits that, a blog can help an individual or a company to reach out to a comparatively wider range of new audiences as well as improve a brand’s visibility on the web, which is an important aspect for any business such as music (Santos, 2016).
Music in Ghana exists in three main forms or categories. The first type or category consists of music modeled on Western principles and they are played in the concert halls
(Euba, 1975). The second category is what is termed popular music and is connected with dancing, which includes contemporary genres like Highlife, Reggae/Dancehall, Funk and
Hip-life (Amuah, 2003). The third category is made up of music which is connected with
Ghanaian traditional institutions and is therefore, performed mostly during traditional occasions like enstoolment, enskinment, festivals and ceremonies of the life cycle events such as puberty, marriage and death. Dancehall music is a genre of Jamaican popular music which emerged in the early 1980’s (Flynn, 1995). It has become a household genre in Ghana music since the release of the first dancehall song in the early 2000s (RABtv,
2013). Ghanaian dancehall artistes over the years have arguably gained more
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international recognition than those of other genres. This has caused most young and upcoming artists to gravitate towards the genre. In Ghana, there are dancehall artistes such as Shatta Wale, Stonebwoy, Samini, and Jupiter, among others who have gained much recognition in the music industry. Some Ghanaian mainstream artistes of other genres such as Red Eye of Too Tuff fame, OK4 and Qwata often switched to do dancehall due to the fact that the genre has a ready market and wide range of audience across the world (RABtv, 2013).
Some researchers have investigated how certain issues such as politics and disaster have been framed on blogs due to the fact that blogs foster the growth of communities
(Bartlett-Bragg, 2015). This study therefore investigates how two Ghanaian Dancehall artists- Shatta Wale and Stonebwoy have been framed on three Ghanaian blogs (Ameyaw
Debrah, OMGvoice and Beenie Words).
1.2 Statement of the problem
The study of framing has grown over the past decades as mass media has become more and more ubiquitous in society (Cacciatore, 2016). To gain in-depth understanding into how media messages are organised and disseminated, numerous research works have been conducted in the area of media framing. Earlier studies conducted in the area of media framing focused on print, electronic and online media. For example, Freyenberger
(2013) conducted a quantitative content analysis in which he examined the framing of
Amanda Knox in newspapers published worldwide during the 4 years Knox was imprisoned in Italy. Also, Gonzalez (2013) did a qualitative study to analyze the
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dominant propaganda strategies and frames that were reflected in an hour-long programme of Radio Marti, a broadcast produced on behalf of Voice of America in the
United States and aired to Cuba.
Despite the numerous research on media framing, minimal studies have been conducted on framing of issues and personalities on blogs. Vicari (n.d.) conducted a qualitative study in which he focused on the Cuban blogosphere to investigate how political consciousness and potential for collective action may emerge in blogging practice. He did a content analysis of sixty-two (62) blogs from four different ideological streams to find out how political frames have been presented. Valentini and Romantini (2011) also conducted a research on how specific blogs frame crisis by zooming in on bloggers’ perception on Alitalia Crisis.
Most of the framing research on blogs focused mainly on political issues and figures.
Minimal works have been done to specifically investigate the frames of personalities in the Art and entertainment arenas like musicians and precisely those in the genre of dancehall. This study therefore seeks to investigate how two Ghanaian dancehall artistes,
Shatta Wale and Stonebwoy have been framed on some selected Ghanaian blogs, specifically, OMGvoice, Ameyaw Debrah and Beenie Words.
1.3 Research Objectives
Based on the foundation established by the statement of the problem, this research sought to:
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1. To identify the dominant frames used to portray the selected artistes.
2. To investigate the rationale for the dominant frames used to portray the selected
artistes.
1.4 Research Questions
The research aimed to answer the following questions.
1. What are the dominant frames used to portray the selected artistes?
2. What is the rationale for the frames used to portray the selected artistes?
1.5 Significance of the study
Conducting research on this subject is of value to academia and stakeholders in multiple ways. Firstly, it will increase the knowledge of dancehall artistes as well as bloggers on their use of blogs and add value to the way both groups present issues on blogs.
Also, becoming aware of the different kinds of frames is very necessary to understand when, why and how frames are deployed in the media (online and offline). Findings from this study will benefit the music industry, particularly companies and record labels by making known to them some of the frames that are employed by bloggers to present their artistes in order to help them work on promoting the positives and changing the negatives if any.
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Finally, this study will also add up to the limited literature on media framing of music personalities in general and dancehall artistes to be specific, which will go a long way to aid other researchers in future studies.
1.6 Scope
Though there are lots of Ghanaian mainstream artistes who are doing dancehall, this study was limited to only Shatta Wale and Stonebwoy. This enabled the researcher delve deeper into trending frames of both artists on the selected blogs.
The study was conducted within a timeframe of six months (January, 2016 to June, 2016) which allowed the researcher ample time to gather data from the three (3) blogs which will help arrive at appropriate findings for the study.
1.7 Summary
This chapter started with explication of the terms dancehall music, media, its relevance and types, singling out blogs as an important component and framing as a phenomenon in media content presentation. It stressed on the point that blogs foster the growth of communities which is essential for the success of every business. It also highlighted the concept of framing on blogs, narrowing it down to the framing of two Ghanaian dancehall artist on three entertainment blogs.
The statement of the problem identified that although a considerable number of researches has been conducted on the framing in the media, few works have studied the
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framing of personalities on blogs. Also, the objectives that guided the study and the research questions that the study aimed to answer were outlined. Finally, the significance of the study and scope/delimitation were also stated.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
Literature reviews can integrate what others have done and said, criticise previous scholarly works, build bridges between related topics and or identify the central issues in a field (Cooper, 2010 as cited in Creswell, 2014). This chapter therefore serves as a review of relevant literature on blogs and dancehall music, criticising and integrating what others have done in the related fields. It further explicates the theories of framing and-agenda setting and subsequently, shows the relevance of the theories to the study. It concludes with the summery of the chapter.
2.1 Blog
The term blog comes from the contraction of the two words “web” and “log” (Walker
Rettberg, 2007). Hong (2008) confirmed the assertion of the aforementioned authority by stating that a blog is a short term of “web log”- an online chronological collection of personal commentary and links. According to Dickey (2004), a blog is a type of website, usually maintained by an individual with regular entries of commentary, by descriptions of events, or other materials such as graphics or videos. Gunter (2009), also states that a blog is a website that contains series of dated entries (by an individual or group of individuals), presented in reversed chronological order and published on the internet.
Blood (2003) defines blog as personal or organisational web pages organized by dated entries, with newer items posted to the top of the site, usually consisting of links,
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multimedia components, commentaries, personal thoughts and ongoing discussions.
Accordingly, Herring, Scheidt, Wright, & Bonus (2005) define blogs as personal websites that are regularly updated and contain archived dated entries in reverse chronological order, which contain primarily text, but may also contain photos or other multimedia, and usually allow for audience comments. They combine the immediacy of up-to-the-minute posts, latest first, with a strong sense of the author's personality, passions, and point of view. In the same light, Gurak, Antonijevic, Johnson, Ratliff and
Reyman (2004), define blogs as web sites that are updated frequently, most often with links to other sites and commentary on the other sites' content. According to them, what characterizes blogs are their form and function: all posts to the blog are time-stamped with the most recent post at the top, creating a reversed chronological structure governed by spontaneity and novelty. They added that the content of blogs combine musings, memories, jokes, reflections on research, photographs, rants, and essays, and further argued that it is not the nature of the content that defines it (Gurak et. Al, 2004).
To date researchers (Dickey, 2004: Blood, 2003: Gunter, 2009) have defined blogs from a variety of technical, and normative-functional perspective. The technical approach suggests that a blog can be defined by a set of design characteristics or features that differentiate it from other forms of media. Such characteristics include frequent entries, content presented in a reverse-chronology format, and archived posts (Nardi, Schiano and
Gumbreeht, 2004). However, these same characteristics are also present in other forms of online media, making them (characteristics) a difficult choice for defining the boundary of a sample. Furthermore, this approach often does not distinguish whether features are necessary or sufficient in defining the term, thus limiting an understanding of the
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acceptable variability in form. The normative, functional viewpoint characterises blogs as representing “genres” of communication, meaning that they share features and purpose
(Yates, Orlikowski, and Rennecker 1997).
2.1.1 Classifications of blogs
In applying a genre analysis to a random sample of blogs, Herring, et al (2005) classified blogs as personal journals, filters, knowledge logs, and mixed components, noting that they exist as a hybrid genre that moves along a continuum between ‘standard web pages’ and ‘asynchronous CMC (Computer mediated communication)’ (p. 10). However, this classification was identified by the researchers based on a limited sample and may not reflect contemporary views of users. Alternatively, Krishnamurthy (2002) proposed a blog classification typology along two vectors: personal to topical, and individual to community. This captures common blog definitions: the blog as a personal journal
(Dibble, 2002), a means of participating in wider contemporary conversations (Boyd
2004; Lasica 2001), community blogging efforts such as interest group blogs, and large, collaborative content creation and aggregation blogs like Slashdot or Metafilter
(Krishnamurthy, 2002).
Blogs are part of the web 2.0 family, the second generation of web adventure (Hong,
2008). Bartlet-Bragg (2003) exhibit five representative features: personal editorship, a hyperlinked posting structure, frequent updates, free public access to the content via the
Internet and archived postings. A blog can be regarded as an online journal, and it is very easy to maintain. Blogging does not require programming language or server knowledge from bloggers (Hill. 2005). Entries can be personal or professional, but are generally
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updated frequently (Carlson, 2009). Gurak, et al. (2004) observe that blogs can be devoted to only one topic, or they can reflect what the author is interested in at any given time. Makri and Kynigos (2007) reported that blogs can be published or maintained either by a single or multiple authors, with varying editing permissions. A person or group of persons who update or maintain a blog are known as bloggers (Gurak, et al., 2004). A blogger enters posts into a blogging application and saves the post. The posts can include text, hyperlinks, images, or multimedia components. Visitors can read the posts and submit their comments. This comment feature help establish dialogue with readers and is the biggest strength of blogs (Gardner, 2005). William and Jacobs (2004) argue that blogs are more successful in promoting interactivity that is conversational as opposed to other online discussion.
According to Hong (2008), blogs often attract large readership than any other “self- publishing” online since they engage people in information sharing and reflection. In the same light, Hiller (2003) confirms the capacity of blogs to engage people in collaborative activity, reflection, knowledge sharing and debate. Corroboratively, Boyd (2003) is of the view that blogs allow for the creation of new social groupings and arousal of new social conversations. Boyd further noted some flipsides of blogs such as inaccuracy of information, intellectual property issues, and the volatile nature. On the other hand,
Levine, Locke, Searls and Weinberger (2000) emphasized some positive aspects of blogs as having acquired reputation for authenticity and transparency.
Hong (2008), outlined two major categories of software that one can use to build a blog: hosting services and installed applications. According to him (Hong), a hosting service refers to a website that gives access to everything needed to create a blog, while Installed
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applications refers to a piece of software obtained from the provider and installed on one’s own website. He adds that people who use hosting services do not need any knowledge about HTML (Hepertext Markup Language) and the web servers, while people using installed applications are more knowledgeable about technology applications. According to Hong (2008), the best-known hosting service is Blogger
(http://www.blogger.com) and Live Journal (http://www.livejournal.com), while the most well-known installation applications are WordPress (http://www.wordpress.org) and Six
Apart’s Movable Type (http://www.moveabletype.org). In the same light, Hill (2005) confirms Blogger as a basic hosting tool that allows users to create a “weblog” easily and offer features such as choice of multiple templates. A blog can be used as a diary to keep a record of achievements and of interesting materials.
Hong (2008) posit that types of blogs include LibLogs (library blogs) and EduBlogs
(education blogs). Contrary to that, Technorati (2014) outlined seven categories of blogs namely: entertainment, business, sports, politics, living, green and science.
2.2 Dancehall Music
Originally, the term “dancehall was used to describe a place or “hall” used for staging of dances and similar events (Hope, 2006; Nelson, 2008). There is no general consensus on how the term became identified with this form of Jamaican popular culture. One can speculate that the proliferation of stage shows and other stage events backed by the sound systems resulted in dance-hall’s identification as a music that is tied to a space or place.
According to Douglas (2002) dancehall is the revolutionised form of reggae. Taken from a historical standpoint, dancehall music originated from the combination of various soul
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music genres with African Afro-Caribbean rhythms (Davis & Simon, 1977). Hope (2006) is of the view that dancehall music is that genre of Jamaican popular music that originated in the early 1990s. He indicates that while affected by and encapsulating elements of earlier forms of Jamaican music (for example, mento, ska, dob, roots rock and reggae), the music culture labelled “dancehall” occupies a late-twentieth-century cultural, political, ideological and economic space in Jamaica and has a definite point of disjuncture with preceding manifestations of popular Jamaican music culture. Nelson
(2008) also adds that Dancehall music is a genre of reggae music that emerged after the roots reggae success of groups like Bob Marley and the wailers, Third World, Burning
Spear, Culture, and Black Uhuru. He observes that “Dancehehall” as distinct from its predecessor genres of reggae is seen as “slack”. According to Nelson (2008), it is the
“people’s” music just as roots reggae before it, but with comparatively more urban feel and less spiritual aspiration. West Kingston, located in the slums of Jamaica, is the birthplace of reggae in the mid-sixties (Davis & Simon, 1977). Soon after, reggae was founded on the mainstream airwaves of Jamaica and was picked up through cheap transistors on other nearby islands beginning the connection between other islands of the
Caribbean and reggae as a “local” music (Davis & Simon, 1977). From the various
Caribbean islands it has travelled around the world and has subsequently become internationally recognised as a legitimate genre of music (Chang & Chen, 1998). Reggae music paved way for dancehall as a new contemporary form developed by the then current generation of artists (Chang & Chen, 1998). In the same vein, Skjelbo (2013) notes that dancehall is a “Jamaican-gone-global” music genre that emerged internationally in the 1980s following the death of Bob Marley and general dissemination
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of cheap music technology that made it possible to create and distribute music without investing heavily in equipment.
Dancehall is distinct because of its resistance to ‘westernisation’, and also its inspiration for various liberation movements as it often addresses social and racial issues within its lyrics (Chang & Chen, 1998). Reggae, dancehall’s previous form, was based on the experience of Jamaican locales and their burning desire to satisfy their emotional and spiritual needs (Chang & Chen, 1998).
The various human experiences and messages were developed, portrayed, and exhaled to the masses through lyrics of songs as forms of expressions, most notably in the form of easily relatable stories (Chang & Chen, 1998). In this way, dancehall was and continues to be viewed as a form of emancipation from authoritative powers through music (Davis
& Simon, 1977). As Knapp (1992) explains, the evolution of reggae to dancehall was
“born out of resistance…a response to the oppression and enslavement of black Africans and the patricians of Africa under white colonial rule” (p.2).
2.2.1 Dancehall artistes and culture
Dancehall music is known for its danceability, the impressive vocal deftness of its performers and it is sometimes extremely sexually explicit and/or violent lyrics (Skjelbo,
2013). According to Douglas (2002), while there are many positive values and themes associated with dancehall music, throughout its evolution, themes have also emerged that have negatively associated reactions as they violate mainstream western broader societal
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standards. For example topics on sex, violence, and drug abuse are common topics in dancehall music.
In creating content for their works, dancehall artistes filter through what has often been labelled vulgar, slack, sexually explicit, misogynistic and anti-homosexual lyrics. These lyrics, however, reveal much more than a subculture or group actively engaged in the spread of sexually explicit, misogynistic and anti-homosexual lyrics. The existence of these, together with what has been labelled homophobia in the dancehall, is part of a cultural dialogue of gendered identity that draws on the historical and cultural legacies of
Jamaica (Douglas, 2002). This cultural dialogue highlights several core issues affecting not only the masculine and feminine identities in the dancehall, but also the broader masculine and feminine identities in Jamaica.
According to Hope (2006), Dancehall artistes are also known as “Deejays”. Hope observes that dancehall artistes engage in the creation of the lyrics and the rhythms that form the foundation of dancehall music. It is important to note that many deejays
(categorized in the following) do not compose all the lyrics for the songs that make up their repertoire. Skjelbo (2013) opine that dancehall builds on the concept of the riddim
(rhythm). The riddim is a backing track over which a vocalist performs. Nelson (2013) is of the view that the hallmark of dancehall is the often rough Deejays’ voice performed over prerecorded rhythm tracks. In this vein, it has a distinct similarity to American hip- hop but with a Caribbean and a distinctive Jamaican flare (Nelson, 2008).
Contemporary dancehall music and its cultural display have become more than the sum of the popularised lyrical output of its most prominent artistes (Hope, 2006). Dancehall culture is a space for the cultural creation and dissemination of symbols and ideologies
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that reflect and legitimize the lived realities of its adherents, particularly those from the inner cities of Jamaica. Owing to its prominent creators, artistes and adherents originated or were socialized in these poverty stricken inner-city communities, the dancehall increasingly symbolizes the existential struggles of individuals in these communities.
Gender, politics and patriarchy remain vibrant parts of the dancehall. The male dancehall entertainers re-enact the role of the “poor people[s] governor”, (Pinnock, 2007). Pinnock
(2007) avers that the prominent dancehall artistes are Dancehall’s ‘native intellectuals’.
They articulate political concerns which are not discussed and or legitimised in the halls of the middle-class academy. He further related dancehall to a class/schoolroom in which the artistes teach as well as learn from each other, while audience members alternate between roles of classmates, teachers and administrators, as in the case of studio producers and musical creators, in the evolution and discussion of their largely oral, folk- inspired discourses. According to Pinnock, the cultural processes about which the entertainers sing and from which they perform their identities emerge out of the vocabulary of the oppressed in Jamaican society. Their silenced voices are articulated into the collective consciousness by, primarily, the male Jamaican Dancehall artistes.
Through “him” the male dancehall artistes) a voice is afforded the voiceless (Hope,
2006). Accordingly, Dube (2016) identified this genre of music as “wilderness music” to explain the fact that it provides spaces of hope and courage to the fragile and less certain identities.
The intersection between entertainment, on the one hand, and politics and the demand for needed economic resources, on the other, within Dancehall popular culture acknowledges the deep social and other cleavages in the society and reflect widespread disenchantment.
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Thus, alienation from the political systems and leaders set up to administer state politics is recreated as the protest music of the Jamaican Dancehall.
Alleyne (2009) posit that Dancehall music is influential globally. According to him the genre has been subject to a greater degree of commercialisation over a lengthy time span and a wider geographical area than any other music from the Anglophone Caribbean. He further noted that Dancehall music, a subculture of Reggae music have developed in different countries and sometimes successful local interpretations of it have emerged. The globalization of the genre has spread as wide as to Africa and in this case Ghana.
Dancehall has become a household genre in Ghana music since the release of the first dancehall song in the early 2000s (rabtvinfo.blogspot.com). Ghanaian dancehall artistes over the years have arguably gained more international recognition than those of other genres. This has caused most young and upcoming artists to gravitate towards the genre.
In Ghana, there are dancehall artistes such as Shatta Wale, Stonebwoy, Samini, and
Jupiter, among others who have gained much recognition in the music industry.
2.3 Theoretical Framework
This section highlights the two theories: framing and agenda setting that were used to explain the presentations of the two dancehall artistes on blogs.
2.3.1 Framing
Entman (1993) defines framing as a process in which some aspects of reality are selected, and given greater emphasis or importance, so that the problem is defined, its causes are
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diagnosed, moral judgments are suggested and appropriate solutions and actions are proposed. Chong and Druckman (2007) also define framing as the process by which people develop a particular conceptualisation of an issue or re-orient their thinking about an issue.
Framing in communication or media refers to the words, images, phrases and presentation styles that a speaker (e.g., a politician, a media outlet) uses when relaying information about an issue or event to an audience (Gamson and Modigliant, 1989).
According to Richardson and Lancendorfer (2004), an issue frame is a theme, story line, or label suggesting a preferred interpretation of some policy question. Similarly, Chong and Drunckman (2007) emphasised that a frame in communication organises everyday reality by providing meaning to an unfolding strip of events and promoting particular definitions and interpretations of issues. Corroboratively Nelson and Kinder (1996) also argue that frames in media discourse functions as heuristic structures that anchor, organize and shape thought about an issue. In the same vein, Ardevol-Abreu (2015) indicates that frames draw attention to some aspects of reality at the expense of others.
He therefore suggests that in order to define frames one must take into account what is described and what is left out. Framing is said to be present not only in the mind of the journalist who writes the news report, but also in the news report that he builds, reaching the reader through a decoding process that is necessary to understand the news report and the reality to which it refers (Ardevol-Abreu, 2015).
Entman (1993) observes that there is no unified theory of framing capable of explaining how frames are constructed, how they manifest in texts, and how they influence the minds of the public. Weaver (2007) also states that the term frame still lacks a clear
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conceptualisation and has become a passé-partout that encompass the interpretive schemas of an event, the agenda of attributes of particular subjects or objects, and the process whereby messages influence the perceptions, attitudes and behaviours of individuals and the public. Entman (1993) further observed that the inadequacy of the framing theory complicated the solid and unified progress of the discipline. This heterogeneous conceptualisation has brought with it a very different methodological approach, both with regards to the identification of frames (media and audience frames and the socio-cultural environment) and the measuring of their effects on individuals and audiences (Ardevol-Abreu, (2015).
2.3.2 Agenda-setting
According to McCombs and Shaw (1972) cited in Scheufele and Tewskbury (2007),
Agenda setting refers to the idea that there is a strong correlation between the emphasis that mass media places on certain issues (eg, based on relative placement or amount of coverage) and the importance attributed to these issues by mass audiences. McCombs
(2006) also argues that the mass media constantly present issues to suggest what individuals in the mass should think about, know about and have feelings about. By so doing, the mass media forces attention to certain issues, making them salient over others.
McCombs (2006) attributes the rational for the attention-shifting role of the media to factors such as time and space constraints. This means that the mass media can only focus attention on a few topics that are deemed newsworthy at one time or the other. Over time, those aspects of public affairs that are prominent in the media usually become prominent in public opinion. This ability to influence which issues, persons and topics are perceived
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as the most important of the day is called the agenda-setting role of the mass media
(McCombs, 2004).
According to McCombs (2004), when connecting to the world outside one’s family, neighbourhood or workplace, an individual tends to deal with a second-hand reality created by journalists and media organisations. The perspectives and frames that journalists employ in presenting issues draw mass audience attention to certain attributes of the objects of news coverage (Weaver 2007). In the same vein, McCombs (2002) avers that not only do people acquire factual information about public affairs from the news media, readers and viewers also learn how much importance to attach to a topic on the basis of the emphasis placed on it in the news. McCombs (2004) further argues that the agenda setting role of the media goes beyond focusing public attention on particular set of issues, to influencing audience’s understanding and perspectives on the stories in the news. Corroboratively, Scheufele & Tewskybury (2007) expanded the scope of agenda setting from only making issues salient in the minds of people to shaping the considerations that people take into account when making judgments about political candidates or issues. Weaver (2007) acknowledged the dual functions of agenda-setting and classified them as levels. The “first level” is said to deal with the aspect that focuses on the relative salience of issues and subjects whiles the “second level” examines the relative salience of issue attributes. Contrary to these two levels, Lee (2005) outlined four phases of the agenda setting theory. These phases according to him, are: (1) first level agenda setting effect, (2) need for orientation, (3) second level agenda setting effects, (4) the priming aspect of the agenda setting effects. According to McCombs (2005), need for orientation is defined by two concepts, relevance and uncertainty. In the same light he
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states that low relevance defines a low need for orientation; high relevance and low uncertainty, a moderate need for orientation; and high relevance and uncertainty, a high need for orientation. Lee (2005) re-defined relevance as personal involvement, and uncertainty as knowledge. A person is likely to find a news item relevant when the issues or objects at stake affects him/her, and the more knowledge he or she has about the issue, the less his/her uncertainty level. In addition, Lee (2005) reintroduced a third component, effort required to attend to the message, a component omitted from earlier conceptualizations on the grounds that news was easily accessible to the vast majority of the public through television, newspapers and other media. However, Lee argues that accessing news on the Internet involves a degree of effort and, furthermore, that in developing countries, accessing news via any medium of communication frequently involves a significant degree of effort (Lee, 2005). Zaller (1992) also reports that agenda setting is somewhat driven by “accessibility bias”. This bias is based on the assumption that individuals are only able to retrieve a small subset of relevant information from memory when called upon to form an impression of something or someone (Iyengar,
1991). Hill (2003) explains that some considerations are more easily or more rapidly retrieved from memory, based on the characteristics of that information. The accessibility of information from one’s is dependent on the importance attributed to them. Hill (2003) further explained that an important determinant of this accessibility is the recency with which that information has been encoded or retrieved from memory. The specific argument in regard to news media messages is that those messages that have been recently and/or repeatedly aired, are more likely to be “top-of-the-head” considerations
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for news viewers, and thus are more likely to be enlisted in the construction of political attitudes (Iyengar, 1991).
Miller and Krosnick (2000) challenge this prevailing wisdom on bias, arguing that agenda-setting is mediated not by accessibility, but by the inferred importance of a subject. In the same vein, Hill (2003) posits that the effect is moderated by the amount of knowledge a person has and the amount of trust that a person puts in news media sources.
To put it another way, conditional on a person knowing about issues and having some faith in the ability of the news media to report fair and accurate information, one is likely to factor news report into their judgment. That person will infer that just because the news media have devoted precious time and space to an issue, it must be an important issue and, therefore, should figure into their judgments.
2.3.2.1 Priming theory
Priming refers to changes in the standards that people use to make political evaluations
(Iyengar & Kinder, 1987 cited in Scheufele & Tewskbury, 2007). According to Scheufele and Tewskbury (2007), priming occurs when news content suggests to news audiences that they ought to use specific issues as benchmarks for evaluating the performance of leaders and governments. He further explained priming as an extension of agenda-setting, and gave one of the reasons for his assertion being that both effects are based on memory-based models of information processing. Scheufele (2009) also posits that
Priming is the impact agenda-setting can have on the way individuals evaluate public officials (objects) by influencing the thematic areas or issues that individuals use to form
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these evaluations. According to McCombs, Llamas, Lopez-Escobar, and Rey (1997), priming is concerned with the salience of issue attributes
2.4 Relevance of the Theories to this Study
Blogs have opened the doors of communication, allowing people from around the world to engage in conversations that are of interest to them, over the internet (Boyd, 2003).
Blogging has over the years gained a reputation for authenticity of news and transparency in its processes. People who visit blogs consider blogged information as factual and therefore factor such information when they have to make decisions concerning certain issues (Levine et al, 2000).
The theory of framing enabled this study to explain how blogs (OMGvoice.com,
Ameyawdebrah.com and Beeniewords.com) select some aspects of realities of dancehall artistes (Shatta Wale and Stonebwoy), and make them salient over others. Finally, the theory of agenda-setting facilitated understanding on the importance blogs attach to their salience and how the salience possibly transfers into the minds of blog audience and influence their decisions and judgments.
2.5 Summary
From the literature reviewed, it was concluded that a type of website that contains series of dated entries presented in reverse chronological order, published on the internet and allows audience the feature to comment is referred to as a blog. Blogs can be classified into various types depending on their purpose or function. The study focused on blogs and the dancehall culture which included the music, artistes and lifestyles that surrounds
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them. It also reviewed literature on framing theory. It continues with the seminal work of
McCombs on the agenda setting theory where various media salience influence audiences’ attributes. Finally, how the theories helped in my analysis was also discussed.
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter of the research is a description of the various methods and processes the researcher employed in the collection and analysis of data to answer the research questions. It is a demonstration of the rational for the choices of data collection methods and processes in analysing the collected data.
3.1 Research Approach
Qualitative Approach
Qualitative research describes social phenomena as they occur naturally without the artificiality that sometimes surrounds experimental or survey research (Hancock, 2002;
Wimmer & Dominick, 2011). This study on framing of two dancehall artistes on blogs was conducted without any attempt to manipulate or influence the phenomena under study since qualitative research is concerned with the opinions, experiences and feelings of individuals producing subjective data and not that of the researcher.
Denzin and Lincoln (2007) define qualitative research as a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world.
This means that qualitative researchers study phenomena in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret in terms of the meanings people bring to them.
The authors add that qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials—content analysis; personal experience; introspection; life
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story; interview; artefacts; cultural texts and productions; observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts—that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals’ lives. Accordingly, I chose the content analysis approach for the study because it offered the opportunity to make replicable and valid inferences from stories bloggers have published on their blogs to their context, to gain knowledge and new insight into the types of frames in which the selected artistes have been presented.
Also I employed interviews in order to explore the perspectives and perceptions (Daymon
& Holloway, 2002) of the bloggers on their rational for the presentation of such frames on the various artistes. These methods were used because they facilitated a better understanding, interpretation and analysis of the frames employed by bloggers to portray the selected dancehall artistes.
The qualitative research approach relies primarily on human perception and understanding where the researcher seeks to establish the meaning of a phenomenon from the views of participants (Creswell, 2014; Stake, 2010). Connolly (1998) also states that qualitative researchers typically do not make external statistical generalisations because their goal usually is not to make inferences about the underlying population, but to attempt to obtain insights into particular educational, social, and familial processes and practices that exist within a specific location and context. For this reason, this study collected data from the interviews and the documents retrieved from the various blogs
(OMGvoice.com, Ameyawdebrah.com and Beeniewords.com). These were solely based on the bloggers worldview as I limited my unit of analysis of the documents to headlines of stories on the two dancehall artists. Finally, there was no generalisation whatsoever as qualitative researchers’ aim is to study a particular occurrence in-depth.
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3.2 Research Design
Yin (2009) posits that research design is the logic that links the data to be collected (and the conclusions to be drawn) to the initial questions of study. In a more explanatory and informal way, a research design is an action plan for getting from here to there, where here may be defined as the initial set of questions to be answered, and there is some set of conclusions (answers) about these questions. There are several research designs available when adopting the qualitative approach to research. Some of these are: ethnography, phenomenology, case study, among others. The design chosen for this study is case study.
3.2.1 Case study.
Primarily, case study design is used when a researcher wants to probe deeper into a phenomenon (Yin, 2009). Mostly, the research questions tend to determine the research design appropriate for the study. To Yin, a case study may be relevant when a researcher’s research questions are tailored in a way that would explain a present occurrence (for instance, “how” and “why” a certain phenomenon works). Yin (2009) presents a twofold definition in explaining what a case study is. Firstly, “a case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (p. 18). Secondly:
the case study inquiry copes with the technically distinctive situation in which there will be many more variables of interest than data points, and as one result relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to converge in a triangulating fashion, and as another result benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions to guide data
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collection and analysis (Ibid). Corroboratively, qualitative case study is an approach to research that facilitates the exploration of a phenomenon within its context using a variety of data sources. This ensures that the issue is not explored through one lens, but rather a variety of lenses which allows for multiple facets of the phenomenon to be revealed and understood
(Baxter & Jack, 2008).
Creswell (2013) posits that case study research is a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a real-life, contemporary bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information and reports a case description and case themes.
As suggested by the aforementioned authors (Cresswell, Baxter & Jack, Yin), I adopted the case study design for the study because first, I wanted to thoroughly investigate the phenomenon of Dancehall artists presentation on blogs and my research questions set out to explore what the selected blogs publish on the two artists and how the concepts of framing is enacted in their respective articles. Adapting Creswell’s definition to suit my study, the space of blog is my contemporary bounded system and data was collected over a period of time through document analysis and interviews and later reported by categorising the findings into themes and then frames.
3.3 Sampling Strategy
Daymon and Holloway (2001) assert that qualitative approaches demand different sampling techniques from the randomly selected and probabilistic sampling which quantitative researchers generally use. Qualitative researchers do not start with the
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establishment of a strict sampling frame, as in quantitative studies because qualitative sampling develops during the research process as you discover new avenues and clues to follow up. Daymon and Holloway propose that the underlying principle of gaining rich, in-depth information guides the sampling strategies of qualitative researchers. A particular participant selected for a study, as well as the “where” and “when” depends on certain criteria which are determined by the purpose of the study. The term purposive or purposeful sampling is therefore applied. Lindloff and Taylor (2002) assert that no qualitative project can capture every event as it unfolds. This assertion underscores the purposeful selection of participants of a particular study. They further note that many qualitative researchers use a sampling strategy that guides their choices of what to observe or whom to interview. The right choice of a sampling strategy enables researchers to make a systematic contact with communicative phenomena with a minimum of wasted effort.
Creswell (2014) observes that the idea behind qualitative research is to purposefully select participants or sites (or documents or visual materials) that will best help the researcher understand the problem and the research question. In purposive sampling, the selection of participants, settings or other sampling units is criterion based or purposive
(Mason, 2002; Patton, 2002). The sample units are chosen because they have particular features or characteristics which will enable detailed exploration and understanding of the central themes and puzzles which the researcher wishes to study.
From the foregoing, the theme that runs through the definitions is the fact that a qualitative researcher selects participants or materials that will help him or her answer the research questions set. The primary purpose of my study which was to investigate the
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types of frames used to present Ghanaian dancehall artiste is therefore the overarching criteria that guided my selection of the participants, documents and sites. First of all, a participant has to be a dancehall artiste from Ghana so I first picked Shatta Wale who ranked first in the Ghana’s most influential musicians rankings in 2016 by Pulse Gh.
Stonebwoy ranked third in the same ranking and thus his selection for this study. I did not choose the second musician because he did not meet the criteria of dancehall artistes. He was a rap artiste. I selected these two personalities so as to get a representative sample as
Biber (1993), for example defines representativeness as the extent to which a sample includes the full range of variability in a population such as age, gender, language, ethnicity or race.
Also, the blogs (OMGvoice.com, ameyawdebrah.com and beeniewords.com) were chosen as sites for the study because, according to JBKlutse’s (a technology and social information website) ranking of entertainment blogs in 2016, ameyawdebrah.com is the number one entertainment blog in Ghana. OMGvoice.com was second. The third and fourth blogs had to be skipped for benniewords.com because they didn’t have any articles published on the selected artistes. The researcher only re-selected articles which were published within January and June 2016. Seventeen (17) articles were retrieved from ameyawdebrah.com on Shatta Wale, while articles on Stonebwoy on the same blog was ten (10). Fifteen (15) articles were reviewed from OMGvoice.com on each of the artistes.
Twenty-seven (27) articles were retrieved from beeniewords.com on Shatta Wale while articles on Stonebwoy on the same blog were twenty-five (25). In all, hundred and nine
(109) articles were reviewed from the three blogs on the two artistes.
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3.4 Sampling Size
Daymon and Holloway (2001) refer to qualitative research as small-scale studies. In their view, qualitative researchers are interested in deep exploration in order to provide rich, detailed, holistic description – as well as explanation. Therefore, small samples are the norm.
Daymon and Holloway (2001) note,
It is not necessary to specify the exact number of informants in the sample, although you are expected to indicate the numbers involved in your initial sample, that is, ‘the initial sample will consist of x number of informants’. This sampling strategy differs from quantitative research where you choose all participants before the project begins (p. 158).
The authors further state that the appropriate number of participants chosen for research will depend on the type of research question, the type of qualitative approach used in the study, material and time resources as well as the number of researchers involved in the study.
Owing to the above explanation, I chose 3 Ghanaian entertainment blogs because I was interested in studying them indepth in relation to the phenomenon of framing of dancehall artistes. Lindloff and Taylor (2002) corroborate the assertions of the aforementioned authors with the view that the sample size is the terra incognita of qualitative sampling strategy. No tests or coefficients exist to tell the researcher when the sample is big enough. Also, Perrin (2001) asserts that the process of reading and coding text is so time-consuming that studies using qualitative techniques tend to be relatively small.
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3.5 Data Collection Method
Spencer and Snape (2003) aver that certain data collection methods have also been identified with qualitative research such as: observational methods, in-depth interviewing, group discussions, narratives, and the analysis of documentary evidence. I was able to collect data to answer my research questions through the utilisation of interviews and analysis of electronic documentary evidence.
3.5.1 Interviews
Creswell (2014) defines qualitative interviews as the process by which the researcher conducts face-to-face interviews with participants, interviews participants by telephone, on the Internet, or engages in focus group interviews with six to eight interviewees in each group. These interviews involve unstructured and generally open-ended questions that are few in number and intended to elicit views and opinions from the participants.
Braun and Clarke (2013) explain the term interviewing as “a professional conversation with the goal of getting a participant to talk about their experiences and perspectives and to capture their language and concepts, in relation to a topic that you have determined”
(p. 77). The authors believe that interviews are used when the researcher aims to answer questions relating to the experience, understanding, perceptions and construction of things that the participants have some kind of personal stake in.
Qualitative interviews are mostly divided into three types. These types are structured, semi-structured and unstructured (Braun & Clarke, 2011; Daymon & Holloway, 2001).
For this study, I used the semi-structured interview. To Braun and Clarke (2011), this
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approach of interviewing is tailored in such a way that the researcher prepares an interview guide before the interview process but does not rigidly adhere to it, either in terms of precise wording of the questions or the order in which the questions are asked.
Daymon and Holloway (2001) stress that the sequencing of questions is not the same for every participant as it depends on the process of each interview and the responses of each individual.
In line with the above reasons, I had the opportunity of interviewing the owner and administrator of Beeniewords.com via the phone because of his busy schedules and used a semi-structured interview guide. Through the interview, I got to know and understand why he employed the various frames in presenting the selected dancehall artistes.
However, I could not have interviews with the administrators of ameyawdebrah.com and omgvoice.com to get their point of views on their presentation of the two artistes because they had very busy schedules as well and all efforts to get them proved futile.
3.5.2 Document Analysis
As a research method, document analysis is particularly applicable to qualitative case studies. It is an intensive study that produces rich descriptions of a single phenomenon, event, organisation, or programe (Stake, 1995; Yin, 1994). Bowen (2009) defines document analysis as a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents, both printed and electronic (computer-based and Internet transmitted) material. Daymon and
Holloway (2001) assert that documents consist of words and images that have been recorded without the intervention of a researcher. They are in written, printed, sound, visual and digital forms. The authors (Daymon & Halloway) state that analysing
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documents is a useful method because of its unobtrusive, non-reactive nature. This assertion is apt since I did not create or co-create the electronic documents that were retrieved because they were posted prior to my study and without my knowledge. This makes the documents naturalistic and also possess a built-in level of authenticity (Leavy,
2014).
To Bowen (2009), documents can take various forms like advertisements, attendance registers, and minutes of meetings; manuals; background papers; books and brochures; diaries and journals; letters and memoranda; maps and charts; newspaper among others.
In the case of this research however, I retrieved and analysed articles that were published on the selected dancehall artistes by the three entertainment blogs. I treated the articles as documents which served as stories that contained the various frames of the selected artists.
3.6 Data Collection Procedure
From the outset of my data collection process, I ensured a stable internet connection on my Compaq laptop computer after booting it on. I opened the mozilla browser and then typed into the address search bar the web address of the various blogs. I started with ameyawdebrah.com. The site had a search option on the homepage where visitors get to search for various articles with keywords. I first entered Shatta Wale in the search engine and a list of all published articles on the artiste with their dates of publication appeared. I selected the articles which were published from January to June on Shatta Wale. There were seventeen (17) of them. After clearing the search engine on Shatta Wale on the site,
I searched for articles on Stonebwoy and then selected the ones which were published within the period of January to June, when the result appeared. There were ten (10)
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articles published on Stonebwoy within the period of review. I then visited
OMGvoice.com and replicated the same procedure, and finally beeniewords.com since they all had a search option on their homepages. I retrieved fifteen (15) articles on each of the artistes on OMGvoice.com. Twenty-seven (27) articles were retrieved from benniewords.com on Shatta Wale as against twenty-five (25) on Stonebwoy on the same site. In all, hundred and nine (109) articles were retrieved from the three blogs on the two artistes.
I retrieved and stored the articles in Microsoft Word document. This was in consonance with the assertion of Altheide and Schneider (2013) and Leavy (2014) that qualitative content analysis focuses on pre-existing data that exists independently of the research process not ongoing interactions. I had Microsoft Word Documents dedicated to each of the artistes and compiled all the data I retrieved from the various blogs. For each artiste, I had three word documents; one for the data retrieved from ameyawdebrah.com, one for those from OMGvoice.com and the other one for beeniewords.com. I therefore had six word documents in all. Following Austmann (2015) and Girginova (2013), I considered every paragraph which included headlines to be a single, unique unit of analysis.
I converted the Word documents into PDF files so as to prevent any incidental changes from occurring to the data. I then printed the documents and began the analysis.
This method actually follows Altheide and Schneider’s (2013) advice of saving the data retrieved for later research because it could be more easily searched and a more secure way of reviewing data since the researcher can go back to it at any given time in the course of the study. I then designed a coding scheme with the codes that emerged.
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I first skimmed through the data collected and later engaged it closely putting down descriptive notes at every stage in order to gain a general understanding of the contents.
After having a full grasp of the issues that were espoused in the data, I began coding and came up with some thematic categories. These thematic categories included: motivational, inspirational, serious, prim, organised, crowd-pulling, prominence, dissociation, withdrawal, releases, charismatic, collaborations, aggressive and impulsive. I later developed themes out of the categories since some of them were interwoven. The themes were: inspirational, prim, prominence, dissociation, prolific, charismatic and impulsive. These themes were later considered as frames of the two artistes.
I coded the rest of the data based on the codes that emerged. I kept notes on insights, ideas, patterns, and connections that occurred to me as I read and re-read the data
(Benaquisto & Given, 2008). The notes helped me to keep track of the emergent definitions of codes and their distinctive criteria.
The data obtained from the content analysis of the articles from the various blog analysis was supplemented by the interviews. The primary purpose of this additional data collection step was to provide a rich, contextual background for understanding the rationale for the portrayals of the artistes’ frames on the blogs. The interviews were transcribed and analysed.
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3.7 Method of Data Analysis – Content analysis
Altheide and Schneider (2013) identify two types of content analysis. These are
Quantitative Content Analysis (QCA) and qualitative content analysis also known as
Ethnographic Content Analysis (ECA) or latent content analysis (Julien, 2008). This study employed the qualitative content analysis as its data analysis method. To Hsieh and
Shannon (2005), qualitative content analysis is one of the numerous research methods used to analyse text data. Bowen (2009) believes that the method of data analysis suitable for data mined through document analysis is content analysis. The goal of content analysis is to provide knowledge and understanding of the phenomenon under study
(Downe-Wamboldt, 1992, p. 314). The above definition resonates with the case study design which seeks to study a phenomenon in-depth for a better understanding and interpretation. “Content analysis is the intellectual process of categorising qualitative textual data into clusters of similar entities, or conceptual categories, to identify consistent patterns and relationships between variables or themes” (Julien, 2008, p. 120).
This method of data analysis is a way of reducing and making sense of data and also deriving meaning. It is a commonly used method of analysing a wide range of textual data that might be in verbal, print or electronic form, including interview transcripts, manuals, recorded observations, narratives, responses to open-ended questionnaire items, speeches, postings to listters, and media such as drawings, photographs, and videos
(Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Julien, 2008). Krippendorff (2004) defines content analysis as
“a research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the contexts of their use” (p. 18). Hsieh and Shannon (2005) also view qualitative content analysis as a research method for the subjective interpretation of
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the content of text data through the systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns. Few of the works I reviewed on the phenomenon of framing of issues and personality on blogs employed content analysis as a data analysis method. For instance, Freyenberger (2013) used the content analysis method when he examined the framing of Amanda Knox in newspapers published worldwide during the 4 years Knox was imprisoned in Italy.
Gonzalez (2013) also used content analysis to analyze the dominant propaganda strategies and frames that were reflected in an hour-long programme on Radio Marti.
Based on the above explications, the current study employed the content analysis approach to analyse data in order to gain new insights (Krippendorff, 2004) and to understand and interpret the kinds of frames the selected blogs have employed to present the two dancehall artists. Furthermore, I went through the systematic process of analyzing the data I collected from the three blogs by first skimming (superficial examination), reading closely, organizing the information into categories and themes and finally making interpretations.
3.8 Ethical Issues
Bowen (2009) states that in a research, the researcher is expected to demonstrate objectivity (seeking to represent the research material fairly) and sensitivity (responding to even subtle cues to meaning) in the selection and analysis of data from documents.
Ultimately with “passive research” online (Wimmer & Dominick, 2011: 81), that is, studying pre-existing content, one must be ethically concerned about the use of comments or postings of private individuals. However, if the site is intended to reach the
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general public the material may be freely analysed and quoted to the degree necessary in the research without consent (Austmann, 2015; Wimmer & Dominick, 2011). Since the blogs under study were for commercial purposes, their articles were accessible to evey internet user once they (internet users) decide to visit. Moreover, the bloggers use their platforms as a public communication tool in their function as stakeholders in the entertainment industry and therefore do not have an expectation of privacy concerning their publications (Wimmer & Dominick, 2011: 81).
Finally, a number of research works (Freyenberger, 2013; Valentini, et al., 2011 have been conducted by retrieving and analysing data from blogs without the researchers seeking the consent of the administrators of the various blogs before collecting the needed data. Altheide and Schneider (2013) posit that researchers must be mindful that collecting certain data from users’ personal profile pages may require ethics approval, however, other data that are posted to publicly accessible group pages as public information are probably safe for collection.
I argue that data collected from the selected blogs were public and thus everyone could see these articles once they visited the blogs. It therefore does not breach ethics since the selected blogs are followed by thousands of people. Nevertheless, the administrators of beeniewords.com and ameyawdebrah.com were notified about the study being conducted.
3.9 Chapter Summary
This chapter presented the process of the research and the method of data analysis.
Firstly, it highlighted the approach of research used and the design suitable for the study.
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It also shed light on the sampling method and size, and at every stage rationalises to suit the study. Finally, it discussed the method of data collection and analysis in detail and wrapped up with the ethical considerations.
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CHAPTER FOUR
FINDIINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.0 Introduction
This chapter outlines a detailed presentation of the findings from the data collected from the three blogs on the two selected dancehall artistes and that of the interview with the blogger. The findings are from the investigation conducted into the dominant frames used to portray the selected artistes on the blogs and the rationale for the frames used to portray the selected artistes. The research questions posed at the beginning of the study are answered in this chapter by reducing data obtained into themes and analysed using the relevant theories and literature reviewed in the Chapter two of the study. Findings on
Stonbwoy are presented first and then followed by that on Shatta Wale.
4.1 RQ.1. What are the dominant frames used to portray the selected artistes?
A thorough coding of six (6) months posts of the three selected blogs on Shatta Wale and
Stonebwoy, totaling 109 indicated that the artistes have been presented in the frames of inspirational, prim, prominence, dissociation, prolific, charismatic and impulsive. The findings below discusses the frames of Stonebwoy first and those of Shatta Wale afterwards.
A. Stonebwoy
4.1.1 Inspirational
On all the three blogs, Stonebwoy had been presented in an inspiring frame. Attention had been focused on Stonebwoy as following and taking inspiration from other “bigger”
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artistes, as well as encouraging them. The selected blogs also focused attention on the struggles Stonebwoy encountered in the early stages of his music career, presenting it as inspiring and worthy example for young people and up-coming musicians. Examples of some of the headlines inferring Stonebwoy’s inspirational frames are;
i. Stonebwoy reveales 4 Ghanaian artistes he looks up to.
Beeniewords.com.
ii. Stonebwoy congratulates Shatta Wale on his album launch.
OMGvoice.com iii. Grass to grace; the breakthrough story of Stonebwoy.
Ameyawdebrah.com
4.1.2 Prim
One of the frames in which Stonebwoy had been presented on the selected blogs was the frame of prim. The artist had been portrayed as being serious, formal and organised in what he does. Unlike other artistes who would generally take the formal facet of showbiz lightly, and be lethargic in reacting to situations that required formal address, Stonebwoy was diligent in every aspect of his art. He does not give room for unnecessary slackness.
The following are some excerpts that connote primness of the artiste.
i. Stonebwoy issues disclaimer on “false” story about him involving Shatta Wale.
Beeniewords.com
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ii. Stonebwoy’s shut down video #PeopleDey.
OMGvoice.com iii. Stonebwoy kills it again at TIDAL concert in New York.
Ameyawdebrah.com
4.1.3 Prominence
Another frame that bloggers had employed to present Stonebwoy was the frame of prominence. The artist had been portrayed as one who associates with influential personalities as well as being part of eminent events in showbiz. Headlines that implied the prominence frame of Stonebwoy included;
i. Prince of Gambia, HRH Prince Ebrahim, hosts Stonebwoy.
Beeniewords.com
ii. Stonebwoy and Lauren Hill for New York concert.
Beeniewords.com iii. Stonbwoy represents Ghana at the AUC-AFRIMA CONFERENCE 2016.
OMGvoice.com
4.1.4 Dissociation
A frame of disassociation was identified as one of the portrayals of Stonebwoy on the selected blogs. The artist was presented as one who sometimes withdraws from certain personalities and phenomenon once he finds them contradictory to his values. There were
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instances where Stonebwoy withdrew from collaboration deals with other artiste because he felt the artistes’ characters contradicts his brand. The following are examples of headlines that implies the disassociation frame of Stonebwoy on the blogs.
i. Stonbwoy indecisive of collaborations with Shatta Wale
Beeniewords.com
ii. Stonebwoy explains why he doesn’t like taking pictures with fans.
OMGvoice.com iii. Stonebwoy responds to Mr. Logic, says…”Leave me alone”.
Ameyawdebrah.com
B. Shatta Wale
4.1.5 Prolific
On all the three blogs, Shatta Wale had been portrayed as consistent in releasing contents.
Attention had been focused on the fact that the artiste is fond of producing comparatively lots of songs and videos. Headlines that carried the frame of releases include;
i. Shatta Wale drops official video for #BieGya.
OMGvoice.com
ii. About 20 songs for Shatta Wale’s new album- “After the Storm”.
Beeniewords.com
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4.1.6 Motivational
Shatta Wale had been presented as a motivational figure. The selected blogs focused attention on the artiste’s sense of advocacy and motivation for other industry players to ensure progress in their endeavours. The life story of the artiste had been considered as motivation to others and had therefore been given prominence on the selected blogs. The following are some of the headlines that connotes the motivation frame used to present the artiste on the blogs.
i. Forget Ghana movie industry and go, Shatta Wale tells Abraham Attah.
Beeniewords.com
ii. Everything you need to know about Shattah Wale, from childhood to dancehall
king.
Ameyawdebrah.com
4.1.7 Charismatic
Another frame that had been used to portray Shatta Wale on the selected blogs was the frame of charisma. The artiste had been portrayed as having the ability to attract people from all walks of life. People from diverse backgrounds gravitate towards him. Examples of headlines that communicate the frame of charisma on Shatta Wale include:
i. Mammoth crowd at Shatta Wale’s “After The Storm” album.
Beeniewords.com
ii. Flavor wants a collabo with Shatta Wale
Ameyawbedrah.com
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iii. Shatta Wale gets a new fan in former first lady Nana Konadu Agyeman Rawlings.
OMGvoice.com
4.1.8 Impulsive
Another frame in which Shatta Wale had been presented on the three blogs was the impulsive frame. The artiste has been portrayed as being driven by his feelings to act in an “absurd” manner sometimes. Examples of headlines that implied the impulsive frame of Shatta Wale were;
i. Shatta Wale and MUSIGHA at war.
Ameyawdebrah.com
ii. Shatta Wale is wearing a fake “Adidas” hoodie in Bie Gya video.
OMGvoice.com iii. Shatta Wale jabs “Lazy” video directors.
Beeniewords.com
The bloggers of the three blogs consciously selected the above aspects of the artistes’ reality and gave them greater emphasis over the rest, thereby influencing judgments of audience concerning the two artistes. The salience of some aspects of the artistes’ realities by the bloggers substantiate a process Entman (1993) refers to as framing. The bloggers used the above frames of the two artistes to suggest their (boggers) preferred interpretation of the artistes’ realities (Gamson & Modigliant). Once audience visits the selected blogs and come across the various frames used to portray the two dancehall
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artistes, their (audience) judgments would be based on the identified frames. For example if an audience comes across the headlines that suggested the charismatic frame of Shatta
Wale, he or she subsequently will think of Shatta Wale as a charismatic personality. By so doing, the bloggers have used the above frames to shape thoughts about the two artistes. This, thus substantiates the assertion of Nelson and Kinder (1996) that media frames function as heuristic structures that anchor, organise and shape thought about an issue. The shaping of thoughts, effect of frames used to portray the two artistes can be considered as agenda setting according to McCombs (2006). According to him
(McCombs), the selected blogs, just like other mass media, have forced the attention of audience to the various frames of the artistes to suggest what they (audience) should think about, know about, and feel about the two artistes. With time, the dominant frames used to portray the selected artistes shall become prominent in public opinion. This ability to influence which issues on the selected artistes are perceived as the most important of the day by audience is referred to as the agenda-setting role of the blog.
4.2 Q2. What is the rationale for the frames used to portray the selected artistes?
4.2.1 Marketing
Blogger and owner of Benniewords.com gave his rational for the various frames employed to present the selected artiste as a strategy to market both the artistes and the blogs. According to him, his blog has contracts with the two artistes to market their brands. To him, one of the factors that keeps an artiste relevant is when they (artiste) are in the news. When artistes are able to generate discussions and arguments, they stay on the minds of people and also win more followers. Also, the blogger mentioned that when
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the artistes are presented in those frames, they win the favour of fans as well attract a lot of visitors to the blogs. The following are some of the responses of the owner and blogger of Benniewords.com which suggested the rationale as a marketing strategy.
i. It’s a way of marketing the artistes and the blog
ii. When I’m doing a story the target is to cause traffic on my site
Blogger (Beeniewords.com)
4.2.2 Reinforcement
Also, the blogger and owner of Benniewords.com gave his rationale for the various frames used to present the artistes as a reinforcement of the characters of the various artistes. According to him (blogger of Beeniewords.com), presenting the artistes in any frame which is contrary to what the fans already know will generate doubt about the artistes and subsequently ruin the blog’s credibility and affect his (blogger) reputation in the terrain. The following are some of the responses from the interview which suggested the rationale of reinforcement.
i. Fans are always looking out for their artiste.
ii. Shatta is more aggressive. Presenting him in a humble way will contradict what
the public know him for.
Blogger (Beeniewords.com)
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4.3 Summary
This chapter presented the findings, discussions and analysis of the study. It sets off by answering the first research question which sought to investigate the dominant frames used to portray the selected artistes on the selected blogs. It was revealed that Stonebwoy had been presented in the frames of inspirational, prim, prominence and dissociating, while Shatta Wale had been presented with the frames of prolific, motivational, charismatic and impulsive. Secondly, the rationale for the dominant frames used to present the artistes on the blogs was explored.
According to the blogger and owner of Beeniewords.com, the rationale for the dominant frames used to portray the artistes was to market both the artistes and blogs, and also to reinforce the characters of both artistes.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.
5.0 Introduction
This Chapter summarises the study, draws conclusions and finally makes recommendations on the importance of blogs’ presentation of dancehall artistes and, as well, highlights the benefits of such presentations for personal and corporate brands.
5.1 Summary
This study set out to examine the framing of dancehall artistes on blogs. It probed into the dominant frames used to present the selected dancehall artistes and also, investigated how the concepts of framing and agenda-setting are enacted through blog posts. The importance of the study was outlined as it would increase the knowledge base of dancehall artistes as well as bloggers, and also add to the scant local literature on the phenomenon.
Also the extensive review of literature served as a foundation for analysing the phenomenon. The concepts of blogs, dancehall music and its various cultures were discussed. The theories that were used to explicate the data- Framing theory (Entman,
1993) and agenda-setting theory (McCombs and Shaw, 1972) were also reviewed. These theories enabled the study to make sense of the data collected.
The research approach and design for this study were qualitative (Wimmer & Dominick,
2011) and case study (Yin, 2009). These provided the opportunity to delve deeper into
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the phenomenon in a natural setting. The two dancehall artistes and three blogs were selected based on a set of criteria thus the appropriateness of purposive sampling
(Daymond & Holloway, 2001). The dominant method of data collection was document analysis where I retrieved 6 months posts on the two selected dancehall artistes on the three selected blogs. I further employed semi-structured interviews to elicit the perspective of the bloggers on the rationale for the dominant frames used to portray the selected artistes. Finally, I content analised the data. This method of data analysis was deemed appropriate since a large chunk of data was mined through document analysis
(Bowen, 2009).
5.2 Conclusion
The key findings of the study are as indicated below:
The first research question which sought to explore the dominant frames used to portray
Shatta Wale and Stonebwoy revealed that the following frames were woven around: inspirational, prim, prominence, dissociation, prolific, motivational, charismatic and impulsive. Research question 2 probed into the rationale for the dominant frames used to present the two artistes on the selected blogs. It was found that the two artistes were presented in the various frames to aid marketing of the artistes as well as the blogs, and also to reinforce the various qualities of the artistes.
Drawing from the theories of framing and agenda-setting, it was discovered that the frames which could also be considered as the identities of the two artistes were organised and constructed by the various blogs by selecting some aspects of the artistes’ realities
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and making them salient over the rest. Also the second stage of agenda-setting revealed that the salience of issues in the blog posts on the artistes were likely to transfer onto the minds of audience and influence their judgments concerning the selected artistes.
In conclusion, all the frames employed by the various blogs to present the two selected dancehall artistes are geared towards projecting their brands to their target market.
5.3 Limitation
This study set out to investigate into the framing of Ghanaian dancehall artistes on blogs and also to elicit the perspectives of bloggers on their rationale for the artistes’ dominant frames through interviews. However, the study encountered a few limitations.
I realised that most blogs did not publish articles on dancehall artistes. This was a major drawback for me as I had to reduce my sample size from 6 to 3 blogs. Also, getting the bloggers for personal interviews was a big challenge. I therefore ended up having to interview just one of the participants. This challenge can be attributed to time constraints on the part of the participants.
However, these limitations did not take away the credibility of the study as it has implications for further studies.
5.4 Suggestions for further research
In view of the opportunities and challenges I had while reviewing literature and collecting data for the study, I make the following suggestions for further research so that
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the knowledge base of bloggers will be increased and also serve as a repository for researchers.
A similar work, taking into consideration a larger number of artistes, an extended period of study and the views of the dancehall artistes to investigate how they perceive the various frames used to present them on blogs could be useful.
Future research may take a critical discourse analysis approach to study how issues of power, hegemony, dominance, among others are enacted through the framing of dancehall artistes on blogs.
Also, further studies can be on a comparative basis of framing of dancehall and hip-life artistes since both genres are most popular ones in Ghana.
5.5 Recommendations
On basis of the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made based on the findings of the study.
As the era of Web 2.0 is elapsing and welcoming Web 3.0, dancehall fans expect to hear and interact directly with their favorite artistes (Douglas, 2012). Dancehall artistes have to strengthen their visibility on blogs. I therefore recommend that dancehall artistes and bloggers take blogging serious as the phenomenon of blogging has come to stay. Since blogs have been identified as useful marketing tools (Hong, 2008), dancehall artistes should be zealous in the showcasing of their contents on blogs.
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Dancehall artistes should invest efforts into their visibility on blogs same way they do for their music as blogs offer a more affordable way of reaching an unimaginable number of people instantly.
Informed by agenda-setting theory, dancehall artistes should be mindful of the aspects of their realities they allow to appear on blogs since it could go a long way to influence audience’s perceptions and judgments about their personality and brand.
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Appendix
Interview Guide
1. Why do you blog materials on Shatta Wale and Stonebwoy?
2. Do you publish about everything that goes on with the artistes?
3. Do you have personal relations with the artistes?
4. What factors determine the angles you give to stories on the artistes?
5. How do you gather information/facts for articles on the artistes?
6. How do your posts impact the images of the artistes?
7. Is it necessary to exaggerate or alter facts in your articles on the artistes?
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