A HANDBO COUWTS 1 ETHNOGRAP OF THE CULTURAL GROUPS AQUlN VALLEY

INTENDED AS A QUICK REFERENC COURT PERSONNEL TO PROMOTE CROSS-C L FAMBblAR1TY

Institute for Court Management Court Executive Development Program Phase 111 Project May 4998

Robert N. Hallenbeck South Kern Municipal Court District Kern County, Contents

Introduction and Overview 1

Ethnographic Sketches

Sikhs and Sikhism Quick Look Extended Historical Origins Religious Beliefs Early Immigration to California Language

Arabs, Muslims, and Quick Look 8 Extended 9 The Koran and Other Sources 10 The Law 10 The Yemeni 13 Quick Look 13 Extended 14 History - Ancient Times to Unification 14 People and Economic Activity 15 Migration and Life in America 16

Southeast Asian Peoples Introduction 19 The Hmong 20 Quick Look 20 Extended 21 History 21 Adapting to Life in America 22

Bibliography 24 Internet Sources 25 Other Sources 25 California’s great Central Valley is one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse regions in the United States. Drawn by California’s own economic and climatic diversity, the people who have settled there have international origins.

Technological advances in communications and travel have the effect of shrinking our world and exposing our citizens to a much broader range of races, religions, and cultural differences than previous generations have had to deal with.

More socioeconomic terms such as “Third World” and “Pacific Rim” have crept into our vocabularies, and the cultural homogeneity of our neighborhoods is increasingly apparent.

The courts and other public agencies in our civil and criminal justice systems are among the first to be exposed to this cultural diversity. A turbaned Sikh appears in court requiring a Punjabi interpreter; an Iranian family in flowing robes comes to pay a traffic ticket; a Farsi or Arabic or Tagalog interpreter is needed in a small-town courtroom. These occasions arise with increasing frequency.

In any confrontation, the parties involved cannot avoid being influenced by their mutual knowledge or ignorance of each other’s cultural background. The same stimulus can elicit vastly different responses from people raised in different cultures.

Cultural stereotypes are widespread and can only be overcome through knowledge and by making a conscious effort to familiarize oneself with the cultural aspects that shape a national character or attitude. This series of sketches is intended to serve as a reference for court and other public officials and employees to dispel some of the mystery and misconceptions in dealing with the less often encountered cultural and religious groups found in

California’s Central Valley. The presentation format of the sketches is divided into two parts. The first is a single page overview of the culture and is meant to serve as a “quick look reference. The second part addresses the subject in a little more detail for those with the time and/or inclination to learn a bit more about the national origin, religion, economy, government, law, and cultural outlook of the subject.

7 Sikhs and Sikhism - Quick Look

Sikhism is a religious movement founded in the Punjab in Northwest India in the mid-15th century and combines Hindu and Muslim elements in a single creed. The founding leader was Guru Nanak, who was followed by nine successors. These are recognized as The Ten Gurus. Sikhs believe in a single God who is the same for all people of all religions. Sikhs do not recognize priests, fasting, pilgrimages, or idol worship. They reject Indian caste systems, teach full equality of the sexes and the Typical Male Sikh- brotherhood of all men. By tradition, every Sikh male’s last name is Singh and every female Sikh’s last name is Kaur. Their traditional language is Punjabi.

Readily identified by their turbans, Sikhs do not cut their hair, nor do they smoke or use alcohol. Most Sikh men belong to a martial fraternity called the “Khalsa”. Turning the other cheek is not a Sikh trait and they have no problem with “unsheathing the sword” when an affair is past every other remedy. Khalsa members have vowed to keep the five “Ks”: long hair (Kesh), a comb in the hair (Kangha), a steel bracelet on the right wrist (Kara), soldier’s shorts (Kachna), and a ceremonial sword (Kirpan). This tradition persists to the present day, and every adult male baptized into the Khalsa will have these items on his person.

Many Sikhs are nationalistic and favor the establishment of a Sikh nation (“Khalistan”). Many violent confrontations between Sikhs and Hindus have occurred in the state of Punjab and in 1984 the most important Sikh shrine, the Golden Temple of Amritsar, was attacked and heavily damaged and burned by Indian I The Golden Temple government troops. The Golden Temple Of Amritsar Aflame in 1984

R Sikhs and SlkhSsm - Extended Historleal Origins

The Sikh movement was founded in Punjab in the

Northwest of India by Guru

Nanak in the late 15'h and early

16th centuries in reaction to the perceived fanaticism and intolerance of the Muslims and the meaningless rituals and caste prejudices of the Hindus.

Nanak was followed by nine Current Map of India. Punjab is in the Northwest. successors, the last of whom (Note City of Amritsar, Location of the Golden Temple) was Guru Gobind Singh, who gave a distinctive identity to the Sikhs by creating the

Khalsa and its baptism ceremony at the end of the 17thcentury.

Guru Gobind Singh's assassination in 1708 began a long period of Muslim persecution of Sikhs and warfare against the Muslim Mogul empire, founded by descendants of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane, which dominated India until overthrown by the Sikhs and Hindus in 1799. The Sikhs then laid claim to a large part of northwest India known as the Punjab. The British moved into the Punjab in the mid-lgth century, defeated the Sikhs in the Sikh Wars, and annexed the Punjab in 1849. Sikhism did not recover until the 20th century when Sikhs were given control of their holy places.

4 When India was partitioned into India and Pakistan in 1947, the western

Punjab became Muslim dominated Pakistani territory and the eastern Punjab became part of India. This separated the Sikhs, subjecting them to communal rioting, and about 2.5 million Sikhs moved from Pakistan into India. Since that time

Sikh nationalism increased. There were demands for greater autonomy for the

Punjab. Punjab has always been described by Indian rulers as the most prosperous

State in India. It has the highest per capita income and a high growth rate. Its prosperity is recognized as an aspect of the spectacular progress in agriculture known as the Green Revolution which attained its peak in the early 1970s. Punjab became an economic showpiece in India.

Though a Sikh was elected President of India in 1982, this was a largely ceremonial post and was viewed merely as an attempt to pacify the Sikh nationalists. As violent demonstrations continued and fighting between Sikhs and

Hindus became widespread in Punjab, the central government took direct control and in 1984 occupied Punjab with 50,000 troops. The leader of the Sikh nationalist faction took refuge in the Golden Temple of Amritsar, which was then attacked and severely damaged and burned in the fighting. Many loyal Sikhs died in the defense of the Temple.

Prime Minister lndira Gandhi was later assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards in retaliation, after which mobs attacked Sikhs throughout India. Unrest in Punjab continues today and great bitterness exists between Sikhs and Hindus. Rellgiors BeIPefs

The elements of Sikhism are presented in the "quick look section preceding this discussion. For a deeper understanding of the Sikh perspective, it is interesting

5 to contrast the Sikh religious ideology with the common perception of the Hindu holy man, who shuns riches and personal possessions, retires from society and denies the outside world in order to commit oneself to a life of fasting and meditation in search of enlightenment. The Sikh ideal, on the other hand, consists of a more practical livelihood, earning an honest living, and rendering service to humanity by sharing their earnings with the needy. Riches and personal possessions are no hindrance to living a spiritual life for the Sikh, who rejects the ideology of fatalism and pessimism and enjoins its followers to practice self-determination, self-respect, and self-defense. “Turning the other cheek has no place in the Sikh way of life.

As have the Torah, Christians the Holy Bible, and Muslims the Koran, the Sikhs also have their holy scripture. It is called the Guru Granth Sahib and is an object of deep reverence as the symbolic representationof the Ten Gurus, and its compilation was completed in 1604. It is written largely in verse, which is less likely to be altered by copyists throughout the years. The basic teaching of Sikhism is a strong belief in monotheism. The Sikhs believe, as do the Hindus, in the immortality of the soul, but are opposed to austere asceticism and prefer to achieve saintliness through one’s actions as a member of society. Early lmmlgratlor to Califomla

The Punjab province of India provided several thousand immigrants to

California in the early 20thcentury, with most of these immigrants Sikhs. Although a much smaller number of these immigrants were Muslim and Hindu, all arriving immigrants were termed “Hindus”. Many of the immigrants had agricultural or military backgrounds, and came seeking railroad, lumber, and agricultural jobs on the local sugar beet, fruit, and rice farms. The migrant laborers in the Sacramento

Valley were called “Hindu crews”.

Many restrictive immigration laws were passed as the immigrants were perceived as a competitive economic threat to native farmers (“ ...a group of laborers becoming landowners and threatening the monopoly of the majority group”).

Because of these restrictive immigration laws, most young men were unable to bring over wives from India and remained single well into middle age, while others married

American and Mexican women. Immigration restrictions were substantially lifted in

1965 and Sikh numbers increased dramatically in California.

Sikh immigrants were subject to the discrimination and hazing commonly directed at “foreigners”. The unwinding of a Sikh’s turban was one of the more common forms of harassment in the early days. Sikh agricultural laborers soon gained respect for their knowledge of crops and irrigation .. .

“Most of the American farmers always looked to us for irrigation.

They knew nobody could do a betterjob in irrigation than these

lndians.., This is the biggest thing we have taught them.”

--Ganga Singh Bhatti

Language

The primary language for Sikhs is the Gurumukhi dialect of Eastern Punjabi, classified in the Central Zone of Indo-Aryan languages. Braille code is available.

When court interpreters are needed, it is sufficient to request a Punjabi speaker.

7 Arabs, Muslims, and Islam - Quick Look

"Arab was originally applied to the Semitic people of the Arabian peninsula. The term "Semite" designated the descendants of Shem, son of Noah, and later was applied to speakers of languages which derive from the common Semitic tongue. Thus both Arabs and Hebrews are Semitic peoples. In the modern world however, an Arab is simply a person from a country whose primary language is Arabic (Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, Yemen). An Arab can be a Muslim, a Christian, a Jew, or an atheist.

A Muslim is a practicioner of the religion of Islam. While there are only about 200 million Arabs in the world, there are about one billion Muslims. Although about 90% of Arabs are Muslims, only about 20% of Muslims are Arabs. "Mohammedanism" has long been used as a synonym for Islam, but it is an inappropriate term and is offensive to Muslims. The reasoning is that unlike Christianity and Buddhism, which worship Christ and Buddha respectively, Muslims do not worship Mohammed. Rather they consider him a prophet or messenger of God. Islam also recognizes the prophets of Christianity and (Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Jesus, David). Muslims also believe in the virgin birth of Jesus.

The word "Islam" means peace (root: "Salaam"). Islam is a monotheistic religion, believing in one God (Allah) for all mankind. Islam is much younger than either Judaism or Christianity, and dates from the early 7" century when Mohammed was chosen by God to deliver his message of peace in the form of the Qu'ran (Koran), the holy scripture of Islam. Unlike Christianity, Muslims believe that man is born free of sin and is not to be charged for his mistakes until after the age of puberty. They also believe in angels and the equality of all men, but do not separate religion and politics.

There are five pillars of Islam: the pledge that there is but one God (no Trinity) and Mohammed is his messenger; the performance of five daily prayers; fasting during the month of Ramadan; the giving of alms to the poor or otherwise deserving (similar to a tithe); and the Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca once during one's lifetime if the means are available.

R Arabs, Musllms, and Islam - Extended

Although there are many

parallels between Islam, Judaism, and

Christianity, there are also many

differences which become important in

understanding perspective, motivation,

and character. While sharing a belief

in one God, Islam does not accept the

Christian Trinity or the intermediary of

priests. Muslims believe that Current Map of The (Yemen Highlighted) throughout the ages God sent different messengers to man with the same message, and it was the people who misunderstood and misinterpreted them. Mohammed is the last and final messenger, and the Koran is the unchanged and absolute word of God. Muslims share the Christian belief in a Day of Judgement when all people who have ever lived are to be brought for accounting, reward, and punishment. Since a fundamental belief of Islam is total and absolute submission to God, many people view Muslims as having a fatalistic attitude. A common Muslim comment is

"ln'shallah" meaning "As God Wills". In contrast to the Christian custom, Muslim marriage is not a 'sacrament', but a simple legal agreement in which either partner is free to include conditions. This distinction seems to fade somewhat in the modern era of pre-nuptial agreements. A wife does not assume her husband's name, and women can own property. L) Tne Koran [@uta111and Other Sourc@s The Koran is a record of the exact words first revealed by God through the

angel Gabriel to the prophet Mohammed at Mecca. This revelation continued over a

period of twenty-three years, was dictated to scribes by Mohammed, and written

down in 114 chapters (Suras). Not one word has been changed over the centuries.

The Koran deals with every aspect of life and is the prime source of every Muslim’s

faith and practice. The second authority for Muslims is the Hadith, which is a

collection of reliable reports of the sayings, deeds, and actions of Mohammed.

These sayings and deeds are called “sunna” and belief in them as reported in the

Hadith is part of the Islamic faith. Tbe law

Shari’a (pronounced “Shari-a”) is the term for the entire body of Islamic law,

and its source is the Koran. As with Islam and Christianity there are many

similarities between Islamic and Western law, as well as significant differences. In

both systems all people are equal before the law; a person is innocent until proven

guilty; the burden of proof is on the plaintiff; and written contracts have a sanctity

and legitimacy of their own. Hearsay is normally not acceptable as evidence, but

under Shari’a written evidence is preferred to testimonial evidence. Appeal

procedures are available.

In the legal system of Saudi Arabia, typical of Islamic countries, claims must

be proven and substantiated by two male witnesses, preferably Muslims, or one

male and two female witnesses, or one male and the oath of the claimant. In vicious

or serious crimes, four male witnesses are required, and character witnesses may be called to verify reputations. In contrast to Western law there is no jury system.

Rulings are made by one or more judges in the various courts. The concept of precedent is also quite different. A ruling by a judge is not binding on other judges or on the same judge in later cases.

Again in Saudi Arabia, attorneys are not required. In fact a defendant being tried for a criminal case cannot delegate his defense to an attorney, but must speak for himself. The judge seeks the truth from all concerned parties, and would prefer to settle a dispute by compromise rather than by judgement. Islam forbids the charging of interest in commerce, but allows management fees and services. In civil damages, awards are in line with practicality and inflated settlements are almost never seen.

There are many administrative law bodies and tribunals set up in various ministries and government agencies, and in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia there are four levels of courts. The General Court has one or more judges and handles cases of a personal, civil, family, or criminal nature. Next is the Limited Court which has one judge and handles smaller criminal and civil matters. The next level has two appeals courts. The highest is the Court of Appeals which has five or more judges.

This court does not have jurisdiction over the administrative tribunals nor over disputes between tribunals and the lower courts. The fourth level is the Supreme

Judicial Council that deals with matters referred to it by the King. It also considers appeals from other courts and reviews sentences of death or mutilation (severance of limb) pronounced by lower courts.

11 Among Muslim Arabs, those from Yemen at the southern tip of the Arabian peninsula constitute a significant cultural group encountered in the Central Valley.

California originally offered Yemenis the familiar occupation of farming, and today many have established their own grocery businesses in Bakersfield, Fresno, and other cities.

17 The Yemeni - Quick Look Yemen is the ancient land of the Queen of Sheba and the source of the frankincense and myrrh of biblical renown. Its Arabian Sea ports became the destination of gold, spices and other precious goods from India for the overland trek by camel train through Arabia to Mediterranean Europe. Because of its strategic location and importance as a trade center it has been under the rule of a succession of dynasties including Ethiopian, Persian, Arab, Egyptian, and Turkish, until the British conquered the southern port of Aden in 1839. In 1925 Yemen gained independence. North and South Yemen were involved in a series of civil wars and guerilla uprisings from 1925 until their unification into the Yemen Republic in 1990. The primary economic activity is agriculture, with some oil and natural gas deposits being exploited.

With a standard of living among the lowest in the world, most young Yemeni men seek work in other countries. Yemeni form a large part of the work force in the oil rich nations of the Persian Gulf, and many emigrated as workers to Vietnam, Indonesia, India, Britain, France, and the U.S. Money from expatriates is a major source of foreign exchange for Yemen. Coming from a very strongly Arab Muslim country with a long history of warfare, isolation, and distrust of outsiders, Yemeni immigrants remain most resistant to assimilation into the American mainstream. They view the acceptance of a new culture as leading to the decay of their own ancient traditions. Many resent the American lifestyle and refuse to adapt to it, struggling to remain Yemeni and compromising as little as possible. They marry other Yemeni and often send their children to Yemen to strengthen ties to the homeland.

Jail facilities are extremely overpopulated, and fully seventy of prison inmates in Yemen are detainees with pending court cases. Blood feuds are commonplace. Bribery and corruption are widespread in the legal system. It is common for Yemeni to be suspicious and distrustful of legal authorities and of the U. S. legal system. The Yemeni - Extended

History - Ancient Times to Unification

Yemen’s strategic position at the southwestern corner of the Arabian

Peninsula has made it an important trade corridor for 3,000 years. Its northern mountains provide climates so favorable to agriculture that the area became known in ancient times as “Arabia Felix” (Happy Arabia). The northeastern interior, by contrast, has some of the most desolate desert terrain on the planet, referred to as

“The Empty Quarter”. Yemen was home to a series of empires in ancient times, their wealth deriving from control of the spice trade and the flow of other trade goods from Arabia, India, and Africa. The most famous of these empires was Saba, known to the west as Sheba and from whence comes the term used to represent luxury, wealth, and power, “The Queen of Sheba”. When the Romans discovered the source of these trade goods and took control of the sea routes, the power base of these empires was eliminated.

The Ottoman Turks were the last major rulers of Yemen before the British took Aden, the southernmost port city and the commercial capital of the country, in

1839. Those familiar with the story of Lawrence of Arabia will recall his overland trek through the desert to Aden when the Arabs were involved in a thirty year revolt against Turkish rule. After WWI the Ottoman Turks withdrew, South Yemen remained a part of the British Empire while the north was ruled by groups of Arab imams, or religious leaders, against whom revolts were waged continuously.

In 1962, a northern revolt drove out the imams and declared the nation the

Yemen Arab Republic. This led to an eight year civil war ending in a compromise in

I4 1970. Meanwhile the south wrested control from Britain in 1967 and became the

People’s Republic of South Yemen. The next decade saw wars between the north and the south, with the north allied with the West and the south allied with the Soviet

Union and adopting a radical form of Marxism.

In 1990, after a series of border wars and political instability, the two Yemens united into the Republic of Yemen, which is now the only multi-party democracy in the Arabian Peninsula. After more than a thousand years of isolation Yemen is just beginning to open up and embrace the modern world. Sanaa, in the north, is the political capital, and the southern seaport of Aden is the commercial center of the country. The population is about ten million, the language is Arabic with English spoken in business circles, and the currency is the Riyal. Peoflle and Economic ActsvitY

Thoroughly Arab in both language and culture, there are many factions in

Yemen based on religion and tribal affiliation. The north is dominated by the Zaidi, a

Shi’ite Muslim sect, while the south is dominated by the Shafii, who are Sunni

Muslims and quite distinct both culturally and economically. The distinction between

Shi’ite and Sunni Muslims dates back to the origins of Islam itself and a debate as to who is the rightful heir of Mohammed. As most disputes of this sort go, the original differences are lost in antiquity, leaving only the old resentments to deepen.

There are two small minorities in Yemen. The Ismailis, an Islamic sect of some importance in the Middle Ages, and the Jews, who dominated many aspects of the economy before many left for in 1949-1950. As a result of its isolation and lack of organized government services and education, Yemen ranks very low in literacy and health indexes and has a greatly decentralized pattern of settlement.

15 I) There are only a few cities of any size in the north and all commercial and political activity in the south is centered in Aden. The interior remains largely undeveloped.

The economy depends on agriculture and monies received from expatriates

working abroad. Major crops include coffee (Mocha is a Yemeni coffee growing

area) and qat (pronounced “cot”). Qat is a shrub, and its leaves are a mild stimulant

in widespread use. Most Yemeni men will chew qat in the afternoon. It is much

enjoyed by Yemeni as an aid to thought and decision making, and most business

meetings are accompanied by ritual qat chewing. In the eyes of many, the letdown

from the mild euphoria induced by qat is a widespread cause of absenteeism and

depression.

In the 1980s the Persian Gulf countries scaled back many development

programs, causing many Yemeni workers to return home, cutting off a source of 0 funds and further burdening the economy. This contributed to further emigration, as

did the Persian Gulf war in the early 1990s when many Yemeni fled back to their

homeland, swelled the unemployment rolls and sought jobs abroad.

Migratsan and lifa IN America

Yemeni communities in the U.S. are concentrated in ,

Michigan, and California. Jobs in the steel industry lured them

to Buffalo, the automobile industry to Detroit, and farming to the

Central Valley of California. Yemeni are typically very resistant

to acculturation. One Yemeni writer, Shaker Alashwal, divides Yemeni -American Man Yemeni immigrants into two groups, settlers and sojourners.

16 The settlers are usually the better educated and established small businessmen who have decided to remain in

America and become Yemeni-Americans. Great conflicts arise from differences in religion, traditions, and values of the ultra conservative Muslim Yemeni and the liberal, permissive Young Yemeni Girl

American society. Many family heads view the process as a sacrifice of their own lives for the betterment of their families. Even third generation Yemeni-Americans still speak Arabic as their primary language and still resist assimilation.

The sojourners come to work in America for several

years, then return to Yemen to spend several months or a year

with their families before repeating the cycle. They often spend

their lives this way and prefer to keep their families in Yemen to Yemeni - Ametican Man “insulate them from the profane world”. They live and work in the U.S. only to return periodically to acquire land and build houses in Yemen. Their material gratification is to take place in the home country, not in the U.S. Many do not pursue further education or self improvement in the U.S. because they remain impoverished by sending the greatest portion of their wages home. Yemeni workers in the U.S. have problems in organizing effective pressure groups for their own benefit because of their political differences. They typically can’t communicate well with American authorities because of language and educational disadvantages, thus many do not know their rights and duties nor do they typically participate in public life or vote in elections.

17 Although Yemen is unified as a country now, strong differences still exist among her peoples. Age old divisions on the basis of religion (Shi’ite vs. Sunni), tribal affiliation

(Zaidi vs. Shafii), occupation, residence, educational level, and economic status continue to prevent the Yemeni from thinking or acting as a group. Their institutions suffer from widespread corruption, and favoritism is common in public affairs. All young democracies have had these problems, which only time and effort can alleviate.

18 According to the 1990 census, there are

about half a million Vietnamese, Cambodian,

Laotian, Thai, and Hmong people living in

California. Of that total, about 12% reside in

the eight counties which are the subject of

this study and almost all are here as a result

Current Map of Southeast Asia of the Vietnam War or other Communist aggression in their homelands. We are all familiar with such terms as “The Vietnam

War”, “The Killing Fields of Cambodia”, “The Secret War in Laos”, and have commiserated with the hardships endured by detainees in Southeast Asian refugee camps or reacted to the horror stories of the “Boat People” in their desperate attempts to reach freedom.

More than one million Southeast Asian refugees from Cambodia, Laos, and

Vietnam were resettled in the U.S. between 1975 and 1992 so that they could rebuild their lives. Indeed, the recent history of these Southeast Asian countries has not been a happy one. Whether refugees or ordinary immigrants, the traditional values generally associated with Southeast Asians are a strong family life, loyalty, respect for elders, interdependence, and a belief in education and hard work. The group illustrated herein are the Hmong, a Laotian ethnic minority of hill tribesmen of whom over 50,000 have settled in the central valley of California, and whose problems are similar to those encountered by the vast majority of Southeast Asian refugees. The Hmong - Quick Look

The Hmong (or Meo) are an ancient hill tribe who settled in the mountainous regions of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand, practicing subsistence farming, polygamy, and ancestor worship in a patriarchal clan system. From 1961 to 1975 about 40,000 Hmong, some as young as 12, were recruited by the CIA to fight communists in Laos and Vietnam and help rescue downed American pilots. In return the CIA promised to take care of them in the future. Hmong courage and sacrifice while fighting under the American flag have been officially recognized by Congress and many are now decorated war heroes. When Laos fell to the communists in 1975 thousands of Hmong Hmong Villagers in Laos were slaughtered, while thousands more fled to refugee camps in Thailand. About 180,000 Hmong from the mountains of Laos have resettled in the United States, the majority in California, mostly in Fresno and Merced counties.

Now the Hmong face the problems of adaptation and assimilation into a foreign culture. The roles of household members have changed dramatically in their new land. The traditional male roles of provider, protector, and decision maker are much diluted in America where women are finding it much easier to find work outside the home, welfare checks are made out in the mother’s name, and children are eager to learn English and adopt American ways. There are many stories of once powerful military officers and village chiefs living in isolated poverty fully dependent on others. Hmong men typically find their influence gradually decreasing and their community leadership roles being taken over by the young.

Among refugees the Hmong have particular difficulties in acculturation. They come from small isolated mountain villages with almost no formal education and skills that are not readily adaptable to a modern society. The stresses caused by this culture clash are manifested in ways that look American: gang behavior, drugs, suicide, alienation, family conflict, poor achievement in school, and the adoption of extreme dress and makeup. e The Hmong - Extended Hlstom The Hmong originated in southwestern China and under pressure of political

persecution and population growth migrated into the mountainous areas of Burma,

Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos. Actually, more Hmong still remain in China than are

found in the rest of the world. The word “Hmong” means “free”, and it is easy to see

why the Hmong resent the name given to them by the Chinese and the lowland Lao,

“Meo”, which means “savage”. They practiced subsistence agriculture and grew

opium as a cash crop. The connection with opium is most likely the largest factor in

the Hmong role in Southeast Asian history. The English conquest of China and the

French conquest of Southeast Asia were both fueled by profits to be made from

opium. The Hmong homeland was strategic territory, being in the border region of 0 China, Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam.

The Japanese occupied Laos and other parts of Indochina in the early 1940’~~

then the French reappeared in 1945 and a struggle began for all of Indochina

between pro-French and pro-Communist forces in the First Indochina War from

1946 until the French were finally driven out in 1954. The Hmong, being excellent

jungle fighters and extremely hardy mountain people, played a role throughout these

conflicts. The CIA became deeply involved in Laos in the mid 195Os, supplying and

supporting whatever groups were battling the communist guerillas. Because the

Geneva accords prevented the USA from stationing troops is Laos, our support was

clandestine. This era gave rise to Air America, a private airline chartered by the CIA

in support of operations in Southeast Asia.

71 In the late 1950s the CIA, through the U. S. Special Forces, began recruiting

Hmong in earnest for a mercenary army. By 1962, there were over 400 Green

Berets in Laos, and Air America was dropping over 40 tons of supplies per day to

the Hmong army. By 1969, there were about 40,000 soldiers in the Hmong secret

army fighting against the North Vietnamese communist spearhead into Indochina.

The Hmong were America's loyal allies, suffering greatly when the Americans pulled

out of Southeast Asia and they were left to their own devices against the retribution

of the Communist enemy as the North Vietnamese took over Laos. The puppet

government installed in Laos by the North Vietnamese launched genocidal attacks

upon the Hmong, hundreds of thousands of whom fled to Thailand to refugee

camps. Many were brought to the United States, primarily those who could prove

conclusively that they fought for us. Many others remain in the camps or have been

forcibly repatriated to Laos, where an undetermined fate awaits them.

Adantlng to in merica

Many Southeast Asian parents try to recreate the same family life in the U.S.

that they had in their home country. Their children try to remain 'Southeast Asian' at

home and strive to be 'American' in school and with their peers. They want their

children to adapt to whatever is necessary for them to enter into the mainstream of

life in their new country, but at the same time they want them to retain their own

traditions.

Most teenagers from Southeast Asian ethnic groups adopt the dress,

hairstyles and manners of American teenagers as they take on the outward cultural

traits of their American peers. Yet the ethnic identity of Southeast Asian youth

remains strong and specific. They still think of themselves as members of their own D 77 ethnic group, seldom make friends with American students, and have few cross- ethnic friendships with other Southeast Asians.

Southeast Asian students have a reputation for having positive attitudes toward education and doing extremely well academically. In reality, though, not all students are excelling. Coming from much more authoritarian education systems,

Southeast Asian students sometimes see their American schools as having no behavioral limits, and so become discipline problems. When Southeast Asian students feel hostility from local teenagers, they either act out, become apathetic, or become all the more determined to preserve their cultural identity, any of which attitudes can lead to further nonacceptance.

The adjustment of adult refugees has tended to be evaluated by two elementary standards: economic sufficiency and proficiency in English, minimums for survival in a new land. Similarly the adjustment of student refugees has been judged by how well they do in school and their fluency in English. However, refugees of all ages know that they need far more than jobs, grades, or even English to feel at home in their new country. They must be accepted and respected by the native population and must adapt to a new culture without relinquishing the heritage that has been fundamental to their development so far. Southeast Asian refugees generally and the Hmong in particular, due to their close, isolated nature, have experienced great difficulties in making this transition. In America, the Hmong have tended to cope rather than to adapt, and the Hmong women seem to have made more progress in acculturation than the men. This is evidenced by the fact that the first Hmong to be elected to political office (school board) in the US. was a Hmong woman.

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The Yemen Times, Law and Diplomacy Section, Issue 46, Vol. VII.

The Yemen Times, Law and Diplomacy Section, Issue 5, Vol. VIII.

Hmong Studies Journal, Vol.1 No. 2, Spring 1997

“Hmong Means Free” by Sucheng Chan, published by Temple University Press.

“Hmong Seek End to Repatriation” by Bob Vitale, Post-Crescent Washington Bureau, Post-Crescent, July 28, 1995, p. B-4.

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