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Northumbria Research Link Northumbria Research Link Citation: Nhien, Pham Cao (2016) Preventing and combatting women trafficking from Vietnam to China. Doctoral thesis, Northumbria University. This version was downloaded from Northumbria Research Link: http://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/36015/ Northumbria University has developed Northumbria Research Link (NRL) to enable users to access the University’s research output. Copyright © and moral rights for items on NRL are retained by the individual author(s) and/or other copyright owners. Single copies of full items can be reproduced, displayed or performed, and given to third parties in any format or medium for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge, provided the authors, title and full bibliographic details are given, as well as a hyperlink and/or URL to the original metadata page. The content must not be changed in any way. Full items must not be sold commercially in any format or medium without formal permission of the copyright holder. The full policy is available online: http://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/policies.html PREVENTING AND COMBATTING WOMEN TRAFFICKING FROM VIETNAM TO CHINA PHAM CAO NHIEN A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of Northumbria at Newcastle Research undertaken in the Faculty of Arts, Design and Social Sciences March 2016 1 Abstract Human trafficking is a growing global problem and is inextricably linked to migration, which is often theorised through a consideration of push and pull factors. An effective response to human trafficking needs to fully address the push factors in the country of origin and pull factors in the country of destination, including any law enforcement response. However, most academic studies only focus on human trafficking in either the country of origin or the country of destination. Therefore, there is a lack of full understanding of push and pull factors, and their interaction in a specific context between a country of origin and a country of destination. This study helps to fill this gap in understanding by investigating the trafficking in Vietnamese women to China using the theory of both push and pull factors. Push factors are defined as those in the country of origin that impel people to leave their home, and make them vulnerable to trafficking. Pull factors are dynamics in the country of destination, which encourage people to migrate there, and make them vulnerable to trafficking. Pull factors also create opportunities for criminals to traffic people from the country of origin. The research uniquely draws not only on the lived experience gathered by semi-structured interviews with twenty-four law enforcement personnel, who are involved in investigating incidents of the trafficking of Vietnamese women to China, but also on the lived experiences of seven trafficking victims, a group who are rarely interviewed. A sample of 326 incidents of the trafficking in Vietnamese women to China, collected from online newspapers, and eight final investigation reports, are analysed by using quantitative content analysis, to cross-check interview data. The original results of the study reveal push and pull factors for the trafficking of Vietnamese women to China, and how push and pull factors are interconnected to create the dynamics of the trafficking of Vietnamese women to China. The challenges facing investigators in the fight against trafficking in Vietnamese women to China are also revealed. Based on the theory of push and pull factors, a number of possible solutions are proposed to prevent and combat the trafficking of Vietnamese women to China. In addition, this study aims to lay a foundation for further research and discussion on push and pull factors theory in other geographical locales. 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TITTLE………….......................................................................................................... 1 ABSTRACT................................................................................................................... 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................... 3 LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................... 8 LIST OF FIGURES....................................................................................................... 9 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................................ 10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................................. 11 DECLARATION........................................................................................................... 12 CHAPTER 1 RESEARCH BACKGROUND............................................................... 13 1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 13 1.2. Literature review………………….................................................................... 18 1.3 Context of trafficking in women from Vietnam.................................................. 30 1.4 Policy and law enforcement responses to trafficking of women in Vietnam…. 34 1.5 Research questions………………………………………................................... 36 1.6 What is coming next............................................................................................ 38 CHAPTER 2 THEORY OF PUSH AND PULL FACTORS AND THE CONTEXT OF THE TRAFFICKING OF VIETNAMESE WOMEN TO CHINA...……….......... 41 2.1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………. 41 2.2 Transnationalism, mobilities, feminism and the theory of push and pull factors 42 2.3 Theory of push and pull factors …………………………………….................. 45 2.3.1 Push factors………………………………………………………………... 46 2.3.1.1 Economic factors................................................................................... 46 2.3.1.2 Social and cultural factors...................................................................... 47 2.3.1.3 Conflict, political and natural disaster factors....................................... 49 2.3.2 Pull factors……………………………………………………………….... 50 2.3.2.1 Economic opportunities......................................................................... 51 2.3.2.2 Better living conditions.......................................................................... 53 2.3.2.3 Demand of the sex industry................................................................... 53 2.3.3 The operation of push and pull factors……………………......................... 54 2.4 The context of push and pull factors of the trafficking in Vietnamese women to China................................................................................................................................ 57 3 2.4.1 The context of push factors in Vietnam…………………………………..... 57 2.4.1.1 Economic situation…………………………………………………….. 57 2.4.1.2 Political, social and cultural circumstances………………………........ 63 2.4.2 The context of pull factors in China.............................................................. 67 2.4.2.1 Demographical situation and labour market transition.......................... 67 2.4.2.2 Resurgence of the sex industry............................................................... 69 2.4.2.3 Cultural discrimination against women and “bride price” issues........... 71 2.4.3. Geographic, political, migratory, cultural and commercial relations across the Sino-Vietnamese border…………………………………......................................... 73 2.5. Conclusion............................................................................................................ 78 CHAPTER 3 POLICY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORKS TO TACKLE THE TRAFFICKING OF VIETNAMESE WOMEN TO CHINA.......................................... 81 3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................ 81 3.2 Vietnam’s anti-trafficking policy and legal frameworks....................................... 81 3.2.1 Anti-trafficking policy..................................................................................... 81 3.2.2 The Anti-trafficking Act 2011…………………............................................ 85 3.2.3 The criminalization of human trafficking in Vietnam’s criminal laws…...... 89 3.3 China’s anti-trafficking policy and legal frameworks…………………............... 92 3.4 Anti-trafficking cooperation between Vietnam and China…………………….. 99 3.5 Investigation into trafficking incidents in the context of the trafficking of Vietnamese women to China……………….................................................................. 103 3.6. Conclusion…………………………………………........................................... 109 CHAPTER 4 METHODOLOGY......……………………………………...................... 110 4.1. Introduction……………………………………………...................................... 110 4.2 Methodological approach to the study……………………………...................... 110 4.3 Qualitative data collection…………………………………………………….... 112 4.3.1 Qualitative approach……………………………………………………….. 112 4.3.2 Sampling………………………………………………………………….... 114 4.3.2.1 Counter-trafficking professionals……………………………………... 114 4.3.2.2 Trafficking victims……………………………………………………. 117 4.3.3 Interview process………………………………………............................... 118 4.3.3.1 Counter-trafficking professionals…………………….......................... 118 4.3.3.2 Trafficking victims………………………………………………........ 121 4 4.3.4 Data analysis………………………………................................................
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