An Inquiry Into the History of the Current English Names of North American Land Birds

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346 TROTTER,English Names of American Birds. [AukLOct.

AN INQUIRY INTO THE HISTORY OF THE CURRENT ENGLISH NAMES OF NORTH AMERICAN LAND BIRDS.

BY SPENCER TROTTER.

TECt•NICALnomenclature is the embodimentof that orderly and definitearrangement of knowledgewhich constitutes a science. It servesto symbolizea conceptionof the relationshipsthat exist betweenliving beings,one with another,and is at oncethe ex- pressionof a logicalsystem of classification;a workingbasis for the ideal scheme which the mind constructs from observed facts. It is eminentlya rationalprocess. In directcontrast to thisis the vernacular- the loose,quite indefinite and oftenhaphazard way of namingthings, that has its root in the soil of commonlife. The stratumout of whichit springsis emotional rather thanrational. In ornithologythese two contrastedforms of the embodiedideal- the technical or scientific and the vernacular names -- have been of moreequal value than in many other branchesof natural history, fromthe fact that birdshave always presented themselves to men's mindsin a peculiarlyattractive way. Mostof usthink of thevarious kindsof birds,certainly of the morefamiliar ones, in termsof the vernacularrather than in the garbof science. A SongSparrow is a SongSparrow more often than a Melospizamelodia as well to the ornithologistas to theuntechnical wayfarer. A respectableantiquity attaches itself to the vernacular. Long beforethe scientificmind had invadedthe field of natural history the folk had givenvoice to its ideasabout various animate and in- animate things. A vast vocabularyof popular nameswas an early heritageof the commonpeople. With this stockof names and notionsabout Old World birdsthe colonistsin Virginia and New Englandwere fairly well equipped,and the morefamiliar birdsof the new countrysoon received names indicative of some trait or likeness to certain of the Old World varieties. Mark Cateshyin his History of Carolinawas the first one to give any substantialaccount of American birds, and his work contains an Vol.1909XX¾I' JI TROTTER,English Names of AmericanBirds. 347

array of names,some of them moreor lessfamiliar in the speechof to-day. To William Bartram we owe a largenumber of our common bird names,names that reachedthe intellectualworld of eigh- teenthcentury England through the worksof Edwards,Pennant and Latham. AlexanderWilson was likewisea large debtor to Bartram for the namesof numerousspecies, but he blazedhis owntrail by applyingnames to speciesdiscovered by himselfas well asin the recastingof manyBartramian names. In the presentinquiry I havearranged the matterof the history of ourAmerican bird namesunder the followingsix heads -- I. Namesof Old Englishorigin applied to AmericanBirds• II. Namesderived from a Latin equivalent. III. Namessuggested by voice. IV. Namessuggested by somepeculiar habit or habitat. V. Namessuggested by coloror otherexternal feature. VI. Names suggestedby geographicallocality (place-names) or in honorof someperson.

I. NAMES OF OLD ENGLISH ORIGIN.

Many of the Catesbiannames of birdsundoubtedly originated in the vernacularof the colonistsand someare dearlyof Old English ancestry. In the main they are of genericrather than of specific application,as is the easewith mostof the folk terms for natural objects. The specificdistinction is oftenone of localitymerely, as for example"the euekowof Carolina." Relationshipis often broadlyrecognized by the peopleand embodied in a generalname with appropriatequalifications to indicateminor differencesor differencesin distribution.The "species"of theprofanmr• vulgus, however,more nearly corresponds to the genericconception of the naturalist, even in some eases to the idea embodied in the term "family." A numberof theseOld World bird names,given to American birds,appear very early in the historyof Englishspeech. In a vocabularycompiled by Archbishop./Elftie toward the doseof the tenthcentury (955-1020 A.D.) thereis a •VominaAvim• in which a numberof bird namesappear, though somewhat different from their modern form. In this list the Robin Redbreast is called 348 T•OTT•,I•,English Names of American Birds. LOct['Auk

"rudduc" or "ruddock" which long continuedto be its general Englishname and is probablystill alive in localdialects. The word appearsas a variantof the modern "ruddy," refertrig no doubt to the russet of the bird's breast. The earliest recorded instance of the useof thepopular epithet "robin," which as a wordof endearment hasbeen transfe•'ed to manydifferent birds thoughout the English speakingworld, occurs in the NominaAz, ium of an Englishvocab- ularyof the fifteenthcentury where tl•e nmne appears as "tobynet redbreast,"literally "little robin redbreast:"Our American Robinwas known to theearly southern colonists as the "Fieldfare" and is sotermed by Catesby("The Fieldfareof Carolina,"Vol. I, 29). The bird hasmany of the qualitiesof the Fieldfare,and like its Britishcongener came from the northin autumn,scattering over the clearedlands in looseflocks. William Bartram (Travels, 290) speaksof it as the "Fieldfareor robinredbreast," and Kalm mentions it under the latter name (EnglishTrans., II, 90). Our familiar name "robin" is thus a contraction of the" robin redbreast" of old Englishspeech. In the Nomina A•i•m of 2Elfricthe cuckoooccurs as "geac." In someprovincial dialects it is still calleda "gowk,"a survivalof the little alteredAnglo-Saxon name. "Cuckoo" or "Cuckow" (thelatter an earlierform of thename and given as such by Cateshy) is undoubtedlyderived through later Norman speech(th'ench coucoa;Italian cuccoor cuculo;old Englishcuccu). The German name kuckukor koekoek,the Danish kukker or gj6g, and the Swedishg6k are clearly allied to the Anglo-Saxongeac or gowk,all beingundoubted variants expressive of the bird'svoice, and the same is true of "cuckoo" and its variants. • The colonists were not deceivedin givingto theAmerican species its rightfulname, though Cateshymay havebeen the first to bestowit. "Crow" appearsin 2Elfric'svocabulary as erawe; "kite" as glida and glede,the last name continuingdown to the fifteenth century. The AngloSaxon stae?'n or staer(later stare) has become the modern"starling." A manuscriptin the Royal Library at Brussels,of eleventh

• To call a man a "gawk" (simpleton)appears equivalent to calling him a "cuckoo," a term of no uncertain meaning in the old days. Vol.1909XXVI'] .l Tao•r•rEa,English Names ofAmerican Birds. 349

centurydate, contains a numberof bird namesamong which are the Gos-hafoe(literally "Goose hawk") modernizedto "Goshawk," and Spear-hafoe("Sparrow hawk"). It seemscurious that our little AmericanSparrow Hawk has not bornethe name of its near relativethe I(estrelrather than that of the quitedifferent Sparrow Hawk of the Old World. "Turtle" was an old name for the Dove andappears as such in Catesby("The Turtleof Carolina,"I, 24). It originated,asSkeat observes, from an effort to express the cooing noteand is altogetherdifferent from the wordused to designate the reptileof the samename. This lastwas rendered by English sailorsinto "turtle" fromthe Spanishtortuga. Wren, Sparrowand Swallowappear in theseold vocabularies as Wraenna,Spearwa and Swealewe. The first of thesenames Skeat assertsis derivedfrom a base Wrin, to squeal,chirp or whine, in allusion to the bird's voice. A curiousold belief existed amongthe folk of severalEuropean countries that the Wren was the "King of Birds." Hence,probably the genericterm Regulus formerlyapplied to variousspecies of Wren, and, likewise,its Englishequivalent "Kinglet." "Sparrow"is literallya "flutterer" (Spar,to quiver),and "Swallow" meansa "tosser,or moverto and fro; from its flight" (Skeat). "Lark" has been softened down from the Old English "laverok" or "laverock" (Anglo- Saxon laverce),literally "a Worker of Guile," from some old superstitionregarding the bird as of ill omen. The bestowalof this name upon an Americanbird allied to the starlingswas no doubtdue to an efforton the part of the earlysettlers to namebirds afterthe more familiar ones of thehomeland. The ground-nesting habits,the long hind claw, the loud twitteringflight notesand clearsong of the Americanbird mayhave given some slight reason for thisincongruous title. "Thrush" with its variants "throstle" and "throstle-kok," as appliedto the SongThrush (Turdusmusicus) of Europe,is an old word and appearsin its older forms in a treatiseby Walter deBiblesworth at theend of thethirteenth century. In theBrussels Manuscript"throstle" seems to referto the MisselThrush (Turdus ,isei•orus). The SongThrush is alsoreferred to by its otherold Englishname of "Maviz" (later"Mavis"). In thissame treatise of de Biblesworth'sthe EuropeanBlackbird (Turdus ,r,erula) is 350 TROTTER,English Na•nes of AmericanBirds. [-AukLOct.

spokenof as "osel" or "hosel-brit,"and likewiseby its Old English Name of "Merle." Later it became"Ousel-eoek" as in the quaint ditty in Midsummer-Nights'Dream- "The ousel-cock,so black of hue, With orange-tawny bill, The throstle with his note so true, The wren with little quill. The finch, the sparrow, and the lark, The plain-songcuckoo grey, Whose note full many a man doth mark, And dares not answer,nay; .... " "Mawys" or "Mavis" as a dialecticname has lasteddown to the presentday in the countiesof EastEngland. It seemscurious that it was not transferredto any Amerieanthrush notably the Wood Thrush. "Osel" is clearlythe parent word of the modern "Ousel" and in this latter form is still appliedto an allied species of the EuropeanBlackbird -- the Ring-ousel(T. torquatus),as well as to a dlstinet,though related, family--the Dippers or Water Ousels (Cinelidse). Without doubt the word "Thrasher," applied to the birds of the American genus Toxostoma,is a variant of "Thrush" and "Throstle," for we find "Thrushel" and "Thrusher" as variants in the ProvincialEnglish dialects. The term "Thrasher" occursin Barton's'Fragments' (1799), and Wilsonalso uses the nameas a vernacularin his accountof the BrownThrush or "Ferruginous Thrush" (Toxostomaruf•m) as he callsit, both of whichfacts are clearevidence as to the early currentuse of this commonname for the speciesin question. Cateshyfigures the bird under the title "Fox-colouredThrush" (I, 28). In the Southit is known here and thereas the "SandyMocker" andformerly as the "FrenchMock- ingbird," thislast from the fact that its songwas considered inferior to that of the true Mockingbird(Mimus polyglottos)- all things French being regardedwith a certain contemptby the English colonists. There is a curioussuggestion of the throstle'ssong in the songof our BrownThrasher, a fact alsonoted by Wilson,and thismay havegiven rise to the currentvernacular name. In a metricalvocabulary, supposedly of the fourteenthcentury, "sparrow"appears in its modernform; likewise"larke," "pye" Vol.1909XXVI 1I TROTTER,English Names of American Birds. 351

(theMagpie, "mag" beinga contractionof "Magot" or "Madge," a feminine nanheformerly bestowedupon this bird), "revyn" (raven),"parthryd," and "quale." "Jay" also appearsin its presentday spellingand with its Latin equivalentGraculusque. whichmay be the originof our modernword "Grackle." "Jay" is from old French"gai" equivalentto "gay" (plumage). In a Nominale,or list of words,of fifteenthcentury date we find "wagsterd" (Wagtail), "nuthage" (Nuthatch), and "buntyle" (Bunting). In a curiouspictorial vocabulary, also of the fifteenth century,"Kingfisher" appears as "kynges-fyehere"and "Wood- pecker" as "wodake" or "woodhock." Our "Redstart" evi- dentlyreceived its nanheby suggestionfrom a very differentbird of the Old World (Ruticillaphcenicurus). It is socalled by Catesby (I, 67). "Sta•" is h'omAnglo-Saxon "steort"--a tail. "Tit- mouse"has beentransferred to variousAmerican species of the family (Cateshyfigures the "CrestedTitmouse," I, 57), the prefix "tit" meaningsmall. "Mouse" is h'om Anglo-Saxonradse, a nanhe,according to Skeat,for severalkinds of smallbirds and not to be confoundedwith the mammal of the sanhename. Hence, the plural "titmouses,"not "titmice," is the properform though usagehas establishedit otherwise. "Shrike" is another name transferredfrom Europeanto alliedAmerican species. The nanhe probablyhad its originin the voiceof this bird or of sonhethrush, and later bestowedupon the membersof the Lanildm(see Newton, Dict. of Birds, 843). "Martin" (and its older form "Martlet") wasevidently a nicknameapplied to a EuropeanSwallow (Chelido• urbica) and given by the coloniststo our speciesof the genus Progne. Bartramcalls the bird "The greatpurple martin." "Blackbird," appliedto certainAnherican species of Ieteridm,is a nanhesuggested purely by color. Catesbyearly gave to our Agelaiusphceniceus its more nearlycorrect title of "Red-wing'd Starling" (I, 13). Kalm (Forster) usesthe older form "stare" (Eng. Trans., II, 73-79) and likewiserefers to the speciesof Quis- ealusas "blackbirds,"remarking that "The Englishcall them blackbirds"(Eng. Trans., I, 291). Our Goldfinchappears first in Catesbyas "The AmericanGoldfinch" (I, 43), the name clearly borrowedfrom the Old World Cardueliselegans. "Siskin" in like mannercomes from the Old World, the wordbeing originally 352 TROTT•,•t,English Names of AmericanBirds. ['AukLOct.

of Scandinavianorigin and meaning "chirper" or "piper." "Snow Bunting"is the old nameof Plectrophenaxnivalis and should rightlyreplace the fanciful"Snowflake." Our "Tree Sparrow" is theresult of a confusionof theAmerican species (Spizella monti- cola)with the Mountainor Tree Sparrowof Europe(Passer mon- tanus). This was correctedby Pennant,but the name "tree" was retained. A rather curious case of name transfer is that of our Yellow- breastedChat (Icteria•:irens). The bird first appearsunder this titlein Catesby'sWork (I, 50),and was evidently so-called by him in a mistaken idea that it was related to the birds of the same name belongingto the Europeangenus Saxicola. This fact is made evidentby theLatin word•enanthe used in thedescriptive designa- tion. The name"buzzard" as applied to the TurkeyVulture appears earlyin theliterature of Americanbirds. Catesbycalls it "Turkey Buzzard" (I, 6). As an old Englishname of Norman French derivation(Busard, Latin Buteo)it had, as Newtonpoints out (Diet. of Birds, 767), a definitemeanh•g in relationto the old sportof "hawking." Birdsof the generaButeo and Circus(Har- rier) were styled"buzzards" (moreespecially the speciesof the formergenus), of slowand heavyflight, and "were regardedwith infinite scorn,and hencein commonEnglish to call a man a buz- bard is to denouncehim asstupid." With the exceptionof eagles and owlsand a few kitesall birdsof preyin thiscountry are termed "hawks," and "buzzard" hasbeen relegated to this slow-moving, earrion-feedlngspecies.

II. NAMES DERIVED FROM A LATIN EQUIVALENT.

Severalof our Englishbird nameshave comeinto every-day speechby the anglieizingof their generictitles. The Linnman genus Oriolus (from "Oriole," Latin aurum, gold) included certainspecies of Ieterid•ewhich though very differentfrom the EuropeanOriolus galbula, still bear its name. "Juneo" and "Vireo" are anglieizedgeneric names. The word "grackle" appliedto certainspecies of our Ieteridmappears to be an angli- eizedword derivedfrom the Linnmangenus Gracula. The word VoL1909XXVI] J TROTTER,English Names of American Birds. 353

originallyreferred to the daw or jackdawof Europeand the rela- tionshipbetween the Americanbirds and the Europeanspecies, thoughsomewhat distant, was recognizedby early writers. Quis- calus quisculaappears in Catesbyas "The Purple Jackdaw" (I, 12). Bartram calls it the "Lesserpurple jackdaw or crow blackbird" (the first noticeI havefound of thislast commonname). Wilsoncalls it the "Purple Grackle," from which sourceit has withoutdoubt spreadinto the currentvernacular of ornithology, thoughnot into the speechof the peopleat large. The name "Parula" recentlyin voguefor the warblersof the genusCorapsothlypis is clearlyborrowed from the old Bonaparte genusParula (diminutiveof titmouse). The bird (C. americana) hasappeared under various titles --"the FinchCreeper" of Catesby (I, 64), "the variouscoloured little finch creeper" of Bartram (Travels, 292), and the "Blue Yellow-backedWarbler" of Wilson, Audubon and later authors. In "Kinglet" we have a word renderedinto Englishfrmn the genericname Regulus(CusSer) though its use is somewhatrecent, "wren" beingthe vernaculardesignation of the speciesof Regulus until a comparativelylate period. Edwards (Gleanings,V, 95) refersto the speciesas "Le Roitelet" (alsoBuffon). "Tanager" is anotherderived word from the Linneeangenus Tanagra, probablyof Brazilian origin (5Iarcgrave,Hist. Rer. Nat. Bras., 214).

III. NAMES SUGGESTED BY VOICE.'

In this group,and in the onesthat follow,the vernacularnames are morespecific in their nature,indicative of somepeculiar feature or habit of a species. Bird voiceshave been embodied from the earliesttimes in variousexpressive syllables which have given rise to a varietyof names. "Cuckoo" was one of these,and in like manner "Wren," "Crow" and other bird names of the Old World. The babbleof our volubleChat, as we have seen, un- doubtedlyled Catesbyto ally the bird with a groupof verydifferent species. In Americathe colonistssoon found names by which to designatea numberof birds from peculiaritiesin their vocal performances.Latham speaksof the "Phoebe-bird"(Sayornis 354 T•oT•s•, EnglishNames of AmericanBirds. LOct.

fuscus),unquestionably given him by some transatlanticcorre- spondent. Ore' name "pewee" is given "pe•vit" by Bartram. Wilsonnamed the "Wood Pewee"(Contopus virens) from its voice and its habitat. The olderwriters give "Rice-bird" as the chief captionof Doli- chonyxoxyzi•orus (Cateshy, I, 14) and Bartram calls the male "the pied rice bird." Wilson callsit "Rice bird," but mentions itsother names -- "Boblink"and "Reedbird." Nuttall,as a good New Englander,gives "Bob-o-link" as its principalname, and Barton, in his 'Fragments,'has "Bob-Lincoln." I find this last title alsoin a sketchof the Englishwriter William Hazlitt (1785). Theseare the earliestreferences I can find to thissong name of the bird whichappears to havebeen early in usethroughout New York and New England. Amongthe currentspecific appelations of certainSparrows some recentchanges are noteworthy. The "Yellow wingedSparrow" of Wilsonis now the "Grass- hopperSparrow," the first allusionto its grasshopper-likenotes being,as far as I can find, in Coues's'Bi•rls of the Northwest' (page133). We owethe attractivename of "VesperSparrow" to John Burroughs(Wake Robin) which has supercededthe older "Grass finch" of Pennantand Gmelin and the "Bay-winged Finch" of Wilson. The "ChippingSparrow" is throughWilson fromthe earlier "little housesparrow or chippingbird" of Bartram. "Song Sparrow"unquestionably originated through Wilson, as alsothe specific title melodia. Cateshy(I, 34) figuresand describes "The Towhe-bird" (Pipilo erythrophthalmus).Wilson speaks of its name in Pennsylvaniaas "Chewink." "Towbee" is a later form of the word by addingan additional"e." "Swamp Robin" and (in Virginia)"Bulfinch" are othernames mentioned by Wilson. "Pipit" is an old Englishname applied to the Titlarks (Antbus) andis derivedthrot•gh "peep" from "pipe", imitative of thebird's note. Cateshycalls the Mockingbird (Miraus polyglottos) "The Mock Bird," thoughBartram gives it its modernform. "Catbird" appearsas suchin Cateshy(I, 66) and Bartramadds "Chicken bird" as a synonym(Travels, 290). "Chickadee"as a general Vol.1909XXVI] J Tao•r•rEa,English Names of American Birds. 355 imitativevernacular name for the speciesof ParusI find firstin Audubon. The name "Veery," given to the Tawny Thrush (Turdusfuscescens) in imitationof its note,is first usedas a synonym by Nuttall. "Warbler," as a generalterm for small songbirds of the Old World family Sylviid•e,has comedown from a word in severalof the old Europeantongues (Old French,Old High German,Middle English--l•Verbler, l•Verbelen),meaning to whirl, run round, warble,as a bird (Skeat). In its specialapplication to the species of Sylvia,which we oweto Pennant(1773), it includedthe Ameri- canWarblers (Mniotiltid•e) which were later separated as a distinct family (Sylvieolid•e)under the title of "WoodWarblers." "Wood Warbler,"however, has not prevailed and "Warbler" continues to be the currentvernacular for the variousspecies of this character- istic American family, though,as we are well aware, the name belies the insect-likenotes, drawling monotones,lispings, and wheezingperformances of the majorityof the species.A few do really warblein the acceptedsense of the term (Geothlypis),but mostspeak in a tonguepeculiarly their own. Kalm (Travels,Eng. Trans., II, 151)speaks of "Whip-poor-will" asthe English name of Antrostomus vociferus. A confusionappears in Bartram(Travels, 292), whohas it "Night hawkor Whip-poor- will." Antrostowusearolinensis is calledby Bartram (292) "the great bat, or Chuck Wills Widow." "Night-hawk" is givenby Wilson, thoughthis species(Chordeiles virginianus) appears to have beendescribed by Catesbyunder the name of "The Goat- suckerof Carolina" (I, 8). Colinusvirginianus has long proclaimedhis proper title of "Bob-White," which has now becomethe acceptedname of the species,superceding the older and less distinctive terms of "quail" and "partridge."

IV. NAMES SUGGESTEDBY SOME PECULIAR HABIT OR HABITAT.

"Flycatcher"is a nameof obviousapplication given to an Old Worldgroup of birds. Fromthe peculiar habits of certainAmerican speciesthe term "Tyrant Flycatchers"has become current. The "Kingbird" is first so-calledby Bartram. Catesbyfigures the 356 TaOTTE•,English Names of American Birds. kOct.[Auk

speciesas "The Tyrant," whencethe nameof generalapplication. Wilson speaksof its name in Maryland as the "Field Martin," and "Bee Martin" is another name in certain localities. "Gnatcatcher"is a namethat firstappears in Audubon,froin the Swainsoniangenus Culicivora. The species(Polioptila cozrulea) was originally"the little bluishgrey wren" of Bartra•n (Travels, 291), and later the "Small Blue Grey Flycatcher" of Wilson (A. O., II, 164)." Severalspecies of Warblersearly receivednames indicative of peculiarhabits. The Worm-eatingWarbler (Helmitheros•ermi- vorus)of Wilson and later authorswas originally"The Worm- eater" (Edwards,Gleanings), froin Bartram; also Latham and Pennant from the same source. The Pine-creepingWarbler (Dendroicavigorsi) of Wilsonwas the "Pine Creeper"of Catesby (I, 61). Edwards(Gleanings, 92) quotinga letter froin Bartram saysof Seiurusaurocapillus that it "buildsits nest upon the ground, and alwayschooses the southside of a hill; that it makesa hole in the leaves,like a little oven,and lines it with dry grass,"etc. This is the first reference I have found of the familiar vernacular "Oven- bird," althoughEdwards calls the species"Golden-crowned Thrush." "Water Thrush" and "Wagtail" were namesearly givento the other species ofthe genus, and 'Pennant speaks of one as the "New York Warbler" (Arct. Zo61.,II, 308) whenceits old specificname of no•eboracens•s.The vernacular"Myrtle Bird" first appearsin Nuttall, henceprobably "Myrtle Warbler" of authors,though early accounts speak of the bird'sfondness fro' the berriesof theWax Myrtle (Myrica). Catesbycalls it"The Yellow- rump" (I, 58) and Edwards(Glean., VI, pl. 298) "The Golden- crownedFlycatcher." The MagnoliaWarbler was found by Wilson "amongthe •nagnolias,not far froin fort Adamson the Mississippi." He called it the "Black and Yellow Warbler, SylviaMagnolia" (A. O., III, 63), hence"Magnolia Warbler" of later authors. Dendroicapalmarum, the "Palin Warbler" of Latham (Synop.,II, 491), is the "Yellowred pole" of Edwards (Parusaureus •ertice rubro of Bartrain)and the "Yellowred-poll Warbler" of Wilson. Wilson called Dendroica discolorthe "Prairie Warbler"froin the open tracts of Kentuckywhere he firstfound it. Of the Sparrowsseveral species have received names indicative Vol.1909XXVI] TaOTTZa,English Names of American Birds. 357

of habitat. The "little field sparrow" of Bartram becamethe "Field Sparrow"of Wilsonand later authors("Bush Sparrow" of Burroughs). Wilson first bestowedthe •'ernaculartitle of "S•vampSparrow" upon Melospiza georgiana, though it wasknown to Bartram as "The reed sparrow." In like manner tl•e name "SeasideFinch" wasgiven by Wilsonto Aw.wodram•sw.aritim•s from habitat (A. O., IV, 68). Juncohycmalis was called"Snow- bird" by the early settlersfrom the fact of its appearancein the late autumnand at the onsetof winter ]n the coastalplain region (Cateshy,Kalm, Wilson, and later authors). "Junco" is a comparativelylate adoptionin orderto avoidconfusion with the Snowy Bunting-- Plectrophenax•ivalis). The "HouseWren" is so calledby Bartram(Travels, 291) and the "Marsh Wren" likewise(the latter most likely referring to the long-billedspecies). Wilson, correctingearlier errors, gave the title "Winter Wren" to T. hiemalls. "ChimneySwallow" is an old namefor the "ChimneySwift" (Ch•eturapelagica) and is given as suchby Kalm, Bartram and earlywriters. "T. roelodes--the wood thrush" is so called by Bartram (Travels,290). Wilsonnamed the "Hermit Thrush" (T. solitaria, A. O., V, 95) fromits habitat and its retiring habits. The Cowbird was "The Cow-penBird" of Cateshy(I, 34) and likewiseof Audubon,and the "Cow Bunting" of Wilson. "Meadow Lark" first appearsin Wilson. Bartramcalls it "The great meadowlark," and Cateshy"The Large Lark" (I, 33). Pennant, nearer the truth, calls it the "CrescentStare" (Arct. ZoSl.,192). Wilsonalso speaks of "Old fieldlark" asits common namein Virginia. The "ShoreLark" is so calledby Pennant. Cateshycalls it "The Lark" (I, 32), Bartramthe "Skylark,"and Wilson the "Horned Lark." Several of our American Swallows received names indicative of habit or habitat- "Barn Swallow" originatedas a specifictitle with Barton (horreorum,Fragments, 1799). It was the "House Swallow" of Bartram. The Bank Swallow is the "Bank Martin" of Bartram. "Cliff" and "Eave" Swallow are names of Petro- chelidonlunifro•s accordingto the particularnesting site adopted by thisspecies. I havefailed to findany early reference to thename 358 TRO•C•CER,English Names of American Birds. I.['Auk Oct.

"Tree Swallow" for T. bicolor--the "White-bellied Swallow" of earlierauthors. It appearsto have comeinto use at a comparativelylate period. Bartram speaksof Ampelis cedrorumas "Crown Bird" or "Cedar bird" (Travels,290), the latter its currentname.

V. NAMES SUGGESTED BY COLOR OR OTHER EXTERNAL FEATURE.

A largenumber of our Americanbird namesowe their originto coloror to someconspicuous external feature. The "Great crested Flycatcher"of Wilsonis the "Great CrestedYellow belliedFly- catcher" of Bartram and "The CrestedFlycatcher" of Catesby, (I, 52). The word "Great" evidentlyoriginated with Bartram. "Baltimore,"as appliedin the vernacularto Icterusgalbula, was first used in ornithologicalliterature by Catesby--"The Balti- more-Bird"(I, 48)- the namebeing derived from its colorpat- tern, that of the liveryof the Calverts(Lord Baltimore). Bartram callsit "Baltimorebird or hang nest." The specificappelation "Orchard" appearsfirst to havebeen bestowed by Wilsonupon Icterusspurius which was the "BastardBaltimore" of Catesby (I, 49). Wilsongoes to somelength to setthings right concerning this species."Scarlet" as applied to the Tanager (Piranga erythromelas)appears first in Edwards(Gleanings, 343) as the "ScarletSparrow." Pennantcalls this species "Canada Tanager." q_'he"Summer Redbird" is so calledand figuredby Catesby(I, 56). Bartramspeaks of it as the "Sandhillredbird of Carolina." Amongthe Sparrows and Grosbeaksthere are a numberof species the namesof which have a colororigin. "Red poll," givento a speciesof Acanthis,appears as the "Lesserred-headed Linnet" and "LesserRedpole," of Ray and Pennant. "Linnet" is an ancientname commonin severalEuropean languages and is in reference to the fondness of these birds for the seeds of the flax (Linum). Bartram undoubtedlyrefers to this species(Acanthis linaria) underthe nameof "hempbird." "Purple" as appliedto Carpodacuspurpuretts first appearsin Catesby'swork (I, 41) as "Purple Finch" and is a monumentalwitness of an inabilityto properlydiscriminate either between two verydifferent shades of Vol.1909XXVIq .] T•tOTTE•t,English Names of American Birds. 359

coloror in the useof the rightword. "White-throatedSparrow" is so calledby Edwardsfrom a drawingof the speciessent him by Bartramwho speaksof it in his 'Travels' as "The largebrown white throat sparrow." Zonotrichialeucophrys is the "White- crownedBunting" of Pennant. The vernacularof Passerella il'iaca has been contractedfrom the earlier "Fox-coloured" (or "colored")to simple"Fox Sparrow." Bartramcalls it "The red, or fox colouredground or hedgesparrow." Barton,in his 'Frag- ments,'speaks of this species'name in New York as "the Shep- herd" (Fragments,15). Our modern"Cardinal" is undoubtedlyof French origin. Catesbygives it its English title of "Red-bird" and also "Le Cardinal" (I, 38). It is "The red-bird or Vir- ginia Nightingale"of Bartramand otherearly writers. Catesby figuresGuiraca ccerulea as "The BlewGrosbeak" (I, 39). "Rose- breasted"(Wilson) may be tracedto Le RoseGorge of Buffonand "Red-breastedGrosbeak" of Pennant. Passerlnacyanea is "The Blew Linnet" of Cateshy(I, 45), who furtheralludes to it as the "Indigo-birdof Americans." The "Painted Finch" (P. ciris)is so calledby Cateshy,and Bartram likewiseadds its other title of "Nonpariel." "Lazuli" was bestowedupon P. amcenaby Say (Long'sExp., II, 47, 1823). Pennant first uses the name "Black-throatedBunting" for Spizaamericana, but Bartrammentions this species under the title "Calandrapratensis, the May bird" (Travels,291). "Dickcissel," its modernname, appears to haveoriginated through Mr. Robert Ridgwayfrom Middle West localities(Coues, Birds of the North West, 166). Wilsonborrowed the term "sharp-tailed"for Ammo- dra•mzscaudacutus from Turton (Syst.,562). "Lark," as applied to two speciesof Fringillidm- Chondestesgramraacus and Cala- raosplzamelanocorys- was bestowed upon these different birds, in the onecase by Sayand in theother by Townsend,in viewof their lark-likeappearance and habits. Amongthe Warblerswe havea hostof coloinames. "Mourn- ing Warbler" we owe to its discovererWilson. The Summer Warbler or "Yellow Warbler" (Dendroicaaestiva) was "the Yellow Titmouseof Catesby(I, 63), "the summerYellow-bird" of Bartram,the "Yellow-poll"of Latham and Pennantand the "Blue-eyedYellow Warbler of Wilson. Say first describedthe 360 TROTTER,English Names of AmericanBirds. [AukLOct.

Orange-cro•medWarbler (Helminthophilacelata) (Long's Exp., 1823). Mniotilta•:aria was the "Black and White Creeper"of Edwards(Glean., ¾ol. ¾I, receivedfrom Bartramwho gave it its name). In his'Travels' Bartram calls it the"blue and white striped or piedcreeper" (p. 289). Of the ProthonotaryWarbler Pennant (Aret.Zo61., II, 30) says:"Inhabits Louisiana. Calledthere le Pro- tonotaria;but thereason has not reached us." Probablyin allusion to the vesturesof that office. Many speciesof warblerswere earlier known by the variousnames of "flycatcher,""titmouse," and "creeper"according to theirpeculiar habits, the specific vernacular beingmainly in relationto color. Dendroicaceerulescens was the "Blue Flycatcher"of Edwards(Glean., pl. 252--receivedfrom Bartram);the "Black-throat"of Pennant(Aret. Zool., II, 285); the "Black-throatedWarbler" of Latham, and the "Black-throated BlueWarbler" as first applied by Wilson. Wilsonfirst named the "CaeruleanWarbler." The "Black poll Warbler"appears as suchin Lathamand Pennant, "poll" or "pole" beingan early name for "head" as in our "poll tax." The Yellow-throated Warbler"(D. dominica)was "The Yellow4hroatedCreeper" of Catesby(I, 61). The "Blue WingedYellow Warbler" (Hel- minthophilapinus) was formerly confused xxdth the "Pine creeper" of Cateshy(D. •,igorsii),hence pinus as applied to thisspecies of ttelminthophila.Its ¾emaeularis a cleartranslation by Wilson of Bartram's"Parus a•treus alis cerulels-Blue winged yellow bird." In likemanner H. chrysopterawas the "Parus alis aureus" of Bartram,the "Golden-wingedFlycatcher" of Edwards(from Bartram),and the "Golden-wingedWarbler" of Wilsonand later authors.'Wilson first bestowedthe names"Bay-breasted" and "Chestnut-sided"upon D. castaneaand D. pensyl•Janica.The formerwas Bartram's "little chocolate breast titmouse" (Travels, 292) and the latter his "goldencrown flycatcher." This last species,also, was the "Red-throatedFlycatcher" of Edwardsand the "Bloody-sideWarbler" of Turton as a result of Edwards's badlycolored plate. D. wirenswas the "GreenBlack-throated Flycatcher"of Bartramand the "Black-throatedGreen Fly- catcher"of Edwards(Glean., VI, pl. 300,from Bartram). The "HoodedWarbler" (8yk;anla •itrata) is figuredby Catesby underthe name of "The HoodedTitmouse" (I, 60). Vol.1909XXVI] TROttER,English. Names of AmericanBirds. 361

"Black-capTitmouse" is Bartram'sname for the species(Parus atricapillus)and probablyalso its near relativeP. ca?'olinensis. The "Olive-backedThrush" was first so-calledby Giraud (Birds of Long Island, 1844, 92). T. fuscescenswas called "Tawny Thrush" by Wilson. "Bluebird"is an earlyname. The species is figuredby Catesby(I, 47) as "The Blew-Bird." Pennant called it the "Blue-Backed Red-Breast" (Arct. Zool., II, 91). Lanius ludovicianuswas called the "Logger head Shrike" or "Loggerhead"by Wilson,as its commonname in the South. Most of our speciesof Woodpeckersearly receivedtheir names from color markingsor other externalfeature, as "red-headed," "yellow-bellied,""golden-winged," "plicated," "downy, .... hairy," "ivory-billed," etc. The word "Flicker," as a vernacularof Colapresauratus, probably originated from the bird'scall notes. It is referredto by Wilson.

VI. NAamS SUGGESTEDBY LOCALITY (PL•cz-N.•_•ms) OR •N HONOR OF SOME PERSON.

A curiousmisapprehension as to the significanceof the current English name of Ammodramussandw•'chcnsis savanna seemsto exist in ornithologicalliterature as revealedby its orthography. Wilsondistinctly refers to the cityof Savannahas the localitywhere he stateshe first discoveredthe species(A. O., III, 55) and he so spellsits name in the Englishtitle. Its specificname, however, he givesas "savanna." In our currentliterature this last appears as the methodof spellingthe bird's name in English,which is clearlymisleading. In its generalapplication "savanna" might be very appropriatein view of the species'habitat, but Wilson intendedit otherwiseand "SavannahSparrow" is the properform of the Englishname. The term "Evening" in the vernacularof Hesperiphonavesper- tina asgiven to the speciesby Cooper(Annals N.Y. LyceumNat. Hist., I, 220) conveys,as doesthe scientificname, the ideaof the westor the placeof sunset. Geothlypistrichas was calledby Bartram "The olive coloured yellowthroatedwren" (Travels,292). Of the bird's present Englishname I find the followinginteresting reference in Edward's 362 TROTTER,English Names of American Birds. [Oct.]'Auk

Gleanings (Vol. V, 57): "J. Petiver, in his Gazophylacium, plate vi, hasgiven the figureof a bird, whichI believeto be the sa•newith this; for which reasonI continuethe na•nehe has given it .... 'Avis Marylandica gutture luteo, the Maryland Yellow- throat. This the •Rev.Mr. H. Jonessent •ne frownMaryland'." Edwards later receivedthe bird frmn Bartra•n with a drawing "very neatlyand exactlydone, by Mr. Willia•n Bartra•n,of Pen- sylvania,who hath enabled•ne to give a further accountof this bird, for he says,it frequentsthickets and low bushesby runs (of water, I suppose,he means)and low grounds;it leavesPen- sylvaniaat theapproach of winter,and issupposed to goto a warmvr elimate." To Wilson we owe the place-na•nesof five of our speciesof Warblers--the I(entueky, Conneetlcut,Tennessee, Nashville, and CapeMay--from the Stateor localityof the flint captureby him of the speciesin question. John Cassinna•ned a speciesof Vireo "Philadelphia"after the city in the neighborhoodof which he obtainedhis type speci•nen. Thryothorusludavicianus obtained its vernacular through Bartram--"(regulus magnus) the great wren of Carolina" (Travels, 291). This Wilson transposedinto "Great Carolina Wren. '• The "BlackburnJanWarbler" is so called by Pennant and Latha•n, and is evidentlynamed in honor of the owner of the Blackburn 55useum in London. A nu•nberof our birds acquiredtheir na•nesin the first half of the last centuryin honor of certainpersons known to their de- scribers--as Lincoln's, Henslow's, LeConte's, and Harris's Sparrows;Townsend's, Audubon's, Swainson's, and Bachman's Warblers; Lewis's Woodpecker;Clark's Nutcracker; Steller's and Woodhouses'sJays, and •nanyothers of early and recentdate. "Louisiana" as applied to the speciesof Tanager (Piranga ludo•iciana) and to the Water-Thrush (Sei•rus motacilla)refers to the region ranbracedin the LouisianaPurchase, not to the ßpresent State of that na•ne. "Florida," "Canada," "California," "HudsonJan"and otherregional na•nes have in like •nannerbeen applied to certain species,as "Florida Jay," "Canada Jay," "Canadian Warbler," "California Woodpecker," "Hudsonian Chickadee," and so forth. Vol.1909XXVI'I J BLACKWELDER, Summer Birds of IronCounty, Mich. 363

The matteras presented in the foregoingsketch does not pretend to listall of thespeeies and varieties of NorthAmerican land birds. It is only a sketchor outlineof a mostattractive subject and was writtenpartly for thepurpose of gatheringtogether what knowledge we haveof the historyand originof our morefamiliar bird names.

SUMMER BIRDS OF IRON COUNTY, MICHIGAN.

BY ELIOT BLACKWELDER.

Tins birdsin the followinglist wereseen in Iron County,Michi- gan, and adjacentportions of Dickinsonand MenomineeCounties duringJune, July and August,1908. The writer wasengaged in geologicalsurveying, in the courseof whichhe spentnearly three monthsin the woodsand traversedthe region somewhatthor- oughlyin differentdirections. The noteson birdswere kept in the form of a daily record,or a "roll-call," as we oftenreferred to it in the field. The regionis oneof low hills and plainsof glacialdrift, through which small rocky knobsprotrude here and there. The entire districtwas once heavily forested, but the coniferouswoods have beenlargely cut off andthe remaining"slash" has been repeatedly burned. Where fires have not been excessivelydamaging, the originalforest is beingreplaced by thicketsof blrehand poplar with denseundergrowth of blackberrybushes and othershrubs. The clay ridges,such as the glacial•noraines and drumlins,were cladwith denseforests of hard maple,birch and hemlock. Only a small portionof this hardwoodforest has been hunbered,al- thoughthe rate of cutting is constantlyincreasing. Where the forestsare untouchedthey are generallyopen below,--the large trees,with theirdense shade, preventing the growthof underbrush. Wherethe timberhas beenremoved, however, the secondgrowth is hazel and maple brush with denseberry bushes. The pine forestswere largelyon the sandplains, and thoselocalities have