Pumping Test in Leaky and Unconfined Aquifers

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Pumping Test in Leaky and Unconfined Aquifers Pumping Test in Leaky and Unconfined Aquifers I. Leaky aquifers Theis solution assumes that all the water pumped is from storage within the aquifer. When this assumption is not met, the observed response to pumping deviates from the Theis solution, as illustrated below: 1 3 s 5 1 10 100 1000 10000 Observation data t Tests Affected by Leaky Confining Beds (Heath, 1983) Theis: no leakage Leakage from storage in confining bed Leakage from other aquifers Theis solution K’, S’ b’ K, S b Q rS2 s = wu( ) where u = 4πT 4Tt Semi-confined (Hantush & Jacob) (leakage from elastic storage in confining bed) Q s = Hu( ,β) 4πT 1/ 2 r 1/ 2 Tb' where β = ()S' S B = 4B K' Leaky (some water from other aquifer) Q s = wu, r 4πT ( B) r K' where = r B Tb' II. Water Table Aquifer Approach #1 (Approximation) The change in transmissivity due to dewatering is assumed to be negligible, that is, T ≈ Kb , where b is the initial aquifer saturated thickness. Then the Theis equation can be applied to an unconfined aquifer with storage coefficient for confined aquifer replaced by specific yield, Sy, Q rS2 s ==wu(), u y 44πT Tt This approach is reasonable only when the drawdown is significantly smaller than the saturated thickness,s ≤ bthat is, Approach #2: (Concept of delayed yield) Stage 1: Similar to response in confined aquifer. No physical dewatering yet. Water pumped is from storage. The value of S estimated from aquifer test represents confined storage coefficient. Stage 2: Intermediate, similar to response in leaky aquifer. Water pumped is partly from storage and partly from gravity drainage. Stage 3: Water pumped is drawn mostly from gravity drainage. Drawdown response conforms to some Theis-type curve again. The value of S estimated from aquifer test represents Sy (specific yield) for unconfined aquifer. 12 3 Neuman solution Q s = wu(,,) u Γ 4πT AB rS2 where u = for early time-drawdown data A 4Tt 2 rSy u = for later time-drawdown data B 4Tt 2 r Kz b is initial aquifer thickness Γ = 2 b Kh Effect of partial penetrating wells The effect of partial penetrating wells is negligible if (1) The length of pumping well screen is close to aquifer saturated thickness (2) The observation well is fully penetrating (3) The observation well is located sufficiently Partially Partially Fully far away, i.e., penetrating penetrating penetrating pumping observation observation well well well r > 1.5b Kh Kv r b Well Loss There is usually a difference between the aquifer head and the water level inside the well bore. This difference is referred to as ‘well loss’. The magnitude of well loss is controlled by pumping rate, well diameter, degree of partial penetration, and aquifer properties. Slug Test (also known as piezometer test, falling/rising head test, or response test) A known volume of water is quickly taken from (or added to) a well. The rate at which the water level falls or rises is measured. • Inexpensive alternative to pumping test • Estimated parameters represents much smaller area than pumping test Three major methods to analyze slug test data: • Papadopulos, Bredehoeft & Cooper (confined aquifer, fully penetrated well) • Hvorslev (confined aquifer, partially penetrated well) • Bouwer & Rice (unconfined aquifer, fully or partially penetrated well) r2 ln(L R) K = e 2Let37 t37: time when the water level h(t)/h0 reaches 37% of initial change Kansas Geological Survey Guidelines for Slug Tests ¾Three or more slug tests should be performed at a given well. If the well has not been properly developed prior to slug testing, the slug test itself might cause additional development. This can be detected by a shift in the calculated transmissivity during the repeated slug tests. Also the slug test can mobilize fine material, which can result in a decrease in formation transsmissivity. ¾Two or more different initial displacements should be used during testing of a given well. A series of tests with initial head displacement, Ho, which varies by a factor of at least 2, should be employed; however, the first and last tests should have the same Ho so that a dynamic skin effect can be detected. ¾The slug should be introduced in a near-instantaneous fashion and a good estimate of the initial displacement should be obtained. This is a basic assumption of the slug-test methodology. While it is easy to accomplish in a low permeability system, it can be difficult to do in a system that has a very rapid response. ¾Appropriate data-acquisition equipment should be used. Manual methods of measurement might be satisfactory for a well in a low permeability sediment that responds over a period of many minutes to hours. For more permeable formations where the total period of response can be less than one minute, a data logger with a pressure transducer is mandatory. The pressure transducer should have the proper sensitivity for the planned head displacement. ¾An observation well should be employed for estimation of the storage parameter. A single well is fairly insensitive to the value of the storage parameter for several reasons. If possible, a nearby monitoring well screened across the same interval should be used to determine the storage coefficient. ¾Method chosen for data analysis should be appropriate for site conditions. Ensure that the chosen method is correct: confined or unconfined aquifer, fully penetrating or partially penetrating well. ¾Use of pre- and post analysis plots should be an integral component of the analysis. Even though care was taken to select the proper method of analysis based on the field conditions (point 6), it is still possible that either the method which was selected, or some assumption that went into the analysis, is wrong. Careful examination of the data plot versus the theoretical model of the test data should be made. While this seems to be an obvious point, in many cases the field data are analyzed with an automated curve- fitting program. A human should still review the final plot. ¾Appropriate well construction parameters should be employed. The effective screen length and screen diameter are critical parameters. If the well is gravel packed, the length and diameter of the gravel pack should be used if the gravel pack is significantly more permeable than the formation. However, if well development is incomplete, the screen length may be more appropriate than the length of the gravel pack. Key Reference: Butler, J.J., 1997, The Design, Performance,. and Analysis of Slug Tests, Lewis Publishers, FL..
Recommended publications
  • Aquifer Test CONDUCTED on MAY 24, 2017 CONFINED QUATERNARY GLACIAL-FLUVIAL SAND AQUIFER
    Analysis of the Cromwell, Minnesota Well 4 (593593) Aquifer Test CONDUCTED ON MAY 24, 2017 CONFINED QUATERNARY GLACIAL-FLUVIAL SAND AQUIFER TEST 2612, CROMWELL 4 (593593) MAY 24, 2017 Analysis of the Cromwell, Minnesota Well 4 (593593) Aquifer Test Conducted on May 24, 2017 Minnesota Department of Health, Source Water Protection Program PO Box 64975 St. Paul, MN 55164-0975 651-201-4700 [email protected] www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/water/swp To obtain this information in a different format, call: 651-201-4700. Upon request, this material will be made available in an alternative format such as large print, Braille or audio recording. Printed on recycled paper. 2 TEST 2612, CROMWELL 4 (593593) MAY 24, 2017 Contents Analysis of the Cromwell, Minnesota–Well 4 (593593) Aquifer Test............................................. 1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 1 Data Collection and Analysis ....................................................................................................... 7 Description .................................................................................................................................. 7 Purpose of Test ....................................................................................................................... 7 Well Inventory ......................................................................................................................... 7
    [Show full text]
  • Transmissivity, Hydraulic Conductivity, and Storativity of the Carrizo-Wilcox Aquifer in Texas
    Technical Report Transmissivity, Hydraulic Conductivity, and Storativity of the Carrizo-Wilcox Aquifer in Texas by Robert E. Mace Rebecca C. Smyth Liying Xu Jinhuo Liang Robert E. Mace Principal Investigator prepared for Texas Water Development Board under TWDB Contract No. 99-483-279, Part 1 Bureau of Economic Geology Scott W. Tinker, Director The University of Texas at Austin Austin, Texas 78713-8924 March 2000 Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................. 1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 2 Study Area ......................................................................................................................... 5 HYDROGEOLOGY....................................................................................................................... 5 Methods .............................................................................................................................. 13 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................... 14 DATA COMPILATION ...................................................................................................... 14 EVALUATION OF HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES FROM THE TEST DATA ................. 19 Estimating Transmissivity from Specific Capacity Data.......................................... 19 STATISTICAL DESCRIPTION ........................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Method 9100: Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity, Saturated Leachate
    METHOD 9100 SATURATED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY, SATURATED LEACHATE CONDUCTIVITY, AND INTRINSIC PERMEABILITY 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Scope and Application: This section presents methods available to hydrogeologists and and geotechnical engineers for determining the saturated hydraulic conductivity of earth materials and conductivity of soil liners to leachate, as outlined by the Part 264 permitting rules for hazardous-waste disposal facilities. In addition, a general technique to determine intrinsic permeability is provided. A cross reference between the applicable part of the RCRA Guidance Documents and associated Part 264 Standards and these test methods is provided by Table A. 1.1.1 Part 264 Subpart F establishes standards for ground water quality monitoring and environmental performance. To demonstrate compliance with these standards, a permit applicant must have knowledge of certain aspects of the hydrogeology at the disposal facility, such as hydraulic conductivity, in order to determine the compliance point and monitoring well locations and in order to develop remedial action plans when necessary. 1.1.2 In this report, the laboratory and field methods that are considered the most appropriate to meeting the requirements of Part 264 are given in sufficient detail to provide an experienced hydrogeologist or geotechnical engineer with the methodology required to conduct the tests. Additional laboratory and field methods that may be applicable under certain conditions are included by providing references to standard texts and scientific journals. 1.1.3 Included in this report are descriptions of field methods considered appropriate for estimating saturated hydraulic conductivity by single well or borehole tests. The determination of hydraulic conductivity by pumping or injection tests is not included because the latter are considered appropriate for well field design purposes but may not be appropriate for economically evaluating hydraulic conductivity for the purposes set forth in Part 264 Subpart F.
    [Show full text]
  • Hydrogeologic Characterization of Aquifers and Injection Capacity Estimation
    Hydrogeologic characterization of aquifers and injection capacity estimation Main authors: Peter K. Kang (UMN ESCI), Anthony Runkel (MGS), Seonkyoo Yoon (UMN ESCI), Raghwendra N. Shandilya (KIST), Etienne Bresciani (KIST), and Seunghak Lee (KIST) Contents Introduction 2 Overview of four ASR study areas 4 Buffalo aquifer, Clay County 4 Jordan aquifer, City of Woodbury 6 Jordan aquifer, Olmsted County 10 Straight River Groundwater Management Area: Pineland Sands Aquifer 12 Methodology for InJection Capacity Estimation 19 Methodology Overview 19 Parameters estimation 21 Transmissivity 22 Allowable head change 23 Injection duration 25 Storativity 25 Well radius 25 Data sources 25 Application to aquifers in Minnesota 26 Transmissivity characterization 26 Buffalo aquifer, Clay County 26 Transmissivity of Jordan aquifer, Woodbury, Washington County 28 1 Transmissivity of the Jordan aquifer, Olmsted County 31 Allowable head change estimation 33 Buffalo aquifer, Clay County 34 Jordan aquifer, Woodbury, Washington County 37 Jordan aquifer, Olmsted County 40 Injection Duration, Storativity and Well Radius 44 Injection capacity 45 Buffalo aquifer, Clay County 45 Jordan aquifer, Woodbury, Washington County 48 Jordan aquifer, Olmsted County 50 Comparison of InJection Capacity 52 Identified Data Gaps 53 Groundwater Level Data 53 Aquifer Pumping Test Data 54 Future Directions 54 Incorporate Leakage factor in the Injection Capacity Estimation Framework 54 Recovery Efficiency of InJected Water 54 Conclusions 54 References 62 2 1 Introduction About 99% of global unfrozen freshwater is stored in groundwater systems, and groundwater is an essential freshwater resource both in the United States and across the globe. The availability of groundwater is particularly important where surface water options are scarce or inaccessible.
    [Show full text]
  • A Comparative Analysis of Two Slug Test Methods in Puget Lowland Glacio-Fluvial Sediments Near Coupeville, WA
    A Comparative Analysis of Two Slug Test Methods in Puget Lowland Glacio-Fluvial Sediments near Coupeville, WA Matthew Lewis A report prepared in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science Masters of Earth and Space Science: Applied Geosciences University of Washington November, 2013 Project Mentor: Mark Varljen Project Coordinator Kathy Troost Reading Committee: Dr. Michael Brown and Dr. Drew Gorman-Lewis MESSAGe Technical Report Number: 004 ©Copyright 2013 Matthew Lewis i Table of Contents Abstract ……………………………………… iii Introduction ……………………………………… 1 Geological Setting ……………………………………… 2 Methods ……………………………………… 4 Results ……………………………………… 10 Discussion ……………………………………… 11 Summary and ……………………………………… 12 Conclusion Acknowledgements ……………………………………… 13 Bibliography ……………………………………… 14 Figures begin on page 20 Tables begin on page 30 Appendices begins on page 33 ii A Comparative Analysis of Two Slug Test Methods in Puget Lowland Glacio-Fluvial Sediments. Abstract Two different slug test field methods are conducted in wells completed in a Puget Lowland aquifer and are examined for systematic error resulting from water column displacement techniques. Slug tests using the standard slug rod and the pneumatic method were repeated on the same wells and hydraulic conductivity estimates were calculated according to Bouwer & Rice and Hvorslev before using a non-parametric statistical test for analysis. Practical considerations of performing the tests in real life settings are also considered in the method comparison. Statistical analysis indicates that the slug rod method results in up to 90% larger hydraulic conductivity values than the pneumatic method, with at least a 95% certainty that the error is method related. This confirms the existence of a slug-rod bias in a real world scenario which has previously been demonstrated by others in synthetic aquifers.
    [Show full text]
  • Aquifer Test Procedures for Determining Hydrologic Properties
    AquiferAquifer TestTest ProceduresProcedures forfor DeterminingDetermining HydrologicHydrologic PropertiesProperties Dr. Michael Strobel Deputy State Director EXHIBIT G– WATER RESOURCES Meeting Date: 03-22-06 USGS Nevada Water Science Center Document consists of 28 slides. Entire Exhibit Provided Purposes of Aquifer Tests • Measure the change, with time, in water levels as a result of withdrawals through wells • Determine the transmissivity and storage coefficient of the aquifer • Determine characteristics of confining layers • Determine well efficiency and optimum pumping rates • Determine boundary conditions (natural) and potential well interference Types of Aquifer Tests •Slug • Single-well • Multiple-wells – Time-Drawdown Analysis – Distance-Drawdown Analysis From Alley, W.M., Reilly, T.E., and Franke, O.L., 1999, Sustainability of ground- water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1186, 79 p. From Alley, W.M., Reilly, T.E., and Franke, O.L., 1999, Sustainability of ground- water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1186, 79 p. From Alley, W.M., Reilly, T.E., and Franke, O.L., 1999, Sustainability of ground- water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1186, 79 p. From Alley, W.M., Reilly, T.E., and Franke, O.L., 1999, Sustainability of ground- water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1186, 79 p. Slug Test TIME • The rapid addition or removal of a known volume from a well stresses the aquifer. • The hydraulic conductivity (K) estimate is related to the rate of recovery with various corrections for well construction
    [Show full text]
  • Aquifer Test Procedures
    General Aquifer Test Procedures These guidelines accompany the Lower Platte South NRD’s Ground Water Rules and Regulations (Revised Effective Date: 1/1/2017) Section C: Water Well Permits. Typically, they will apply to Class 2 and 4 Permits but may apply to Class 1 Permits if required by the District, and Class 3 Permits if the proposed well is within 600 feet of a well with higher preference of use. For the purposes of LPSNRD’s Ground Water Rules and Regulations, an aquifer test may be required to estimate aquifer parameters in order to determine the effect of a permitted well on preexisting wells in the vicinity, and to demonstrate that an adequate ground water supply is present for the well to be permitted. Aquifer parameters such as transmissivity, hydraulic conductivity, storativity/specific yield, etc. can generally be adequately estimated using a single well drawdown/recovery test (i.e. using drawdown and recovery observations in the production well) by constant-rate pumping, slug testing, or step-drawdown tests; numerous software programs are available for these estimates. If further refinements of these parameters are necessary, installation of one or more dedicated observation well(s) or utilization of appropriate nearby existing wells can be considered. General A licensed geologist or professional engineer must oversee the aquifer test and stamp the aquifer test report. When selecting a professional, confirm that he or she has previous experience designing, performing and analyzing aquifer tests. If an additional observation well is used, it should be close enough to the pumping well so that drawdown is observed in the observation well, but not directly next to the pumping well.
    [Show full text]
  • Slug) Test with a Mechanical Slug and Submersible Pressure Transducer
    GWPD 17—Conducting an Instantaneous Change in Head (Slug) Test with a Mechanical Slug and Submersible Pressure Transducer VERSION: 2010.1 PURPOSE: To obtain data from which an estimate of hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer can be calculated. During a slug test the water level in a well is changed 5. Slug of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or other relatively inert rapidly, and the rate of water-level response to that change is material (fig. 1). A slug of solid PVC (fig. 1C) is ideal measured. From these data, an estimate of hydraulic conduc- because PVC caps (fig. 1A) can catch the well casing tivity can be calculated using appropriate analytical methods during insertion, and PVC plugs (fig. 1B) can come loose (for example, Ferris and Knowles, 1963). during the rapid removal of the slug. A slug test requires a rapid (“instantaneous”) water-level change and measurement of the water-level response at high Select the largest diameter and length of slug that will frequency. A rapid change in water level can be induced in fit in the well without disturbing the transducer. The many ways, including injecting or withdrawing water, increas- slug should have a displacement that will provide an ing or decreasing air pressure in the well casing, or adding adequate change in water level. The slug should displace a mechanical device like a plastic rod to displace water. The enough water to provide a measurable change in water water-level changes can be measured with many methods, level, but not so large as to significantly increase the including steel tape, electric tape, air line, wireline/float, and saturated thickness of the aquifer, disturb the transducer, submersible pressure transducers.
    [Show full text]
  • 34816 Dewatering Calcs Tables
    Table 1A: Dewatering Calculations for Installation of Underground Storage Tanks Facility Name: 7-Eleven Store No. 34816 Facility Address: 3701 Santa Barbara Blvd, Naples, Collier Co, FL 34104 FDEP ID: 11/9063983 aquifer thickness water table drop (b) in feet in feet H=total head of aquifer 50 13 H= 15.2 m h=total head of dewatered aquifer 37 h= 11.3 m K in ft/day K=hydraulic conductivity 6.97 Ro = Radius of Influence K= 2.46E-05 m/s Re = Equivalent Radius of Influence Ro in feet Ro + Re in Feet Ro=3000(H-h)sqrtK L in ft W in ft 193.4 217.8 Ro= 58.9 m 52 36 ab Re=radius of influence (equivalent) 15.8 11.0 Re= 7.4 m # well points q= 7.84335E-05 m^3 / sec 50 q= 1.2 gpm per well point Total pump rate 62 (gpm) 89,452 (gpd) NOTE: 1. Please see enclosed the Broward County Environmental Protection Department Exhibit III: Calculation Methods for Radius of Influence and Dewatering Flow Rate from Aquifer Test Data. 2. Aquifer values are from subject site assessment data. Table 1B: Dewatering Calculations for Installation of Fuel Dispenser Sumps, Product Piping, and Canopy Footers Facility Name: 7-Eleven Store No. 34816 Facility Address: 3701 Santa Barbara Blvd, Naples, Collier Co, FL 34104 FDEP ID: 11/9063983 aquifer thickness water table drop (b) in feet in feet H=total head of aquifer 50 3 H= 15.2 m h=total head of dewatered aquifer 47 h= 14.3 m K in ft/day K=hydraulic conductivity 6.97 Ro = Radius of Influence K= 2.46E-05 m/s Re = Equivalent Radius of Influence Ro in feet Ro + Re in Feet Ro=3000(H-h)sqrtK L in ft W in ft 44.6 81.3 Ro= 13.6 m 132 32 ab Re=radius of influence (equivalent) 40.2 9.8 Re= 11.2 m # well points q= 0.000212597 m^3 / sec 50 q= 3.4 gpm per well point Total pump rate 168 (gpm) 242,463 (gpd) NOTE: 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Guidelines for Hydrogeologic Reports and Aquifer Testing
    Guidelines for Hydrogeologic Reports and Aquifer Testing Barton Springs/Edwards Aquifer Conservation District Hays, Caldwell, and Travis Counties, Texas Board Adopted - May 12, 2016 BSEACD Guidelines for Hydrogeologic Reports and Aquifer Testing 0 | P a g e Guidelines for Hydrogeologic Reports and Aquifer Testing Barton Springs/Edwards Aquifer Conservation District Hays, Caldwell, and Travis Counties, Texas Aquifer Science Staff Board Adopted - May 12, 2016 BSEACD General Manager John Dupnik, P.G. BSEACD Board of Directors Mary Stone Precinct 1 Blayne Stansberry, President Precinct 2 Blake Dorsett, Secretary Precinct 3 Dr. Robert D. Larsen Precinct 4 Craig Smith, Vice President Precinct 5 Acknowledgments This document is modified from original guidelines written by former District Hydrogeologist Nico Hauwert, P.G., and later revised by Aquifer Science staff in January 2007. This version of the guidelines were revised by the District’s Aquifer Science Team Brian, A. Smith, Ph.D., P.G. and Brian B. Hunt, P.G., with reviews also provided by the District’s Technical Team. Additional reviews were provided by Joe Vickers, P.G., Douglas A. Wierman, P.G., Alex S. Broun, P.G., and Rene Barker, P.G. Cover Photograph of pumping well in Kingsville City from the Goliad Sands pumping 700 gpm. Photo shows the orifice weir for measuring the flow rate, photo from Joe Vickers. Chart is an example of analytical solution used to estimate aquifer parameters for a Middle Trinity irrigation well (Onion Creek Golf Course well; August 2015). BSEACD Guidelines
    [Show full text]
  • Aquifer Test Report Introduction Hydrogeologic Setting
    Application: 41H 30127867 T01S, R05E, Section 26 Applicant: FLIR Systems Inc. Gallatin County Author(s): Melissa Schaar, Groundwater Hydrologist; Evan Norman, Groundwater Hydrologist Montana Department of Natural Resources Water Management Bureau January 29, 2021 Aquifer Test Report Introduction The applicant requests three points of diversion (extraction wells), a flow rate of 700 gallons per minute (gpm) and a volume of 831 acre-feet (AF) per year for an open loop geothermal system that will discharge back into the same source aquifer via four injection wells. Submersible pumps within the wells will be interfaced with variable-frequency controllers that will receive a flow- demand signal from the heat-exchange system in the building. The submersible pumps' flow rates will be variable throughout the year and will provide a combined flow up to a peak of 700 gpm. This investigation examines the details of a 72-hour aquifer test performed on the middle extraction well identified as the Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Groundwater Information Center (GWIC) # 304056. The aquifer test included measuring drawdown and recovery in the test and two nearby observation wells. Two 8-hour drawdown and yield tests were performed on the east and west extraction wells (GWIC #s 304057 and 303698, respectively). This report will analyze the aquifer test data collected. Extended analysis of these test data involves matching analytical groundwater solutions to observed drawdown data. Aquifer test analyses provides a basis for evaluating adequacy of diversion, physical availability of groundwater, and adverse effect to existing groundwater and surface water users The FLIR Systems Inc. proposed geothermal system and wells are located within the Bozeman Solvent Site Controlled Groundwater Area.
    [Show full text]
  • Basic Ground-Water Hydrology
    Basic Ground-Water Hydrology By RALPH C. HEATH Prepared in cooperation with the North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community Development DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR DONALD PAUL HODEL, Secretary U .S . GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Dallas L . Peck, Director First printing 1983 Second printing 1984 Third printing 1984 Fourth printing 1987 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE :1987 For sale by the Books and Open-File Reports Section, U .S . Geological Survey, Federal Center, Box 25425, Denver, CO 80225 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Heath, Ralph C. Basic ground-water hydrology. (Geological Survey water-supply paper ; 2220) Bibliography : p. 81 1 . Hydrogeology . I. North Carolina . Dept . of Natural Resources and Community Development. II . Title. III. Series . GB1003 .2 .H4 1982 551 .49 82-600384 CONTENTS Page Ground-water hydrology --------------------------------------------------- 1 Rocks and water---------------------------------------------------------- 2 Underground water ------------------------------------------------------- 4 Hydrologic cycle ---------------------------------------------------------- Aquifers and confining beds------------------------------------------------- 6 Porosity ----------------------------------------------------------------- 7 Specific yield and specific retention ------------------------------------------- 8 Heads and gradients------------------------------------------------------- 10 Hydraulic conductivity ----------------------------------------------------- 12 Functions
    [Show full text]