Experimental γ Ray Spectroscopy and Investigations of Environmental Radioactivity BY RANDOLPH S. PETERSON 216 α Po 84 10.64h. 212 Pb 1- 415 82 0- 239 β- 01- 0 60.6m 212 1+ 1630 Bi 2+ 1513 83 α β- 2+ 787 304ns 0+ 0 212 α Po 84 Experimental γ Ray Spectroscopy and Investigations of Environmental Radioactivity Randolph S. Peterson Physics Department The University of the South Sewanee, Tennessee Published by Spectrum Techniques All Rights Reserved Copyright 1996 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction ....................................................................................................................4 Basic Gamma Spectroscopy 1. Energy Calibration ................................................................................................... 7 2. Gamma Spectra from Common Commercial Sources ........................................ 10 3. Detector Energy Resolution .................................................................................. 12 Interaction of Radiation with Matter 4. Compton Scattering............................................................................................... 14 5. Pair Production and Annihilation ........................................................................ 17 6. Absorption of Gammas by Materials ..................................................................... 19 7. X Rays ..................................................................................................................... 21 Radioactive Decay 8. Multichannel Scaling and Half-life ...................................................................... 24 9. Counting Statistics ................................................................................................. 26 10. Absolute Activity of a Gamma Source ................................................................. 28 .1 Absolute Activity from Efficiency Curves .2 Absolute Activity from the Sum Peak Gamma Spectroscopic Studies of Environmental Radioactive Sources 11. Potassium 40 ........................................................................................................ 32 .1 Half-life of 40K .2 Potassium in Fertilizer .3 Stoichiometry 12. Thorium 232 Series............................................................................................. 35 .1 Gamma Spectrum of the 232Th Series .2 Nonequilibrium in the Thorium Decay Series .3 Age of a Thorium Gas-Lantern Mantle .4 Half-life of 212Bi 13. Uranium 238 Series ............................................................................................ 40 .1 Gamma Spectra from Materials Containing Uranium .2 Gamma Spectra from Materials Containing Radium and Radon .3 Half-lives 14. Environmental Sampling.................................................................................... 45 .1 Gamma Spectra from Air Samples .2 Gamma Spectra from Solids .3 Gamma Spectra from Liquids .4 Nuclear Fission .5 Cosmic Rays Appendices A. Using the Spectrum Techniques, Inc. Multichannel Analyzer ................................ 51 B. NaI(Tl) Scintillation Detectors ............................................................................. 61 C. Mathematics of Radioactive Decay ....................................................................... 65 D. Radioactive Decay Schematic Diagrams .............................................................. 68 E. List of Commonly Observed Gamma Energies.................................................... 72 F. List of K X-Ray Energies ........................................................................................ 75 G. References ............................................................................................................. 77 I N T R O D U C T I O N INTRODUCTION understand the reason, for in such discrepancies may lie true discovery or real mistakes. These last experi- The experiments in this manual have been tested with ments also provide an opportunity for you to prepare a 3.8 cm (diameter)x 2.5 cm (thick) NaI(Tl) detector your own samples and not just purchase them. Since with a microcomputer-based MCA, a system purchased you will be finding your own samples, this is also the from Spectrum Techniques, Inc, in Oak Ridge , TN. time to discuss some radiation safety (Health Physics). The experiments as described will work with any NaI(Tl) detector-MCA combination, but the Experi- HEALTH PHYSICS ment #9 detector efficiencies will be different for other detector sizes. A small set of gamma sources is The encapsulated sources that you purchase have µ necessary to complete most of these experiments. The activities between 0.1 and 10 Ci and normally require µ commercially-available gamma sources include 22Na, no license or special handling. The 0.1 to 10 Ci is a 54Mn, 57Co, 60Co, 65Zn, 109Cd, 133Ba, 137Cs, 208Tl, and a measure of the number of nuclei disintegrating per 137Cs/137mBa cow. The chemistry lab or local stores will second in your sample, called the activity. The older unit, Curie (1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 dis/sec), is based upon the have ThNO3, KCl, KF, Lu metal, thorium lantern mantles, and old uranium ore samples. The geology activity of one gram of radium. The new SI unit, department will have uranium, thorium, and potas- Becquerel (Bq = 1 dis/sec), is slowly replacing the sium minerals. Curie, although there are valid objections to its adop- tion. The activity of a source is only one measure of its There are only two experimental techniques used for health risk. Sources of the same activity can pose vastly acquiring data in this book of experiments-Pulse Height different health risks to you, since the disintegration Analysis for energy spectroscopy (PHA) and of a 40K nucleus releases almost 2,000 keV of energy. MultiChannel Scaling for timed measurements (MCS). The decay of 14C releases less than 20 keV. The latter technique is used in only four experiments. Why so many experiments with PHA? Just understand- Your exposure to a radiation source is another measure ing the energy spectrum requires a continuous refine- of the health risk this source poses to you. The amount ment of your data analysis skills and a building of your of exposure has been selected as an easily-measured understanding of some of the many ways that gammas quantity, the amount of charge created by the ionizing can interact with matter. Many of these are standard of air by x rays and gammas. The unit of measure is the experiments, some with new approaches or insights. Roentgen, where 1.0 R is the quantity of x rays and gammas which produce 2.58 Coulombs per cubic Experiments 1 through 9 provide a traditional intro- centimeter of STP air. It is usually measured as a rate duction to nuclear science, emphasizing a study of the in R/hr or mR/hr. Total exposure will be in Roent- detector’s properties, radioactive decay characteris- gens. You may notice that a Geiger counter has a scale tics, and the interaction of gammas with matter. Ex- calibrated in mR/hr. This exposure rate is approxi- periments 11 through 14 should be thought of as mately modeled by student projects because they provide more of an exposure rate = ΓΕA/d2, opportunity for exploration and discovery. Environ- mental samples are difficult to measure, but you will where Γ is a factor between 3 and 13, A is the point- find a wonderful challenge in working with samples source activity in mCi, d is the source to detector that are large enough to be seen and touched. The last distance in cm, E is the gamma energy in keV, and the set of experiments in this book does not necessarily exposure rate is measured in mR/hr. come with answers here or in the literature. Your results should agree reasonably well with your thought- The total energy absorbed from the radiation field per ful expectations. If they do not, you should try to body mass by your body is the absorbed dose and is 4 another measure of the health risk a source poses to - you. It is expressed in units of rads (1 rad = 10 2 J/kg). It should go without saying that there should be The new SI unit is the Gray (1.0 Gy = 1.0 J/kg = 100 no eating or drinking in the radiation lab. rad). The health effects for equally-absorbed doses delivered by gammas and betas differ from those due to alphas, protons, or neutrons. Alphas, protons, or best source. You need enough of a source to get good neutrons are the more dangerous particles. The measurements, and you should handle that source so absorbed dose is adjusted by a factor (called the as to minimize your exposure AND get good measure- relative biological effectiveness quality factor or Q ments. Clean-up and correct disposal of wastes is also factor)to reflect these different health risks and give part of a good experiment. a better measure of the biological effects known as the dose equivalent. This is measured in units of rem ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (number of rads times the Q-factor), or the SI unit of The lab exercises in this book of experiments were Sievert (1 Sv = 100 rem). The dose equivalent is not inspired by the written work of others, or in some directly measured, whereas the absorbed dose is. cases are just my restatement of well-established tech- niques. A bibliography is included at the end of this µ 137 A 10 Ci, Cs encapsulated source carried book. It is not a complete literature review, but it does around for 12 hours will give a whole-body dose include all the papers that have influenced this of about 1 mrem. A typical chest x ray gives an author’s work. I must acknowledge that the greatest absorbed dose between 40 and 200 mrem. influence on my work were the