chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 2

Source: Project Learning Tree K-8 Activity Guide: page 243

2 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 3

TOOLS USED IN FORESTRY

Biltmore stick Ð Clinometer Ð Diameter Tape Ð Increment Borer Ð Wedge Prism

Throughout history, the need for measurement has been a necessity for each civilization. In commerce, trade, and other contacts between societies, the need for a common frame of reference became essential to bring harmony to interactions. The universal acceptance of given units of measurement resulted in a common ground, and avoided dissension and misunderstanding.

In the early evolvement of standards, arbitrary and simplified references were used. In Biblical times, the no longer familiar cubit was an often-used measurement. It was defined as the distance from the elbow to a person’s middle finger. Inches were determined by the width of a person’s thumb. According to the World Book Encyclopedia, “The foot measurement began in ancient times based on the length of the human foot. By the Middle Ages, the foot as defined by different European countries ranged from 10 to 20 inches. In 1305, England set the foot equal to 12 inches, where 1 inch equaled the length of 3 grains of barley dry and round.”1 [King Edward I (Longshanks), son of Henry III, ruled from 1272Ð1307.] Weight continues to be determined in Britain by a unit of 14 pounds called a “stone.” The origin of this is, of course, an early stone selected as the arbitrary unit.

The flaw in this system is apparent; the differences in items selected as standards would vary.

In an attempt to standardize forestry methods and measurements, tools and practices were developed which became the universal common reference for all foresters. In the first three of the following activities, students are asked to use measurement techniques in situations which they have not previously encountered. For example, people have not always had tapes to measure distance. Earliest methods used the length of one’s own stride or pace as a unit of measure. Today, foresters still use their pace when cruising timber or determining the height of trees in the field. However, they determine the length of their pace to standardize their work in the field. The length of their pace is used as an aid to determine the height of a tree. Other activities give students an opportunity to work first hand with tools and practices used by foresters.

Earliest methods for measuring the height of trees used what we recognize today as simple trigonometric functions. For example, to measure height, it has been recorded that some groups of Native Americans would walk away from an object (and facing away from it) until they could sight the top of the object while holding their ankles and viewing through their legs. When the top was just visible through their crotch, they turned around and paced the distance back to the object. The distance they paced was equal to the height of the object, assuming that the angle formed by this sighting is equal to 45 degrees.2

The purpose of this segment is to acquaint the student with the specialized tools and measurement practices employed by foresters in collecting forest data. In addition to the primary purpose of making the students familiar with the names, form, function, and purpose of each tool, these

3 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 4

activities are designed to reinforce and make relevant for students basic skills and values that they have learned or are now learning.

The emphasis placed on the tools activities is for “hands-on” employment of skills and practices, which add not only to the student’s skill level but also to the integration of the skills as a relevant and valued part of their functioning.

The opportunity to exercise skills in different situations provide a series of “teachable moments” that attract students.

1. The World Book Encyclopedia, 1996 Edition, Volume 7, p. 352 2. “Trees as a Crop,” in Our Wonderful World, Aims Education Foundation, Fresno, CA, pp. 17Ð26

4 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 5

Subjects: ACTIVITY 1 Math, Science, Social Studies EARLY MEASUREMENTS

Objectives: A. Set the stage 1. Students will determine their own individual measurements using two How many students have ever heard the phrase “this methods: (1) individual criteria, horse is 15 hands high?” Before there were standard- (2) standardized measuring devices ized measuring tools like rulers and tape measures, 2. Students will realize that different people determined the height of horses by counting results occur from individual criteria and how many times the width of their hands would go standardized norms from the ground to the top of the horse. As the stu- 3. Students will examine the possible economic and societal implications of dents will discover, it was not a truly accurate meas- non-standardized criteria. urement since people’s hands vary in size, but it was an early effort to have a uniform system of measure- Skills: ment. The use of the term “hands” (with an assigned Measuring, estimating and predicting, standardized value) continues to be used as a meas- inference, recording data, interpreting data, urement for horses. addition, subtraction, multiplication, circle/diameter concepts B. Procedure Materials: 1. Divide students into groups of five. ♦ Yard stick or meter stick for each group 2. Distribute Student Worksheet 1 and yardstick or ♦ Student Worksheet 1 (Appendix A) meter stick to each group. 3. Using yardsticks have each student measure: a. their hand span with their fingers stretched out as far as possible; b. the distance from the tip of their nose to the tip of their thumb; c. their arm span; d. their cubit (elbow to middle finger). 4. Have students determine the group average of each measurement. 5. Collect the yardsticks. 6. Using only the information that they have gathered in step 3, have each group determine the following: a. the length of the classroom; b. the length of one side of their desk; c. the height of the classroom door; d. the height of the classroom ceiling. 7. Redistribute the yardsticks and have each group measure 6 a., b., c., and d. again. 8. In a discussion ask each group: a. What was the length of the classroom in step 6? Step 7? b. What was the length of the side of the desk in step 6? Step 7? c. What was the height of the classroom door in step 6? Step 7? d. What was the height of the classroom ceiling in step 6? Step 7? e. What are some of the difficulties they encountered in making these measurements? f. Did everyone have the same hand span? Arm span? Cubit? g. Did the yardstick make the measurements more consistent?

5 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 6

h. If you were selling cloth in a fabric store, would you allow customers to use the early method of determining yards by measuring a length of cloth from the tip of their nose to the tip of their thumb? Why or why not? 9. Take students outdoors to a pre-selected tree. Ask them to work in groups and again use the yardstick to: a. measure the circumference of the trunk; (Note: The circumference is defined as the distance around the trunk.) b. measure the height of the tree; c. compare results; d. Ask why there were significant differences in the results. (Note: The trunk of a tree is smaller as you move up Ð therefore the circumference will vary depending upon where on the trunk the measurement is made.)

Subjects: ACTIVITY 2 Math, Social Studies THE NATIVE AMERICAN METHOD OF

Objectives: MEASURING TREE HEIGHT 1. Students will become aware of the cultural diversity that can be examined Procedure: through the use of methods used in 1. Have the students stand with their back against earlier/different societies. the tree. 2. Students will realize that group results 2. Have them walk away from the tree, stopping at reflect multiple influences and factors. intervals to bend over and sight the tree by 3. Student will compare/contrast the results of each group. looking through their legs while holding their ankles. Skills: 3. When the top is just visible through their crotch, Visualization, measurement, addition, they will turn around, and walk back to the tree multiplication, comparison, contrasting, while counting the number of steps they have to tabulation. take to return. The distance paced is assumed to Materials: be equal to the height of the tree. ♦ Student Worksheet 2 (Appendix A) 4. Compare the results of each group and discuss difficulties and the accuracy of the method. (Inaccuracies will result from the fact that each person’s pace varies and the angle of view may vary from 45 degrees. 5. Have students determine their pace (Activity 4).

Activity 2 is adapted from: “Trees as a Crop,” in Our Wonderful World, Aims Education Foundation, Fresno, CA

6 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 7

Subjects: ACTIVITY 3 Math, Economics, Science USING A PERSON OF KNOWN Objectives: HEIGHT TO MEASURE A TREE 1. Students will become aware of the cultur- al diversity that can be examined through Procedure: the use of methods used in earlier/differ- 1. Stand a person whose height is known against the ent societies. tree that the students are measuring. 2. Students will realize that group results 2. In order to calculate the number of “persons” to reflect multiple influences and factors. the top of the tree, you’ll need a pencil or other 3. Student will compare/contrast the results of each group. straight object. 3. Move away from the tree until the pencil, when it Skills: is held at arm’s length, fits exactly the length of Tabulation, calculation, inference, deductive the person against the tree. reasoning, systematic processing 4. Multiply the number of pencil lengths from the ground to the top of the tree by the actual height Materials: ♦ Student Worksheet 2 (Appendix A) of the person standing against the tree. ♦ Pencil or other straight object. 5. Have students compare this height calculation to the height calculations in activities 1, 2, and 3. 6. Explain that if a forester knows the height of a tree and the diameter of a tree he/she can determine how many board feet a tree will yield.

The diameter of a circle is a straight line passing through the center of a circle. The diameter of a tree is a straight line passing through the center of the circle formed by the trunk.

7. Ask students the following: a. Why is it important to know the size of trees? (Trees are an extremely valuable crop with many uses. Economically, they are valued in terms of board feet of lumber. A board foot is a board 1 inch thick, 12 inches wide, and 12 inches long.) b. How can foresters and loggers be more accurate than the methods described above in deter- mining the size of trees and therefore the economic value of trees? (By using specialized tools and practices designed for accurate measurement.)

Activity 3 is adapted from: “Trees as a Crop,” in Our Wonderful World, Aims Education Foundation, Fresno, CA

7 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 8

Subjects: ACTIVITY 4 Math, Science LEARN YOUR PACE

Objectives: A. Preparation 1. The student will learn that relatively accurate measurements of distance can be Place a stake in the ground or make a mark on the made without measuring tapes. sidewalk with chalk using a long tape measure, make 2. The student will be able to determine the another stake or mark 100 feet from the first mark. distance between two points by counting Be sure to measure in a straight line on relatively the number of steps or paces taken level ground. Make one course for each five people to between the two points. reduce delays. 3. The student will be able to walk a predetermined distance to locate a given point. B. Procedure 4. The student will be able to compute the 1. Distribute Student Worksheets 3 and 4. length of his/her average step given a 2. Refer to the stakes: The distance from the first to pre-measured 100-foot distance. the last stake is 100 feet. 5. The student will be able to compute the 3. Walk an even, normal step all the way down, then length of his/her average pace (2 steps) all the way back. given a pre-measured 100 foot distance. 6. The student will be able to use pacing to 4. Count the total number of steps you take on the measure tree height. way down and on the way back. 5. Using Student Worksheet 3, determine the length Skills: of your step. Measurement, computation, recording data, 6. Repeat steps 1Ð4. Use Student Worksheet 4 and interpreting data determine the length of your pace. Materials: 7. In a discussion, ask: ♦ Chalk or wooden stakes (two stakes per a. What is your length of step? Your pace? course) b. How did you determine your length of step? ♦ Bright colored paper/ribbon Your pace? ♦ 100 ft. tape measure or 100 ft. pre- c. How many steps would you have to take to go measured rope or clothes line 100 feet? ♦ Student Worksheet 3 (Appendix A) ♦ Student Worksheet 4 (Appendix A) d. What might make it difficult for a forester to determine the number of steps between one point and another?

Activity 4 is adapted from: “Activity: Measure the Length of Your Step,” in Measuring, in Investigating Your Environment, USDA Forest Service, Odgen, UT.

8 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 9

Subjects: ACTIVITY 5 Math, Science, Language Arts “TOOLING ON” THROUGH THE CD

Objectives: Procedure: 1. Students will recognize that there are specialized tools used in the forest. 1. Have the students play the tools section of the 2. Students will identify different tools used Forestry CD. in forestry. 2. Ask them which tools are used to estimate: 3. Students will identify the specific a. The height of trees? (Biltmore Stick purposes of individual forestry tools. (hypsometer) and the Clinometer.) b. The diameter? (Biltmore Stick and Diameter Skills: Measurement, reading, interpretation tape.) c. The age of the tree? (Increment Borer) Materials: d. The volume of timber in a stand of trees? ♦ Forestry CD (Wedge Prism) 3. Have a local forester demonstrate examples of each tool mentioned. (Contact your state’s NRCE coordinator for information on available personnel.)

Subjects: ACTIVITY 6 Math, Art MAKE A BILTMORE STICK Objectives: 1. Students will identify and construct a Procedure: specialized forestry tool. 1. Cut out the Biltmore Stick pattern on Student Worksheets 5a and 5b. Skills: 2. Glue pattern together according to directions. Dexterity, following directions 3. Glue side one and side two to opposite sides of a yardstick or heavy strip of cardboard. Materials: ♦ Student Worksheet 5a (Appendix A) 4. Use the Biltmore Sticks in Activity 7. ♦ Student Worksheet 5b (Appendix A) ♦ Yardstick Note: Side 2 of the Biltmore Stick is a hypsometer (a device for measuring height). For purposes of these activities, the term Biltmore stick will be used generically.

Activity 6 is adapted from: “Trees as a Crop,” in Our Wonderful World, Aims Education Foundation, Fresno, CA

9 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 10

Subjects: ACTIVITY 7 Math, Science, Economics USING THE BILTMORE STICK TO Objectives: ESTIMATE THE BOARD FEET 1. Students will recognize the importance of IN A TREE specialized tools to determine forest measurements. Divide the students into groups of five and designate 2. Students will compile data gathered from a tree for them to measure with their Biltmore Sticks personal use of forestry tools. 3. Students will demonstrate the use of the as follows: Biltmore stick. A. Determining the diameter of the tree: 4. Students will employ multiple Historically, the diameter measurement was measurement techniques. taken at breast height and therefore was known as 5. Students will equate measurable product the DBH (diameter breast height). Just as hand with economic impact. spans vary, breast height varies from person to 6. Students will read conversion charts to reclassify results. person. To standardize their measurements, foresters Skills: determined that this measurement would always be Measuring, estimating, inferring, tabulating, made at 4.5 feet above the ground. calculating, converting, reading conversion charts, comparing/contrasting, reaching 1. Have the students hold their Biltmore stick economic conclusions from raw data (Side 1) sideways against the tree, at arms length, 4.5 feet above the ground and 25 inches from the Materials: ♦ Biltmore Stick eye. ♦ Gunther Chain or 66 ff. rope 2. They should shift the stick right or left until the ♦ Student Worksheet 6 (Appendix A) zero end of the stick coincides with the left edge ♦ Using the Biltmore Stick to Measure of the tree trunk. Diameter (Appendix B) 3. Have them read the diameter figure that coincides ♦ Using the Biltmore Stick to Measure with the right edge of the tree trunk without Height (Appendix B) ♦ Board Feet Conversion Chart (Appendix moving their head. B) 4. For accuracy, take a second measurement on a different side of the tree by moving around the trunk approximately 90 degrees.

B. Determining the height of the tree: For standardization, height measurements are taken at a distance of 66 ft. from the tree. (One Gunther chain or surveyors tape (used by forestry workers) equals 66 ft.) The Biltmore stick has been calibrated so that if you stand 66 ft. away an accurate height can be determined. (In the absence of a Gunther chain, a 66 ft. rope will suffice.)

1. Have the students stand 66 feet from the tree while holding their Biltmore stick vertically at arms length and shoulder height with side B facing them. Line up the bottom of the stick with the base of the tree. Count the number of logs illustrated on the stick. The logs illustrated on the stick are 16 ft. logs. (Note: It is important not to move the stick when taking a measurement, therefore, tilt your head back slightly so that it does not have to move when read- ing from ground to top of tree.

Note: A forester standing in a forest often has to estimate the top of the tree if it is not easily seen.)

10 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 11

C. Determining the number of board feet in the tree: 1. Make a second height measurement. This time, instead of measuring from the ground to the top of the tree, measure from the stump height to the cutoff point in the top. The cutoff diameter will vary with locality, with product being produced, and with excessive limbs, but is usually between 4Ð10 inches. The minimum diameter log that can be used in the sawmill determines the cutoff diameter. The height is the merchantable height of the tree. Merchantable height refers to the length of commercially usable tree.

2. Use the Board Feet Conversion Chart in Appendix B to find board feet in the tree.

Note: The conversion chart takes into consideration the sawdust that is lost in typical sawing meth- ods. The sawdust may be used for animal bedding, fuel, etc.

3. Ask: Why is it necessary to use the merchantable height to determine the number of board feet?

4. Solve the following problem: How many trees like the one measured in Step C would it take to build three average U. S. homes?

Note: An average U. S. home contains approximately 16,900 board feet of lumber in the structural portions of the house.3

Note: If you refer to the Forestry CD Activity Guide cover, you will see a forester demonstrating the correct technique to determine DBH with a Biltmore Stick. She is holding the stick with an out- stretched arm (25 inches from her eye) at approximately 41/2 feet above the ground.

3. Facts and Figures U.S. Forests 1995, American Forest & Paper Association, Washington, DC.

11 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 12

Subjects: ACTIVITY 8 Math, Art MAKE A CLINOMETER

Objectives: Procedure: 1. Students will construct a forestry tool 2. Students will accurately plot measurement 1. Fold a piece of heavy A4 (cardstock) paper in points half lengthwise, as shown. 2. Draw a quadrant with radius of 10 cm and center Skills: at A as shown in diagram, mark every 5 degrees Measurement, following directions around the quadrant starting at B, and label the points. Materials: ♦ Cardstock paper (heavy A4) 3. Carefully attach a 20 cm length of cotton string at ♦ Rulers A so that it hangs freely. ♦ Protractors 4. Tie a small weight (washer) to the end of the ♦ Cotton string string. ♦ Small washers 5. Use the clinometer in Activity 9. ♦ Diagram for making a clinometer (Appendix B)

Subjects: ACTIVITY 9 Math, Science “INTRIGUING TRIG” Objectives: FIND THE THREE TALLEST TREES 1. Students will measure trees using a ON THE SCHOOL GROUNDS USING clinometer 2. Students will employ formulae and A CLINOMETER computations to collect data Procedure: Skills: 1. Divide students into pairs and give them a copy Interpreting charts, using math formulae, of Student Worksheet 7. observation, estimation, recording data, 2. Have students observe all of the trees on the determining angle of elevation school yard and estimate which three trees are Materials: tallest. ♦ Clinometer 3. Measure the height of selected trees as follows: ♦ Tangent chart a. Have one student stand far enough from the ♦ Student Worksheet 7 (Appendix A) tree so that he/she can clearly see its top. b. Using the paper clinometer, have the students determine the angle of elevation between his/her eye level and the top of the tree as follows: (1) Point the end with the weight towards the tree. (2) Sight along the top edge of the paper and angle the clinometer up or down until you are looking at the very top of the tree.

12 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 13

(3) Hold the clinometer steady. Have your partner record the number where the weighted string crosses the scale on the clinometer. This number represents the angle of elevation. (4) Use the clinometer conversion chart in Appendix B to find the tangent of the angle of eleva- tion. c. Using the pace method, have the partner measure the distance from the tree to where the stu- dent holding the clinometer is standing. d. Using the information gathered in a, b, and c, determine the height of the three trees using the following formula:

tree height = (tangent of angle of elevation × your distance from the tree) + your height

Subjects: ACTIVITY 10 Math, Science, Language Arts CHAMPION TREE FINDERS Objectives: 1. Students will compare, contrast, and A. Set the stage. evaluate trees in their area Explain to the students that there is a National 2. Students will employ math processes to Registry of Big Trees and that most states also determine selected tree measurements maintain a Big Tree List. The same criteria are 3. Students will research comparative used by all states to measure the trees which they species’ measurements nominate for consideration as Big Trees. Trees are 4. Students will demonstrate mastery of forestry tools [Biltmore Stick, Clinometer, judged as big trees if they earn the highest number Diameter Tape (optional)] of points for their species. The three measurements which are considered in determining a tree’s total Skills: points are: Observation, measurement, evaluation, (1) the Circumference, (2) the Height, and (3) comparison, research, estimation, recording the Average Crown Spread. data, determining angle of elevation

Materials: ♦ Copy of state’s big tree information or the B. Procedure National Registry of Big Trees 1. Select a tree or trees on the school yard or nearby ♦ Biltmore Stick street to be measured by groups of students. ♦ Clinometer 2. Measure the Circumference of selected tree ♦ Diameter tape or non-stretching rope This measurement is also known as CBH ♦ Tangent chart (Circumference at Breast Height.) This ♦ Student Worksheet 8 (Appendix A) ♦ Big tree measurements diagram measurement is made in inches at a point on the (Appendix B) tree trunk 4.5 feet above the ground. If a tree ♦ Graph paper (optional) is growing on a slope, the 4.5 foot point is determined from a point on the uphill side of the tree. The tree must have a single trunk for at least 4.5 feet to be considered a single tree. If abnormal swelling on the trunk prevents the measurement being taken at 4.5 feet, then the measurement should be taken at a point lower on the trunk where the measurement will reflect the normal size of the tree. The height at which the measurement is taken should be noted. The measurement may be taken with a tape measure or a forester’s diameter tape.

13 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 14

One point is given for each inch of circumference.

a. Wrap a tape measure around the tree trunk at a point 4.5 feet above the ground. Record the measurement on Student Worksheet 8. b. If a tape measure is not available, a non-stretching rope or cord may be used as follows: (1) Use a non-stretching rope or cord; (2) Lay the rope flat; (3) Wrap the rope around the tree; (4) Measure the length of the rope in inches, using a yardstick as a guide; (5) Note the measurement- this is the circumference of the tree. c. A forester’s diameter tape may be used to measure the circumference. It is a special measuring device used by foresters that has the inches expanded by the constant pi. pi = 3.14. The formula for determining the circumference using a diameter tape is as follows:

Circumference = pi × Diameter or C = pi × D

(1) Wrap the diameter tape around the tree at a height of 4.5 feet above the ground. (2) Note the measurement- this is the diameter. (3) Multiply the measurement by 3.14 (pi) Ð this is the circumference of the tree. (4) Sample problem: A diameter tape wrapped around an oak tree at 4.5 ft. above the ground indicates a diameter of 11.5 inches. What is the circumference of the tree?

Solution:

C = pi × D C = 3.14 × 11.5 inches C = 36.11 inches

3. Measure the height of selected tree To determine champion trees, the height is measured from the ground line to the highest point determined from the uphill side. The measurement may be taken with a Biltmore Stick or a clinometer.

One point is given for each foot of height.

4. Measure the average crown spread of selected tree To determine this finding, two measurements are taken at the outer edges (drip line) of the spreading crown. Measurements are recorded in feet at the widest point of crown spread, and then recorded at the narrowest point of crown spread. These two measurements are then averaged together and divided by two to get the average crown spread.

14 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 15

One-fourth of a point is given for each one foot of average crown spread (or one point for each four feet of spread.)

5. Determine the total point value, Add the points from all three measurements together. A co-champion tree is named if a tree is within five points of the champion.

6. American Forests formula to determine if a tree is a champion: Total points = Circumference (inches) + height (feet) + 25% of average Crown spread

7. Three other items are needed to complete the Big Tree nomination. They are: (1) The landowner’s name and address. (2) The nominator’s name and address. (3) The exact location of the tree.

8. Nominations for a Big Tree may be sent to: Your State Forest Service Street City, State, Zip

9. Optional Math Activity: Have the students graph the results of their calculations. They may graph total point values, or results of each of the three individual measurement components.

Information for “Activity 10: Champion Tree Finders” was adapted from the following sources:

Big Trees of Delaware, First Edition, 1995, Delaware Department of Agriculture Forest Service; Newlon, Charles J., “Gentle Giants,” Outdoor Delaware, Winter 1995, pp. 4Ð9.

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY TOOLS USED IN FORESTRY SECTION

Give the students copies of Student Worksheet 8. Ask the students to locate and record information on five trees of their choice. Remind them that they may discover a champion tree through their findings. If students are uncertain as to the species of the trees they select, ask them to ask permission of the owner to take a leaf to be identified. If permission is denied, ask the students to draw the leaf and note any characteristics of the tree (bark, color, etc.) which will aid in identification. Remind the students that accurately recording the location of the tree will enable the measurements to be verified, and positive identification to be made.

15 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 16

Source: The Woodland Steward, p. 15

16 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 18

18 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 19

TREE IDENTIFICATION

Trees are the largest and some of the most impressive plants in the world. But it is not only their size, but their age, shape, dominance in their community, beauty of flowers, fruits, or leaves, and potential uses by man that inspire a feeling of wonder and excitement in all of us. … To learn their identity, relationships, life history, habitats, and distribution adds to the appreciation of these giants of the plant kingdom.1

The development of a universally accepted system for identifying trees has eliminated the language barriers and resulted in more effective communication among scientists. A significant benefit of the naming and classification of trees has been the opportunity to research and explore the origins and methods of the various individuals and countries who contributed to this system.

The features used in tree identification are leaves, bark, twigs, flowers, fruits, habitat, and taste or aroma. The leaves are the most recognizable feature, and the easiest aid to identification. Because of the advantage in using leaves in identification, the key presented in the Forestry CD is a summer key.

The hands-on opportunity presented by the collection (when possible) and identification of leaves enables the teacher to reinforce valuable skills that are transferable and multi-disciplinary. Classification and grouping enable students to sharpen their observation and discrimination skills. The actual identification of trees lends credence to discussions of pollution, environmental ethics, land use, and other environmental concerns.

Students should be guided to achieve mastery of the use of a key to identify tree species. The student should be introduced to keys that are of various formats, so that they are able to follow the layout of any key with which they come in contact. It is essential that the students are familiar with the accepted botanical naming of trees and the rationale for the practice. This naming process eliminates the language barrier, and ensures a universal frame of reference. Students should also be familiar with the terminology used in the description and classification of trees.

The following activities are designed to accompany the topics found in the Tree Identification section on the Forestry CD. Also, in Appendix C there is a tree list that contains the following: Trees Identified on the Forestry CD Summer Key; Envirothon Tree Identification List; 4-H Tree Identification List.

1. Hardin, James W., et al., Textbook of Dendrology, p1.

19 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 20

TREE IDENTIFICATION

One way to identify trees is to use keys. Keys ask a series of questions. Your answers lead you to one or several possibilities. The key on the Forestry CD-Rom helps identify trees commonly found in parts of the eastern United States. It is a summer key and requires leaves and buds from the tree. To begin, get a branch with several leaves and a terminal bud. Then refer to the key found on the CD-Rom.

20 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 21

Subjects: ACTIVITY 1 Science, Art USING A SUMMER KEY

Objectives: Preparation: 1. Students will learn the reasons for the use of universally accepted scientific names 1. Pre-key the school yard or nearby community to for trees. find and map trees identified by the summer key 2. Students will master the procedures for on the Forestry CD. use of key to identify leaves. 2. Have students bring leaves from home. If no trees 3. Students will learn to discriminate or leaves are readily available, consider field between different identifying trips, library books, or contact the local forester’s characteristics of trees. 4. Students will learn (and spell correctly) office for pictures of leaves. Also, it is possible to the common and scientific names of the use the Tree Concentration leaf pages found in trees listed in the Forestry CD. Appendix B. 5. Students will determine the different uses of individual species of trees. Procedure: 1. Discuss why it is important to be able to Skills: verifying, analyzing, comparing, identify trees. contrasting, identifying, evaluating, classifying, categorizing, identifying attributes. 2. Give each student copies of Student Worksheet 9. Materials: 3. Divide the class into four groups. ♦ Forestry CD 4. Give each group an equal number of leaves or ♦ Student Worksheet 9 (Appendix A) leaf pictures to identify using the summer key on ♦ Student Worksheet 10 (Appendix A) the CD. If they bring in a leaf that is not identi- fied on the CD, have them use other available keys. 5. Have students sketch each identified leaf and write its common and scientific name on Student Worksheet 9. 6. On a separate sheet, have them list two uses for each tree identified. 7. Have groups exchange pictures and continue to use the CD until each group has successfully identified and sketched each leaf picture. 8. Have student groups take their sketches and Student Worksheet 10 into the school yard or nearby community to identify pre-selected trees. Or send students on an in-school scavenger hunt and have them identify hanging leaf collections in halls. 9. Have students research their state tree. Is it on the CD? 10. Have students draw a picture of their state tree. Identify with common and scientific (botanical) names.

21 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 22

Subject: ACTIVITY 2 Science INSTANT TREE TRAIL Objectives: 1. Students will learn to discriminate Procedure: between different identifying 1. The purpose of this activity is to reinforce tree characteristics of trees. identification. This activity may take place inside 2. Students will reinforce tree identification or outdoors. skills. 2. Divide students into teams of six to eight. Skills: analyzing, representing, comparing, Each team is responsible for constructing one contrasting, evaluating, classifying, trail. categorizing, identifying attributes and 3. Students construct a “trail” by outlining an area components. with the yarn. 4. Using the clothespins, they then attach pictures of Materials: ♦ Yarn or rope (full skein or at least 100 feet leaves (if indoors) to the trail and add question of rope) marks OR attach cards to leaves (outdoors) and ♦ Clothes pins add question marks at different points along the ♦ Index cards with question mark-? “trail.” ♦ Index cards with the common and 5. The other teams follow the trail and identify botanical names of trees represented in the the leaves by attaching the index card with the Forestry CD ♦ Pictures of leaves (indoors) correct botanical and common names. ♦ Area with a variety of tree species 6. Each team can follow every trail and identify all (outdoors) of the leaves represented.

ACTIVITY 3 Subject: Science TREE CONCENTRATION

Objectives: 1. Students will match names, Procedure: characteristics, and uses of trees with 1. Have students cut out the squares of (a) leaf pictures of leaves pictures, (b) identifying characteristics of trees, 2. Students will reinforce tree identification (c) common names, and (d) scientific names. skills Squares may be pasted to index cards to make them more durable. Skills: evaluating, comparing, contrasting, categorizing, identifying attributes and 2. Students then place the squares face down as components, verifying, analyzing, classifying. follows:

Materials: for each group — Two rows of leaf picture squares only; ♦ 1 set of Tree Concentration sheets (Appendix B) — All other squares placed in as many randomly ♦ Scissors ♦ 3 by 5 index cards (optional) mixed rows as necessary.

22 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 23

3. Each player, in turn, is to pick one leaf picture square and try to match the leaf with either of the following squares: common name; identifying characteristic; or the scientific (botanical) name. 4. If there is not a match, the student replaces the squares face down in rows and the next student has a turn. 5. If the student matches the leaf to the common name, he puts the pair in his pile and has scored one point for the match, and the next student takes a turn. 6. If the student matches the leaf to the scientific name or the identifying characteristic of the tree, the puts the pair in his pile and has scored two points for the match, and the next student takes a turn. 7. In the second round and subsequent rounds, each student again chooses one leaf picture square and tries to match it. If he does not match the new leaf picture square, but does select a square that matches an existing pair in his pile, he adds the match to his pile and scores accordingly. It is possible to score 5 points for each leaf picture by accumulating a full set of squares for each:

(Leaf + common name + identifying characteristic of tree + scientific name = 5 points) 1 point 2 points 2 points

8. If all leaf picture squares have been matched at least once, the game continues until all remaining squares have been matched and added to students’ piles. 9. Students total their points to determine the winner.

23 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 24

Subjects: ACTIVITY 4 Science, Social Studies LEAF PRINTS

Objectives: Part I: Cloth Dyeing 1. Students will select and identify, by common and scientific names, a leaf of their choice. Procedure: 2. Student will recognize the inherent beauty 1. For best results, be sure that leaves collected are of an object of nature as a decorative item. fairly fresh and green. 3. Students will recognize the chemical 2. Have each student select leaves which he then properties of salt and baking soda as identifies by their common and botanical fixatives. names. 4. Students will research botanical facts about selected leaves. 3. Place several layers of newspaper on a flat board. Skills: Classifying, identifying attributes 4. Spread the cloth, right side up, on the newspaper. and components, analyzing, organizing, 5. Place the leaves on the cloth in the desired researching pattern. 6. Put waxed paper over the leaves and tape the Materials: ♦ flat-headed hammers edges carefully. ♦ masking tape 7. Use the hammer to pound the leaves until the leaf ♦ plywood or other hard surface boards pattern has been transferred to the cloth. The ♦ newspapers process will result in the leaf’s chlorophyll ♦ waxed paper leaving a design or “print” on the cloth. ♦ fabric pen 8. If the leaf design does not imprint evenly, ♦ tee shirt or pieces of cloth on which to crumble up another leaf, dip it in water, and use print (100% cotton works best). ♦ tree leaves (tulip poplar, red or white oaks it to fill in the imprinted areas. work well) 9. Use the fabric pen to write the common and ♦ construction or other heavy Ð weight botanical names under each leaf. paper 10. To help retain the natural colors, the finished ♦ stamp pad product may be soaked in one of the following solutions: 1 /2 cup of salt added to 2 gallons of water and soaked for ten minutes.

OR

3 tablespoons of baking soda added to 1 gallon of water and soaked for ten minutes.

11. Rinse the fabric in clean, cold water and air dry it away from direct sunlight. 12. Optional: Social Studies/Language Arts extension activity. Have students research how Native Americans and early settlers dyed and decorated their cloth- ing with natural dyes and objects from nature. The use of walnuts and other forest products as a source of dyes, and the use of feathers, etc., as decoration can be explored.

24 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 25

Part II: Stationery

Procedure: 1. Have each student “buy” one leaf. As the “price” of purchase of the leaf, they must provide one fact about their leaf. 2. Have the student ink the leaf on the stamp pad, and impress the leaf on the paper in the position of their choice. 3. They then write the fact about the leaf at the bottom of the page. 4. Extension Activity: Have students follow steps 1Ð3 using twigs.

Subject: ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY 1 Science, Language Arts, Social Studies TREE IDENTIFICATION SECTION CLASS LEAF COLLECTION Objectives: 1. Students will select and identify by common botanical names the leaves of Procedure: their choice. 1. Have each group of students be responsible for 2. Students will mount and identify collecting a minimum of 15 different leaves dur- specimen by approved botanical ing their travels and bring them into class. methods. 2. Have students identify the leaves using the 3. Students will acquainted with the range of Forestry CD summer key. species in their selected areas. 4. Students will employ the Forestry CD 3. If the leaf is not identified using the Forestry CD, Summer Key to identify leaves. use additional keys and field guides. 5. Students will become familiar with other 4. Discuss the linguistic and cultural roots of the keys and reference materials as needed to words and terms used in tree identification. identify leaves. 5. Have the students press and mount the leaves. Instructions for mounting are on page 26. Skills: evaluating, comparing, contrasting, categorizing, identifying attributes and 6. Display the class leaf collection in the school components, verifying, analyzing, classifying, library. and researching. 7. Have students research the accomplishments of one of the following botanists/naturalists: Materials: George Engelmann (1809Ð1884) ♦ Forestry CD David Douglas (1798Ð1894) ♦ Street identification keys and field guides as available Robert Fortune (1812Ð1860) ♦ Plant press (if unavailable, use large Johann Georg Gmelin (1709Ð1755) telephone books, or catalogues, or other William Jackson Hooker (1785Ð1865) large book) Richard Maack (1825Ð1886) ♦ Newspaper sheets Pierre Magnol (1638Ð1715) ♦ Leaf mounting sheets (Appendix B) Thomas Nutall (1784Ð1859) ♦ Glue Jean Robin (1550Ð1629) ♦ Paper and writing materials ♦ Leaf Mounting Sheet and Botanical Vespasien Robin (1579Ð1662) Collection Procedures (Appendix B) Charles Sprague Sargent (1841Ð1927). ♦ Student Worksheet 11 David Thomas (1776Ð1859) Thomas Albert Williams (1865Ð1900)

25 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 26

a. Using Student Worksheet 11 have them map routes traveled by the botanist while doing research. b. Have them identify two plants discovered by their botanist and locate the discovery on the map.

8. Extension activity: Define the term restoration forestry and have the students research areas in their state where a restoration project may be proposed, or in process.

9. For closure, discuss with the students the following: Leaves exhibit certain characteristics that allow the species of the tree to be identified. Identification keys are a systematic way to examine tree, and especially leaf, characteristics and identify the species. There are specialized terms and characteristics used in tree identification. There is a universally accepted system of naming trees, which uses a Latin botanical name, and eliminates a language problem and provides a world-wide frame of reference. There is certain information that accompanies a specimen in a leaf collection. There are procedures to be followed to insure a properly collected, preserved, and mounted leaf collection. There are “Environmental Ethics” to be followed when collecting leaves or engaging in any outdoor activity. Trees have aesthetic, environmental, historical, and economic value. Discuss with students some of the trees which have historical and cultural significance in our country’s history, especially those native to their state.

Method A. 1. Decide where on the mounting sheet the leaf is to be placed. Try to be as artistic as possible. 2. When mounting leaves, always turn one leaf upside down so that both sides are visible. 3. Brush glue (60% white glue to 40% water) on the surface of the leaves. 4. Place leaves on mounting sheet in pre-determined position.

Method B. 1. Follow steps 1 and 2 above. 2. Spread glue evenly on a washable surface. 3. Lay leaves on glue and press down to ensure glue coverage. 4. Lift leaves up gently and place on mounting sheet.

26 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 27

Subjects: TREE IDENTIFICATION SECTION Math, Science, Geography, Language Arts, Art ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY 2 Objectives: TREE TRAILS 1. Students will interpret a public area and identify, by common and scientific names, Procedure: the trees on that site. 1. Review the sample tree trail (Appendix B) with 2. Students will provide identifying charac- the class. teristics and interesting facts about their 2. Divide the class into groups and have each group selected trees. select a public area in which they will design and 3. Students will present their material in well-written grammatically correct for- interpret a tree trail. mats. 3. Each tree trail should have a minimum of 12 4. Students will employ appropriate geo- different tree species. graphic and statistical information to cre- 4. Have each group work with computers (if ate their map. possible) or by hand, to design a tree trail 5. Students will utilize appropriate art and brochure which should contain the following graphic techniques to create their brochure. information: ♦ Common and scientific names of each tree; Skills: Identifying, classifying, identifying ♦ Identifying characteristics of each tree; attributes and characteristics, team building, ♦ Interesting facts about each tree; researching, mapping, and writing ♦ Precise location of each tree; ♦ Map (complete with legend) of the tree walk. Materials: ♦ Forestry CD 5. Place copies of completed brochure(s) in the ♦ art supplies school library for use by other students. ♦ field guides and keys 6. (Optional) Send copies of brochures to appropri- ♦ sample Tree Trail (Appendix B) ate state, county, or municipal agency so that they may be shared with the public.

27 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 30

Source: The Woodland Steward, p. 61

30 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 31

FOREST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

The United States has 731 million acres of forestland that make up about one third of the total land base. Everyone uses and benefits from forest products each and every day of their lives. Forests are a resource which offers many benefits: wood products and byproducts, food, clean water, air quality, erosion prevention, noise abatement, habitat (human and wildlife), energy conservation, recreation, and aesthetics. Much of the world’s population depends on the forest for fuel for heating and cooking.

Old growth forests, though important for some species of wildlife, recreation, and aesthetics, do not offer the same environmental benefits as second growth forests. Second growth forests grow more rapidly and offer a broader range of benefits in the long run. In this more active growth, second growth forests produce more oxygen and take in more carbon dioxide than old growth forests, thus benefiting air quality more. Second growth forests absorb more nutrients than old growth forests, thus purifying water more completely. Second growth forests provide a wider variety of wildlife habitats and are often managed for the many wood products needed by society.

Through use of the Forest Management Practices section on the Forestry CD and this accompanying activity guide, the student will be introduced to various forest management practices, terminology, and systems which encompass the methods used to manage forests to maximize their benefits and promote a conservation and stewardship land use ethic.

Silviculture is that part of forest management that deals primarily with the biological aspects of growing trees. Social, economic, and philosophical considerations are also involved. The context of forest management always involves multiple, sometimes competing, needs and ecological awareness. The purposes of the following activities are to give students the opportunity to (1) compare a well managed forest with a poorly managed one, (2) examine ways natural and man-made change in the plant community relate to desired goals and resources, (3) become better stewards of our future forests, and (4) better understand our connections to the natural world.

Silviculture has been practiced for hundreds of years. Forests are constantly growing and changing, passing through several stages such as: new, static, growing, old, changing, or dying. Forest managers attempt to imitate nature by creating conditions that also may occur naturally in the forest. Through acquaintance with some of these forestry practices, it is hoped that the student will be led to realize the necessity of planning, and the effectiveness of educated responses for sustaining forests. The multiple benefits of forests Ð economic, environmental, recreational, and numerous others Ð are protected, renewed, and enriched through sustainable forest management.

Sometimes wind, fire, ice storms, or infestations by insects or disease can severely damage or even kill a forest in a short time. When the forest regrows, the new trees are all about the same age, even

31 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 32

though size may vary with growth rates. This type of forest is called “even-aged.” A forest may grow for many years with only small groups or individual trees dying. This provides open spaces that soon will be filled by young trees. These forests are called “unevenaged.”

Different cutting practices (management practices) are used to imitate nature’s methods of regener- ating a forest:

Even-aged Clear-cutting: the removal of all trees larger than one inch in diameter from a specific area. Shelterwood cutting: 40Ð60% of the trees are removed, allowing new trees to become established in partial sunlight, under the shelter of the remaining older trees. Once the new trees have gotten established, the removal of the remaining older trees may take place. Seed tree cutting: removal of most of the trees in one cut, leaving a few, well distributed, good seed producers over the area.

Uneven-aged Group selection: small groups of trees are cut in selected areas. This creates openings for regeneration of trees that require partial sunlight.

Individual tree selection: trees of various sizes, dispersed throughout the forest, are individually selected for cutting. This creates small openings for the establishment of shade-tolerant species.

Some trees that grow best in an even-aged forest, because of their need for direct sunlight are Aspen, Black Cherry, Oak, Hickory, Douglas-fir, White Pine, Red Pine, Loblolly Pine, and Lodgepole Pine.

Some trees that thrive in the shaded environment of an uneven-aged forest are Maple and Beech. (Some coniferous trees that may be found in the understory of an uneven-aged forest are Balsam Fir, White Cedar and Hemlock.)

Each type of forest provides differing wildlife habitat. Different birds and animals are found in the different forests.1

Not all forests are “in the woods.” In urban communities, trees also have many values. These values may be aesthetic, social, historic, or environmental. Trees have been of aesthetic importance to people since the earliest civilizations. The term “urban forestry” is relatively new (Jorgensen, 1970). However, certain practices and disciplines that make up the field of urban forestry have been long established and valued.

Urban and community foresters specialize in managing the many acres of forests that grow in and around metropolitan communities. They pay close attention to factors that affect those forests, such as limited growing space, polluted air, lack of water, poor soil quality, utility line maintenance, and vandalism. Tree selection is a critical part of urban and community forest management. A forester must be knowledgeable about which trees can withstand the various stresses and limitations present in the urban environment.

32 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 33

Urban and community foresters may work with real estate developers to save existing trees, and with municipal governments in establishing tree boards or commissions. Urban and community foresters may be trained in traditional forestry schools or may come from other disciplines, such as horticul- ture or landscape architecture.

1. “Silviculture: A Forest Gem,” in Spruce Up America, Teacher Assistance Packet Grades K-6, Adirondack Teacher Center.

33 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 34

Source: Project Learning Tree K-8 Activity Guide: p. 251

34 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 35

Subjects: ACTIVITY 1 Science, English, Art, Geography, Social FORESTRY CD/FORESTER’S Studies, Career Exploration VISIT Objectives: 1. Students will be challenged by the many Procedure: decisions involved in the management of 1. Discuss the benefits of forests with the class. Ask natural resources. 2. Students will describe the forest as a them how they personally benefit from forests. manageable natural resource and identify Discuss silviculture with the class. the process as silviculture. 2. Divide students into groups and have them play 3. Students will describe purposes or goals the Management Practices section on the Forestry in managing a forest. CD. 4. Students will compare managed forests 3. Contact your local forester. Invite them to your with ones that are natural (unmanaged) or poorly managed. classroom to discuss forest management. Let the 5. Students will be able to identify general forester know that your students are researching management approaches by which even-aged and uneven-aged forest management. forests and tree stands are renewed or If possible, they may be able to accompany your established. class to sites in your area where forest manage- 6. Students will learn the dynamics of a ment practices have been used. forest system. 7. Students will learn how they are connected to the forest/natural resources. 8. Students will learn how to seek the facts before making decisions. Skills: Observing, discussing, evaluating, researching, interpreting, predicting, comparing and contrasting, formulating questions, identifying relationships and patterns, identifying attributes and components Materials: ♦ Forestry CD

35 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 36

Subjects: ACTIVITY 2 Science, Language Arts LOOKING AT FOREST STANDS

Objectives: Procedure: 1. Students will be challenged by the many decisions involved in the management of 1. Divide students into groups. natural resources. 2. Discuss well and poorly managed stands of trees. 2. Students will describe the forest as a 3. Give each group a copy of the pictures of the manageable natural resource and identify well managed and poorly managed stand of trees the process as silviculture. or make transparencies of the pictures to be 3. Students will describe purposes or goals shown to the class. in managing a forest. 4. Students will compare well managed 4. If possible, take students outside to a nearby forests with ones that are poorly managed. woods or stand of trees and ask them to compare 5. Students will be able to identify a well it to the stands in the pictures. managed area and contrast it to a poorly 5. Ask questions to focus students on comparing managed area. stand characteristics. Example: “How does it 6. Students will be able to identify general compare with the characteristics we discussed in management approaches by which forests and tree stands are renewed or a well managed stand of trees? established. 6. Have the students write and/or draw their 7. Students will learn the dynamics of a for- observations in their journal as a data recording est system. activity. 8. Students will learn how they are connect- 7. Have the students review the “Forest ed to the forest/natural resources. Management Practices” section of the Forestry 9. Students will learn how to seek the facts before making decisions. CD. Ask students to respond to the following questions using their information in the CD. Skills: Observing, predicting, comparing and Write the questions on the board. contrasting, classifying and categorizing, a. What tree characteristics do you see in these identifying attributes and components, pictures that represent good management of interpreting, composing, formulating the forests for a specific purpose? questions, team building, problem solving, fact finding. b. Can multiple benefits be achieved? c. What characteristics do you observe in this Materials: stand that may be important to manage for the ♦ Forestry CD potential use of these trees for (1) aesthetic ♦ Picture of Well Managed Stand of Trees purposes (2) diversity of wildlife, (Appendix B) (3) manufacturing construction lumber, and ♦ Picture of Poorly Managed Stand of Trees (Appendix B) (4) other purposes? ♦ Student journal d. What would a forester need to do to maintain ♦ Question list for board (see procedure) such a forest? e. What silvicultural practices might a forester incorporate to help produce the best possible forest for a specific purpose?

Activity 2 is adapted from: “Managing Our Forest Resources,” in Natural Resources Education Series, USDA Forest Service.

36 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 37

Subjects: ACTIVITY 3 Science, Art, Language Arts MANAGEMENT DECISIONS

Objectives: Procedure: 1. Students will be challenged by the many decisions involved in the management of Students can do the following individually or in natural resources. cooperative groups: 2. Students will describe the forest as a 1. Have students review the Forestry CD and choose manageable natural resource and identify a forest management technique that they would the process as silviculture. like to illustrate using a poster or diorama. 3. Students will describe purposes or goals 2. Once they have decided, hand out the materials in managing a forest. 4. Students will compare well managed they will need and allow them ample time to forests with ones that are natural complete their project. (You may choose to (unmanaged) or poorly managed. assign different techniques, to ensure that all are 5. Students will be able to identify a well represented.) managed area and contrast it to a poorly Students can paint the toilet paper rolls and managed area. paper towel rolls brown or cover them with 6. Students will be able to identify general management approaches by which brown construction paper to make tree trunks. forests and tree stands are renewed or These can be cut to different sizes for trees and established. tree stumps. The leaves or needles can be made 7. Students will learn the dynamics of a from green construction paper that has been cut forest system. into the desired shapes and attached to the top of 8. Students will learn how they are the “trunk.” Students can use the clay to hold the connected to the forest/natural resources. 9. Students will learn how to seek the facts “trees” and “stumps” onto a piece of cardboard. before making decisions 3. After they have completed their projects, they will write a short report about the forest Skills: Analyzing, classifying and categoriz- management technique that they chose to ing, comparing and contrasting, composing, illustrate. Some questions they may want to interpreting, representing, projecting future answer are: needs, team building, problem solving. a. Which silviculture technique did you choose? Materials: b. Describe what the forest manager did to this ♦ Forestry CD site. ♦ Brown construction paper c. Which type of trees grow best in your ♦ Green construction paper managed area? ♦ Toilet paper or paper towel rolls (empty, d. What do you perceive as the long term of course!) ♦ Clay benefits of the forest management technique ♦ Cardboard (for base of diorama) that you chose to illustrate? ♦ Poster board 4. Have students give an oral report to the class, ♦ Scissors using their illustration and their written report. ♦ Markers/crayons/paint 5. Discuss all of the finished projects with the ♦ Glue/paste class. Review all of the silviculture techniques, and discuss the benefits to the forest habitat.

37 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 38

Extensions: 1. Invite a local forester to class and have him/her listen to the oral reports. 2. Contact your local Soil and Water Conservation District office to have someone come to your class to discuss the soil of forest sites and how it relates to the silviculture technique that is chosen. 3. Contact a wildlife biologist or naturalist. Ask them to come to your classroom to discuss the wildlife that will benefit in each type of managed forest. 4. Display finished projects in the school library, town library, local forestry office, local soil conservation district office or any other location where the students’ work would be visible to the community.

Subjects: ACTIVITY 4 Science, Math, Social Studies MANAGING THE URBAN AND

Objectives: COMMUNITY FOREST Ð TREE 1. Students will be able to identify tree INVENTORY species using a key. 2. Students will be able to measure/calculate Preparation: tree diameter and height. 1. Gather materials for class: measuring equipment, 3. Students will be able to record tree data maps, Forestry CD, tree identification keys. using charts, graphs, and tables. 4. Students will better understand field skills 2. Secure permission from village/school/landown- necessary in forest resource management. ers as needed. 5. Students will understand the concepts 3. Review Forestry CD Summer Key use and data behind forest resource management. collection skills (tree measurement, pace, etc.) in 6. Students will be able to draw maps and Forestry CD Tools Section prior to field work. understand mapping. 4. This would be an ideal time to ask your state Skills: Interpreting, comparing and urban and community forestry program to contrasting, generalizing, evaluating, provide a speaker to describe the process actually classifying, categorizing, identifying attributes used in your region. and components. 5. Contact your country or municipality and inquire about a section of the city, your neighborhood, or Materials a park that needs a comprehensive or updated ♦ Forestry CD ♦ Sample Inventory Sheet (Appendix B) inventory. Ask them what information should street keys and identification guides be in the inventory (address, feet in from ♦ Maps of inventory area (school grounds, curb/highway, height, diameter or circumference, village streets) crown spread, etc.). ♦ Measurement equipment (tape measure, 6. Discuss the benefits of the community forest. diameter tape, Biltmore Stick, etc.) Why is it important? ♦ Clipboards (optional) ♦ Paper ♦ Pencils Procedure: 1. Have students research types of trees native to their state and adapted to the area being inventoried. Identify trees that are best suited to the area the students are to survey.

38 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 39

2. Have students review information to be collected and have the class develop a data collection sheet. (See sample in Appendix B, but have students develop a format themselves.) 3. Organize class into data collection teams according to inventory area, supervision needs, and materials/equipment limitations. 4. Conduct inventory field work collecting all data necessary (address, distance from curb or street, distance from corner, species, diameter, height, etc.) 5. Create inventory maps and compile appropriate data using charts, tables, graphs or any combination thereof. 6. Optional: a. Have students research information on how to assess the general health/condition of trees. b. For trees found to be in serious trouble, have students use information gathered in Activity 1 and include in their report recommendations for replacement trees.

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY FOREST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES SECTION Have students construct a report containing findings, evaluations, and recommendations gathered in Steps 1,2,3, and 4 of Activity 4 above. Have students submit this report to the appropriate school, civic, or government authority.

39 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 40

Source: Evergreen Magazine Forest Facts Book: p. 22Ð23

40 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 42

Source: The Woodland Steward, p. 25.

42 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 43

FROM TREES TO LUMBER AND FUEL

We are all consumers of the commodity, wood, which comes from trees. Wood is consumed in many ways, e.g., fuel for heat and cooking, framing for houses, furniture, pulp for paper, etc. More than 3.4 billion cubic meters of wood are extracted from the world’s forests and woodlands each year, roughly half for fuel and half for lumber, plywood, paper and other industrial products.1 Good forest management practices have ensured that there are more trees available in the United States today than there were in 1850. The September 1992 Journal of Forestry stated: … one reason we cut trees is that each American uses the equivalent of a 100-foot tree each year. To get some idea of how many trees we have grown and used since 1900, start with 76 million people living in the United States in 1900. By 1990, we had grown to more than 250 million people. So, from 1900 to 1990, we grew and used the equivalent of 14 billion 100-foot trees. And, because of good forest practices, America’s beautiful green forests are the envy of the world. We still have more than two-thirds of the forestland we had when Columbus discovered the New World.2 Consumers have a responsibility to continue to use wisely the natural resources available to them and thereby help ensure the continued abundance of trees and all of the goods and environmental benefits (wildlife habitat, clean water, clean air, and aesthetics) derived from forests.

Lumber, plywood, paper and other industrial products: The Trees to Lumber section on the Forestry CD explains the steps in the process of producing lumber, beginning with removal from the forest to production at the sawmill. Students will have an opportunity to become knowledgeable about the natural, capital, and human resources necessary to produce lumber and other industrial products. Lumber and other industrial products are goods (wares, merchandise) produced by many industries for human use.

Businesses (producers) use natural, capital, and human resources to make goods or perform services that society values. Natural resources are the raw materials used in production like plants, animals, soil, water and minerals. Some are renewable and some are non-renewable. Human resources include both the labor that makes the product or performs the service, and the entrepreneur who organizes the production process. Capital resources are the tools that are used to make the goods (factories and machines) or transport them (trucks and ships). Capital resources have changed significantly through time. We are all producers and consumers in society. Every producer depends upon other workers to be able to make a living. Consumers are the users of goods and services, and we are all consumers.

Fuel and heat: In 1875, wood supplied 75% of the energy needs in the United States. Wood was replaced by coal in the early 1900’s. By 1946, oil and gas provided the bulk (70%) of the nation’s energy requirement. In the United States, the use of wood as a fuel has enjoyed a rebirth in popularity ever since the oil shortages of the 1970’s. The use of wood as a fuel increased 45% during the period of 1975 to 1980. In some countries around the world, wood still is, and probably will remain, the main source of fuel for cooking and heating.

43 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 44

In the United States, people have returned to using wood as a fuel for many of the same reasons people in other countries have always used wood, namely, other fuel sources are unavailable, nonrenewable, or are too expensive. In this unit, your students will explore the use of wood as a fuel. They will specifically discover the characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of fuel wood.

Pound for pound all wood produces about the same amount of heat energy. A pound of dry hardwood will produce about 8600 B.T.U.s of heat energy when burned. Because of high resin content some conifer wood may produce slightly over 9000 B.TU.s. Most hardwoods and some tropical woods are denser than conifers, and on a volume basis contain more heat value.3

Although the Forestry CD does not directly address the use of timber as a fuel, an activity involving this aspect has been included to facilitate student understanding of processing and usage of wood as a renewable source of energy.

1. Postel, Sandra and Ryan, John C., “Reforming Forestry” in State of the World 1991 A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society, pp. 75Ð76. 2. “Trees the Renewable Resource That Benefits Both People and the Environment,” in Journal of Forestry, September 1992, p. 12. 3. Wood Used for Fuel And Heat Curriculum for Middle School Social Science, Florida Ag in the Classroom, Inc.

44 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 45

ACTIVITY 1 Subjects: Economics, Sociology, Social Studies, LOOKING AT RESOURCES Science, Language Arts A CAPITAL IDEA

Objectives: Procedure 1. Students will define natural, capital, and human resources. 1. Discuss natural, capital, and human resources 2. Students will distinguish between renew- with the students. Help them realize the differ- able and non-renewable resources. ence between renewable and non-renewable. 3. Students will trace the process of the 2. Have students play the Trees to Lumber Section transformation of a tree to lumber. on the Forestry CD. 4. Students will identify the resources in the 3. Have the student imagine he/she is going to the transformation of a tree to lumber. lumber yard to purchase lumber to frame a house. Skills: 4. Have the student list the steps in the process from Defining, processing, analyzing, evaluating, tree to lumber and identify the resources used in predicting, classifying, identifying attributes, each of the following steps: researching, writing Step one: In the forest Materials: ♦ Forestry CD Step two: From the forest to the sawmill ♦ Pencil and paper Step three: At the sawmill Step four: At the lumber yard

5. For each step, have the students identify the following resources used:

Natural Resources: Renewable, Non-renewable Capital Resources Human Resources

6. Have students individually or in groups research and write a report on one of the following: a. The student imagines he/she is going to the lumber yard to purchase lumber to frame a house in the year 1850 in their home state or territory. b. The student is a lone woodsman who builds a home on the Colonial frontier in the year 1750. c. Have students check on the price of wood vs. steel 2 by 4’s at their local lumberyard. Discuss the properties of wood and steel in terms of renewability, recycling, the tools needed, and energy costs of extraction and manufacturing. 7. Have the students list the steps from tree to lumber and identify the resources used in each step. 8. Ask them the following questions: a. Have the natural resources changed over time? Explain. b. Have the capital resources changed over time? Explain. c. What other changes did they discover? Explain.

45 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 46

Subjects: ACTIVITY 2 Language Arts, Social Studies, Economics FIELD TRIP TO A SAWMILL

Objectives: Procedure 1. Students will observe the process of transforming trees into lumber. 1. Before the trip have the students review the Trees 2. Students will identify the human, capital, to Lumber Section of the Forestry CD and and natural resources used in this process. become familiar with the names and uses of the 3. Students will observe the collection and machinery and tools used in the sawmill. proposed use of the by-products of the 2. At the sawmill, and later in class, have sawmill process. students chartÐeither in words and pictures or a Skills: Observing, categorizing, interpreting combination of the two—the process that begins data, evaluating with the felling of a tree and ends with the purchase of a board by a consumer: Materials: Sale of trees ♦ Sawmill Methods/result of harvesting ♦ Permission slips Procedures used in the mill Use of by-products (bark, sawdust, etc.) Sale of product to wholesalers/retailers

Subjects: ACTIVITY 3 Language Arts, Social Studies, Economics, MILLS APART Geography Procedure: Objectives: 1. Give students a list of the names and addresses of 1. Students will research the raw materials, methods, products, and resources local sawmills. employed in their local sawmill. 2. Have students locate each sawmill on the state 2. Students will compare and contrast the map. raw materials, methods, products, etc. of a 3. Have students write (individually, or as groups) to sawmill in another USDA Forest Service one sawmill owner and ask the following: region. a. How long the sawmill has been in Skills: Writing, evaluating, comparing, existence? categorizing b. How long the present owner has been involved with the sawmill? Materials: c. The primary species processed in the ♦ Forestry CD sawmill? ♦ Paper, pens, envelopes, stamps d. The primary source of the sawmill’s trees— ♦ Addresses of local sawmill owners ♦ USDA Forest Service regional informa- geographic area, company land, or from tion (Appendix B) Federal, state or private land? e. The primary purchasers of the sawmill’s primary product (lumber) and secondary products (bark, sawdust). f. Changes from past years in consumers, uses of sawmill products, sources of trees, and machinery/methods of the sawmill.

46 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 47

4. Give students the following information: ♦ USDA Forest Service regional information (Appendix B) 5. Have students write (individually, or as groups) to sawmill owners in other USDA Forest Service regions and ask the same questions as in Procedure 3, above. Note: The teacher may want to assign regions to individuals or groups to be sure that a good cross section of information will be gathered. 6. Have individual students or groups compare information gathered in steps 3 and 5 above. 7. As a section assessment activity, have students (individually or in groups) present findings to the class.

ACTIVITY 4 Subjects: Science, Language Arts NATIVE WOOD

Objectives: Procedure: 1. Students will reinforce tree identification 1. Define the term native wood. skills. 2. Have students research trees on the Forestry CD 2. Students will understand the differing uses summer key and list those that are native to their of trees. 3. Students will utilize research procedures. area. 4. Students will define the term native 3. Research differences in the wood produced species. by five native trees and the products commonly manufactured from those trees. Skills: Comparing, contrasting, analyzing, researching

Materials: ♦ Forestry CD ♦ Tree identification guides and keys

47 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 48

Subjects: ACTIVITY 5 Language Arts, Economics, Geography, Social NON-NATIVE WOOD Studies The Princess Tree (Paulownia tomentosa) Objectives: 1. Students will follow the economic impact Procedure: of the timber industry. 1. Have the students research this fascinating tree. 2. Students will examine the global 2. Ask them to determine when it was introduced involvement of trade. into this country and its country or region of 3. Students will research economic and origin. social factors affecting goods. 3. Have the students write a report on what Skills: evaluation, analyzing, researching, economic, social, and cultural values are placed writing, comparing, contrasting on this tree in the United States and in the country(ies) of origin? Materials: 4. Ask them to determine where the major eastern Tree identification guides and keys shipping port for this product located? (Hockessin, Delaware)

Subjects: ACTIVITY 6 Science, Social Studies, Math, Economics USING WOOD AS A FUEL

Objectives: Procedure: 1. Students will understand the meaning of density. 1. Lead the class into a discussion about using wood 2. Students will contrast present and as a fuel by having the students list all current changed life styles. energy sources. Remember Ð electric energy 3. Students will realize the effect of originates with nuclear, coal, oil, wind, solar, technology on their lives. water, or gas power. 4. Students will examine the extent of 2. Ask if any of the students use wood in their various sources of pollution. homes. Skills: 3. Ask the students to assume they have only wood Comparing, contrasting, debating, evaluating, to use as a fuel. In small groups have students research, writing discuss how this would affect their lives. Sample discussion follows: Materials: I. Why do we need energy? ♦ Wood samples a. To cook with b. To heat our homes c. To make our cars go d. To cool our homes e. To operate machinery and factories f. To light our homes, schools, etc.

48 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 49

II. What sources of energy do we use? a. Oil b. Coal c. Natural gas d. Solar e. Wood f. Nuclear g. Wind h. Water

III. Do any of you use wood as a fuel in your home: What does it do? a. heats our home b. cooks food, boil water

IV. Why do you use wood? a. May have a plentiful supply b. Is pleasant to smell, (see aesthetic)

V. If wood were the only source of energy, imagine differences in your home. Think about your house, and take out all the gas and electric appliances, replacing them with a fireplace, woodstove, and wood furnace. How would this change your life? a. You would spend time finding and cutting wood. b. Time would be needed for chopping and splitting wood. c. To cook with, you would need to build a fire beforehand. You cannot instantly “turn on” a fire. d. “c” also applies to heating. e. Fires must be tended Ð wood added and fire stoked.

These are the tasks that pioneers in this country had to perform. It took a lot of time, every day, all year, to maintain their wood supply. People still use wood as a fuel in many countries today. And it is as important to them today as it was to the pioneers of our nation.

VI. What are advantages of using wood as a fuel? a. We use less oil, coal, (fossil fuels) which are non-renewable resources. b. We use a renewable resource which is less polluting. We can always plant trees. c. There is wood available for use as fuel, which otherwise would be wasted (by-product of the timber industry and land development.)

4. Have students bring in pieces of wood that can be used as fuel. Discuss the merits of each. 5. Have students locate sources of wood in the community both free and for sale. 6. Have students write an essay on wood as a fuel and how and where it could be used in our society to reduce the amount of fossil fuels we consume.

49 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 50

7. Wood density: a. Have students research (library or Internet) the wood density of the following trees: Ash, Black Tupelo, Black Willow, Eastern Cottonwood, Northern Red Oak, Quaking Aspen, Red Maple, Shagbark Hickory, Southern Red Oak, Sassafras, Sugar Maple, Sycamore, White Birch, White Oak, Yellow (Tulip) Poplar, and rank the trees as to their energy value for fuel and heat.

Note: Density is defined as the quantity of something per unit volume, unit area, or unit length. A Density of Trees and Heat Produced chart listing the density of the above trees is included in Appendix B for the teacher.

8. Using the wood samples brought into class, or lumber samples from saw mills or lumber yards, have the students develop a laboratory activity which demonstrates the differences in density of various woods.

9. Following laboratory safety precautions, have students use a calorimeter in science laboratory to measure the differences in heat potential of the different wood samples.

10. Have students discuss the generation of “greenhouse gases” from wood burning, as opposed to fossil fuel burning.

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY TREES TO LUMBER AND FUEL SECTION

The combination of field trips and evaluations, correspondence with mill owners, research and reports will serve as a cumulative evaluation instrument for this section.

50 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 53

Student Worksheet 1 Early Measurements Group No.

Hand span Arm span Nose to thumb Cubit Student 1 ______Student 2 ______Student 3 ______Student 4 ______Student 5 ______

Average ______

Length of Side of Door Ceiling classroom desk height height Student 1 ______Student 2 ______Student 3 ______Student 4 ______Student 5 ______

Average ______

Using Yardstick:

Length of Side of Door Ceiling classroom desk height height Student 1 ______Student 2 ______Student 3 ______Student 4 ______Student 5 ______

Average ______

Circumference Height of of trunk tree Student 1 ______Student 2 ______Student 3 ______Student 4 ______Student 5 ______

Average ______

53 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 54

Student Worksheet 2 Group No. ______Native American Method of Measuring Tree Height

Number of steps Estimated height to tree of tree Student 1 ______Student 2 ______Student 3 ______Student 4 ______Student 5 ______

Average ______

Using a person of known height to determine the height of a tree

Height of person standing at tree ______

Number of pencil lengths to top:

Student 1 ______Student 2 ______Student 3 ______Student 4 ______Student 5 ______

Average ______

Estimated height of tree ______

54 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 55

Student Worksheet 3 NAME ______DETERMINE LENGTH OF STEP

Procedure:

Walk 2 times (in a normal step) the distance marked off. Record number of steps you took each time.

Number of steps 1st time

Number of steps 2nd time

Total steps (A).

Total number of feet in distance walked (B)

÷ = (B) (A) (C) (total distance (total steps (number of feet walked) taken) in each step)

55 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 56

Student Worksheet 4 NAME ______DETERMINE LENGTH OF PACE

A pace is two steps. To calculate the length of your pace, measure out a dis- tance of 200 feet on the ground. At your normal walking speed, walk the dis- tance several times. As you walk, count the number of paces you take to go 200 feet. Walk the distance four times, and take an average of the last two or three attempts. If you start out walking on your right foot, count the number of times that you step with your left foot. Most adults have a pace of about 5 feet.

Procedure:

Walk 4 times (in a normal step) the distance marked off. Record number of paces you took each time.

Number of paces 1st time

Number of paces 2nd time

Total steps (A)

Total number of feet in distance walked (B)

÷ = (B) (A) (C) (total distance (total paces (number of feet walked) taken) in each step)

NOTE: Round the length of your pace to the nearest half foot: 4′,41/2′,5′,51/2′

56 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 57

STUDENT WORKSHEET 5a MAKE A BILTMORE STICK

Side 1 of Biltmore Stick *copy side 1 and side 2 separately Cut on heavy black lines Join each section at tabs Join side 1 to side 2 - back to back

57 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 58

STUDENT WORKSHEET 5b MAKE A BILTMORE STICK

Side 2 of Biltmore Stick (Hypsometer) Cut on heavy black lines Join each section at tabs Join side 1 to side 2 - back to back *attach to sheet of cardboard/yardstick

58 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 59

Student Worksheet 6 Group No. ______Tolling on through the CD

a. Diameter of the tree:

Measurement 1 Measurement 2 Average Student 1 ______Student 2 ______Student 3 ______Student 4 ______Student 5 ______

Group Average ______

b. Height of the tree:

Number of 16 foot logs in tree Height of tree Student 1 ______Student 2 ______Student 3 ______Student 4 ______Student 5 ______

Group Average ______

c. Merchantable height of the tree:

Number of 16 foot logs in tree Merchantable height of tree Student 1 ______Student 2 ______Student 3 ______Student 4 ______Student 5 ______

Group Average ______Number of board feet in the tree ______

Solve the problem: How many trees like the one measured in step c would it take to build three average U.S. homes? Note: An average U. S. home contains approximately 16,900 board feet of lumber for the structural portions of the house.

Answer: ______

59 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 60

Student Worksheet 7 Name(s) ______USING A CLINOMETER

Tree number 1:

Angle of elevation ______

Tangent of angle of elevation ______

Number of paces from tree to clinometer ______

Number of feet from tree to clinometer ______

Height of tree ______

Tree number 2:

Angle of elevation ______

Tangent of angle of elevation ______

Number of paces from tree to clinometer ______

Number of feet from tree to clinometer ______

Height of tree ______

Tree number 3:

Angle of elevation ______

Tangent of angle of elevation ______

Number of paces from tree to clinometer ______

Number of feet from tree to clinometer ______

Height of tree ______

60 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 61

STUDENT WORKSHEET 8 Big Tree Worksheet Date: ______

Your Name: ______Home Phone: ______

Address: ______

City: ______State: ______Zip: ______

School District: ______

School: ______

Teacher’s Name: ______Grade: ______

Tree’s common name: ______

Tree’s scientific name: ______

Tree’s location: ______

Land owner’s name and address: ______

A. Circumference (inches): ______

B. Estimated height (feet): ______

C. Crown spread (feet): ______

D. Divide answer to C by 4: ______

♦Fill in the blanks with the answers to the lettered questions.

++ = (A) (B) (D) (point total) This answer is the point total for your tree.

♦♦If the point total of your Big Tree is equal to or greater than the point total of the same species (type) listed in your state’s big tree registry or the National Registry of Big Trees, send a copy of this completed worksheet to the NRCE Coordinator at your State Forestry Office.

61 chapter 8/27/569:33AMPage62 62 Student Worksheet 9 Name ______Group number ______Using a summer key

Leaf number ______Leaf number ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

Leaf number ______Leaf number ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 63

Student Worksheet 10 Name ______Group number ______Using a Summer Key

Station 1 ______Station 8 ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

Station 2 ______Station 9 ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

Station 3 ______Station 10 ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

Station 4 ______Station 11 ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

Station 5 ______Station 12 ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

Station 6 ______Station 13 ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

Station 7 ______Station 14 ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

63 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 64

Station 15 ______Station 22 ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

Station 16 ______Station 23 ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

Station 17 ______Station 24 ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

Station 18 ______Station 25 ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

Station 19 Station 26 ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

Station 20 ______Station 27 ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

Station 21 ______Station 28 ______

Common Name ______Common Name ______

Scientific Name ______Scientific Name ______

64 chapter 8/27/569:33AMPage65

Student Worksheet 11 Name ______Map the Route 65 chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 66

66 Plant A Tree The Right Way! Containerized and Balled & Burlapped Trees and Shrubs

Select the right tree for the right site and ... • Measure how deep to plant the tree. The tree’s root collar (right above the root system) should be just above the surface of the soil. • Prepare the site by digging a wide saucer shaped hole 2 to 3 times larger than the root ball. (Step 1) • Dig a second hole in the center of the large circle that is 1 foot larger in diameter than the root ball and as deep as the root collar maintaining undisturbed soil beneath the root ball. Don’t dig the hole too deep. It is better to have the root ball 1-2 inches higher than ground level because of

possible settling. (Step 2) Ground Line • Place the tree carefully in the center of the hole. Use care not to break the root ball. Position the tree as Step 1 Step 1 straight as possible and to the proper depth before Step 2 Step 2 back filling. • Back fill the hole with the soil that was removed. As the back fill is added, lightly push the soil around the roots or water the soil to eliminate air pockets Make sure the (do not pack the soil after you water). Continue to Root Collar is just above the Trunk back fill to the height just below the root collar. top of the soil. Flare Don’t back fill the tree too deeply. • Mulch with composted woodchips to a depth of Ground Root Line 2" to 4" on top of the planting circle. Keep the Collar mulch 6" away from the trunk to prevent fungus from growing on the tree trunk. The mulch helps to retain moisture, controls weed growth and protects the tree from mowers and trimmers.

• Water is very important to a newly planted tree. A Backfill with the soil that slow, root saturating one-hour trickle once a week was removed and water. provides the new roots with sufficient moisture with- out drowning them. If it rains or is very dry, the watering schedule should be adjusted accordingly.

NJ Department of Environmental Protection Division of Parks and Forestry • NJ Forest Service 370 East Veterans Highway • Jackson, NJ 08527 732-928-0029 • Fax 732-928-4925 • Email [email protected] • www.state.nj.us/dep/forestry/service Tree Planting Detail Use this simple guide to help you plant your next tree.

Single straight-trunk to 9 ft. height.

Clear of branches below 6 ft.

Wire should br taught but allow for slight trunk movement. 2" x 2" hardwood stakes, if needed, placed outside of planting hole.

Remove transit -trunk guard.

2" to 4" mulch of shredded Main trunk planted straight. Check bark or composted wood from two directions 90° apart. chips or root mulch.

Keep mulch 6" away from root collar.

Wider planting hole if soil is compacted.

Remove or fold down top portion of burlap. Cut the top & sides off wire basket. Good native soil or topsoil. Rootball on undisturbed soil.

Plant Trees! Bring Life to Your Community! chapter 8/27/56 9:33 AM Page 69

Illustration courtesy of John Riley

69 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 70

Illustration courtesy of John Riley

70 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 71

BILTMORE STICK BOARD FEET CONVERSION CHART

VOLUME (board feet) BY NUMBER OF USABLE 16-FOOT LOGS TREE DIAMETER IN INCHES 111/2 221/2 331/2 441/2 5

10′′ 36 48 59 66 73 11′′ 46 61 76 86 96 12′′ 56 74 92 106 120 128 137 13′′ 67 90 112 130 147 158 164 14′′ 78 105 132 153 174 187 200 15′′ 92 124 156 182 208 225 242 16′′ 106 143 180 210 241 263 285 17′′ 121 164 206 242 278 304 330 18′′ 136 184 233 274 314 344 374 19′′ 154 209 264 311 358 392 427 20′′ 171 234 296 348 401 440 480 511 542 21′′ 191 262 332 391 450 496 542 579 616 22′′ 211 290 368 434 500 552 603 647 691 23′′ 231 318 404 478 552 608 663 714 766 24′′ 251 346 441 523 605 664 723 782 840 25′′ 275 380 484 574 665 732 800 865 930 26′′ 299 414 528 626 723 801 877 949 1,021 27′′ 323 448 572 680 788 870 952 1,032 1,111 28′′ 347 482 616 733 850 938 1,027 1,114 1,201 29′′ 375 521 667 794 920 1,016 1,112 1,210 1,308 30′′ 403 560 718 854 991 1,094 1,198 1,368 1,415 31′′ 432 602 772 921 1,070 1,184 1,299 1,412 1,526 32′′ 462 644 826 988 1,149 1,274 1,400 1,518 1,637 33′′ 492 686 880 1,053 1,236 1,360 1,495 1,622 1,750 34′′ 521 728 934 1,119 1,304 1,417 1,500 1,727 1,864 35′′ 555 776 998 1,196 1,394 1,548 1,702 1,851 2,000 36′′ 589 826 1,063 1,274 1,485 1,650 1,814 1,974 2,135 37′′ 622 873 1,121 1,351 1,578 1,752 1,936 2,099 2,272 38′′ 656 921 1,186 1,428 1,670 1,854 2,038 2,224 2,410 39′′ 694 976 1,258 1,514 1,769 1,968 2,166 2,359 2,552

Gross volume of tree, International 1/4 inch rule, form class 78.

71 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 72

TANGENT CHART FOR DETERMINING THE ANGLE OF ELEVATION

Angle Angle Angle

1¡ .0175 31¡ .6009 61¡ 1.8040 2¡ .0349 32¡ .6249 62¡ 1.8807 3¡ .0524 33¡ .6494 63¡ 1.9626 4¡ .0699 34¡ .6745 64¡ 2.0503 5¡ .0875 35¡ .7002 65¡ 2.1445 6¡ .1051 36¡ .7265 66¡ 2.2460 7¡ .1228 37¡ .7536 67¡ 2.3559 8¡ .1405 38¡ .7813 68¡ 2.4751 9¡ .1584 39¡ .8098 69¡ 2.6015 10¡ .1763 40¡ .8391 70¡ 2.7415 11¡ .1944 41¡ .8093 71¡ 2.9042 12¡ .2126 42¡ .9004 72¡ 3.0777 13¡ .2309 43¡ .9325 73¡ 3.2709 14¡ .2493 44¡ .9657 74¡ 3.4874 15¡ .2679 45¡ 1 75¡ 3.7321 16¡ .2867 46¡ 1.0355 76¡ 4.0108 17¡ .3057 47¡ 1.0724 77¡ 4.3315 18¡ .3249 48¡ 1.1106 78¡ 4.7046 19¡ .3443 49¡ 1.1504 79¡ 5.1446 20¡ .3640 50¡ 1.1918 80¡ 5.6123 21¡ .3839 51¡ 1.2349 81¡ 6.3138 22¡ .4040 52¡ 1.2799 82¡ 7.1154 23¡ .4245 53¡ 1.3270 83¡ 8.1443 24¡ .4452 54¡ 1.3764 84¡ 9.5144 25¡ .4663 55¡ 1.4281 85¡ 11.4301 26¡ .4877 56¡ 1.4826 86¡ 14.3007 27¡ .5095 57¡ 1.5399 87¡ 19.0811 28¡ .5317 58¡ 1.6003 88¡ 28.6363 29¡ .5543 59¡ 1.6643 89¡ 57.2900 30¡ .5714 60¡ 1.7321 90¡ undetermined

72 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 73

1. Fold a piece of heavy A4 (cardstock) paper in half lengthwise, as shown.

2. Draw a quadrant with radius of 10 cm and center at A as shown in diagram.

3. Mark every 5 degrees around the quadrant starting at B, and label the points.

4. Carefully attach a 20 cm length of cotton string at A so that it hangs freely.

5. Tie a small weight (washer) to the end of the string.

73 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 74

Big Trees of Delaware, First Edition, 1995, Delaware Department of Agriculture Forest Service

74 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 75

TREE CONCENTRATION Ð LEAF Page 1

These are not to scale. Refer to a field guide to trees for measurements.

Primary graphics source: Iowa Project Learning Tree, Iowa DNR. Other contributors: Barbara Newlon, Jennie M. Turner.

75 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 76

TREE CONCENTRATION — LEAF Page 2

These are not to scale. Refer to a field guide to trees for measurements.

Primary graphics source: Iowa Project Learning Tree, Iowa DNR. Other contributors: Barbara Newlon, Jennie M. Turner.

76 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 77

TREE CONCENTRATION — COMMON NAME Page 1

American Atlantic White Basswood Cedar Butternut Osage Orange

49. 50. 51. 52.

American Holly White Oak Eastern Cottonwood Pin Oak

53. 54. 55. 56.

American Black Cherry White Ash White Pine Staghorn Sumac

57. 58. 59. 60.

Yellow Poplar American Chestnut Ohio Buckeye Hawthorn (Tulip Tree)

61. 62. 63. 64.

Black Oak Red Oak Black Birch Red Maple

65. 66. 67. 68.

American Hornbeam Eastern Hemlock Mountain Laurel Sassafras

69. 70. 71. 72.

77 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 78

TREE CONCENTRATION — COMMON NAME Page 2

Black Locust Sycamore Catalpa Paulownia

73. 74. 75. 76.

Black Walnut Cucumber Magnolia Eucalyptus Eastern Redbud

77. 78. 79. 80.

Virginia Pine Shagbark Hickory Hackberry American Beech

81. 82. 83. 84.

Box Elder Eastern Red Cedar Honey Locust Weeping Willow

85. 86. 87. 88.

Sugar Maple Slippery Elm Loblolly Pine Striped Maple

89. 90. 91. 92.

Choke Cherry Dogwood Norway Spruce Blackgum

93. 94. 95. 96.

78 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 79

TREE CONCENTRATION IDENTIFYING CHRACTERISTICS Page 1

Grows only in a narrow 11Ð17 leaflets; one leaflet Leaves are 4Ð7 inches coastal belt 50Ð130 is usually at the end; Leaves 3Ð5 inches long with long, heart shaped; buds miles wide, from Maine inside the twig, pith is smooth margins (edges); thorns are straight and 1/2 are red-brown to Florida, and westward dark chocolate brown and to Mississippi. is chambered. inch in length 97. 98. 99. 100. Leaves: Leaves: 5Ð7 sharply pointed Rounded lobes; 7Ð9 lobes; wide, deep sinuses Prickly, evergreen; 2Ð4 inch- lobes; acorn is mostly Small branches are white (rounded at the bottom). es. Fruit: round like a ball with a or yellow; buds are sticky; Wood: requires special red berries. Wood: ivory smooth cap leaf coarsely toothed. handling in drying; tends to white. split and check. 101. 102. 103. 104. Midrib often hairy; fringed Leaves: Smooth dark Leaves with 5 or more lobes, coarse teeth; fruit is beneath. Valuable for lumber green upper surface; pale Needles in bundles of 5, a v-shaped samara (distinctive light to dark light green to whitish 2Ð4 inches long; soft to (helicopter); under side of reddish brown color, often underside. Wood: Very the touch. has beautiful grain patterns). popular for baseball leaf is light colored. 105. 106. bats. 107. 108. Leaves: Variable in form, 7 Tallest of broad leaved trees 5 leaflets arranged like in the Eastern U. S. toothed lobes (sometimes 5) fingers on a hand; fruit Leaf margin (edge) is Leaves, 3Ð6 inches long, taper from a broad base; is a spiny, leathery seed coarsely doubly toothed; square-lobed; Flowers are rounded sinuses; glossy covering with one seed thorns not branched. yellow-green and orange, above, hairless beneath. resembling tulips. 109. 110. 111. 112. Leaves have sandpaper Leaves: 3Ð5 lobes; coarsely Pointed lobes; 7Ð11 1Ð6 inch short pointed feel; leaves 4Ð6 inches long, toothed margins; 2Ð6 inches loves; leaf is green leaves; leaves double hairy below; buds are brown; long. Fruit: paired, below; acorn cap does toothed; twigs have twigs are reddish brown and v-shaped samaras on not extend up the acorn. aromatic (wintergreen) tend to droop odor. drooping stems. 113. 114. 115. 116. Leaves: Evergreen; flat, Bark is smooth, thin, round-tipped needles and blue grey; nut is in Small tree or shrub. 1/3Ð2/3 inches long; Leaves: No lobes; 1 spike-like clusters. Leaves: 2Ð5 inches. two pale lines on lower Found mainly on lobe (like a mitten); surface. Cones: Roughly mountain and hill slopes. or 3 lobes oval, 1/2Ð3/4 117. 118. inches long. 119. 120.

Information sources: Newlon, Charles J., Dendrology Lectures, Delaware State University Important Forest Trees of the Eastern United States, USDA Forest Service Petrides, George A., Peterson Field Guides Eastern Trees

79 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 80

TREE CONCENTRATION IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS Page 2

Leaves have 3Ð5 lobes, Very large, paired, heart margins (edges) coarsely shaped leaves. Non-native 1/2 inch long spines at the toothed/fruit is a hairy ball Large leaves 8Ð12 inches, tree imported from the leaf base of seeds; bark is scaly, heart-shaped; fruit is long, Orient where the wood is leaves are very large. skinny 8Ð20 inch pod highly valued. 121. 122. 123. 124. Leaves: large 5Ð10 inches Native to Australia. long; thin; smooth edged; 15Ð23 leaflets; leaflet at Widely planted often wavy edged; egg Heart-shaped leaves 2Ð6 end is small or missing; in California. Very shaped; shiny, yellowish inches long; hairless or inside twig is chambered susceptible to fire because green on upper surface, slightly hairy beneath. and tan in color. of highly aromatic leaves paler below. and shedding bark. 125. 126. 127. 128.

5 leaflets; entire leaf 7Ð14 Leaves: Symmetrically inches long; bark smooth oval, 2 1/2Ð3 1/2 inches Elliptic (egg shaped), 2Ð3 inch needles in when young and shaggy long, sharply toothed coarsely toothed leaves; clusters of two; when older. margins. Bark has warty smooth grey bark. growths or ridges. 129. 130. 131. 132.

Leaves are dark green; Leaves: 7Ð8 inches, 3 leaflets; twigs have leaves are both awl-and pinnately and bipinnately Believed to have grown in whitish powdery coating; scale-like; cone is dark compound. Thorns: 2Ð3 the urban forest of ancient fruit is a double samara blue and berry-like. inches long, branched, Babylon. (helicopter). attached to stem and twigs. 133. 134. 135. 136. Leaves have sandpaper Leaves with 5 lobes, feel; leaves 5Ð7 inches Needles in clusters of 3; Leaves opposite, 3 long margin (edge) is smooth; long, very rough above and needles 6Ð9 inches long; pointed lobes, doubly fruit is a u-shaped samara hairy below; twigs are grey needles dull and light toothed, hairless, paler green (helicopter) and grow upwards. green. beneath. 137. 138. 139. 140. Leaf is finely toothed with Leaves 3Ð6 inches long; Sharp needles are 1/2Ð1 outward curved teeth; veins run parallel to leaf inch long; needles are Leaves: Shiny, egg shaped, leaves are thin; fruit is margin (edge); middle vein dark green; branches leathery. Bark: blocky like in red clusters; bark is contains fine strands when appear to droop; cone is alligator hide. brownish and smooth. pulled apart. 4Ð7 inches long.

141. 142. 143. 144.

Information sources: Newlon, Charles J., Dendrology Lectures, Delaware State University Important Forest Trees of the Eastern United States, USDA Forest Service Petrides, George A., Peterson Field Guides Eastern Trees

80 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 81

TREE CONCENTRATION — SCIENTIFIC NAME Page 1

Tilia americana Chamaecyparis Juglans cinerea Maclura pomifera thyoides

145. 146. 147. 148.

Ilex opaca Quercus alba Populus deltoides Quercus palustris

149. 150. 151. 152.

Prunus serotina Fraxinus americana Pinus strobus Rhus typhina

153. 154. 155. 156.

Castanea dentata Aesculus glabra Crataegus Liriodendron tulipifera

157. 158. 159. 160.

Quercus velutina Quercus rubra Betula lenta Acer rubrum

161. 162. 163. 154.

Carpinus caroliniana Tsuga canadensis Kalmia latifolia Sassafras albidum

165. 166. 167. 168.

81 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 82

TREE CONCENTRATION — SCIENTIFIC NAME Page 2

Robinia Platanus Catalpa speciosa Paulownia pseudoacacia occidentalis tomentosa

169. 170. 171. 172.

Juglans nigra Magnolia acuminata Eucalyptus globulus Cercis canadensis

173. 174. 175. 176.

Pinus virginiana Carya ovata Celtis occidentalis Fagus grandifolia

177. 178. 179. 180.

Acer negundo Juniperus virginiana Gleditsia triacanthos Salix babylonica

181. 182. 183. 184.

Acer saccharum Ulmus rubra Pinus taeda Acer pennsylvanicum

185. 186. 187. 188.

Prunus virginiana Cornus florida Picea abies Nyssa sylvatica

189. 190. 191. 192.

82 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 83

LEAF COLLECTION WORKSHEET

Common name

Scientific name

Family County, State

Site information

Collector Coll.# month/day/year

83 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 84

Botanical Collection Procedures

First a cautionary note: Poison Ivy Ð Rhus toxicodendron

Grows in the form of a shrub or a vine. A. Leaflets Three Ð Let It Be! B. Berries white-get outta’ sight! C. Vine with hairy roots in air Ð best beware!

Don’t give trees a haircut: Be thoughtful as you collect. Don’t leave an unsightly stub. Be sure it’s OK to collect from that tree.

Size of sample: Collect a section of a branch or twig with at least 5 or 6 leaves (unless one leaf fills the page) and 1 about 6 to 9 inches long for the 8 /2 by 11 inch collection sheet.

Collection list: Always assign a new consecutive collection number to each specimen you collect and record in your collection journal or notebook.

Pressing your leaf samples: Spread each sample out neatly on a single, full sheet of newspaper, turning one leaf opposite side up. Write your name, date, and collection number on each newspaper. Use the collection number you have recorded in your collection journal. Don’t write on the blotters or wood press.

Pressing sequence: Make a “Dagwood sandwich” of a ventilator (corrugated cardboard), a dryer (blotter), one to three sheets of newspaper folded over your specimen, and a ventilator, blotter and so on until you have prepared your stack of specimens for drying. Place an oak lattice top and bottom, strap the press together tightly with two straps. Let dry 3 to 4 days. Place the “press stack” on edge so that the warm air will circulate through it. Two or three days will do.

Information Source: Newlon, Charles J., Dendrology Instructional Material, Delaware State University

84 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 85

85 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 86

Source: The Woodland Steward, p. 164

86 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 87

Source: The Woodland Steward, p. 66

87 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 88

Note: This sheet is intended to be the model for the inventory sheet which the students will create based on 88 their project. Categories and factors selected would be based on the students’ project goals. chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 89

USDA Forest Service Regional Information

USDA Forest Service Natural Resource Conservation Education (NRCE) Coordinator P.O. Box 96090 Washington, DC 20090Ð6090

USDA General Information 202Ð720ÐUSDA

Regional Field Offices

NRCE Coordinator NRCE Coordinator Forest Service, USDA Forest Service, USDA Northern Region (R-1) Pacific Northwest Region (R-6) Federal Building 333 S. W. 1st Avenue P.O. Box 7669 P. O. Box 3623 Missoula, MT 59807Ð7669 Portland, OR 97208 406Ð329Ð3511 503Ð326Ð3651

NRCE Coordinator NRCE Coordinator Forest Service, USDA Forest Service, USDA Rocky Mountain Region (R-2) Southern Region (R-8) 740 Simms Street 1720 Peachtree Road, NW P.O. Box 25127 Atlanta, GA 30367 Lakewood, CO 80225 404Ð347Ð2384 302Ð275Ð5350

NRCE Coordinator NRCE Coordinator Forest Service, USDA Forest Service, USDA Southwestern Region (R-3) Eastern Region (R-9) Federal Building 310 West Wisconsin Avenue, Rm. 500 Albuquerque, NM 87102 Milwaukee, WI 53203 505Ð842Ð3292 414Ð297Ð3693

NRCE Coordinator NRCE Coordinator Forest Service, USDA Forest Service, USDA Pacific Southwest Region (R-5) Alaska Region (R-10) 630 Sansome Street P. O. Box 21628 San Francisco, CA 94111 Juneau, AK 99802Ð1628 415Ð705Ð2874 907Ð586Ð8863

89 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 90

DENSITY OF TREES AND HEAT PRODUCED

An air-dried cord of these woods produces the equivalent in heat of anywhere from 121 gallons of fuel oil for fir, up to 219 gallons for hickory. Species Relative Density BTU/Cord HARDWOODS Shagbark Hickory .72 32,800,000 Black Locust .69 31,400,000 White Oak .68 31,000,000 Bitternut Hickory .66 30,000,000 Chestnut Oak .66 30,000,000 American Beech .64 29,100,000 Laurel Oak .63 28,700,000 Northern Red Oak .63 28,700,000 Rock Elm .63 28,700,000 Sugar Maple .63 28,700,000 Yellow Birch .62 28,200,000 White Ash .60 27,300,000 Southern Red Oak .59 26,900,000 Black Walnut .55 25,000,000 Oregon Ash .55 25,000,000 White Birch .55 25,000,000 Black Tupelo .50 22,800,000 American Sycamore .49 22,300,000 Silver Maple .47 21,400,000 Sassafras .46 21,000,000 Yellow Poplar .42 19,000,000 Red Alder .41 18,600,000 Eastern Cottonwood .40 18,200,000 Black Willow .39 17,800,000 Quaking Aspen .38 17,300,000

SOFTWOODS Tamarack .53 24,100,000 Western Larch .52 23,700,000 Douglas-Fir .48 21,900,000 Bald Cypress .46 21,000,000 Red Pine .46 21,000,000 Hemlock .45 20,500,000 Cedar .44 20,000,000 Fir .43 19,600,000 Pine .41 18,600,000 Spruce .40 18,200,000

Source: “Firewood: How and What to Buy,” in Back Home, Fall 1992, p. 62 90 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 97

National Science Education Standards

TOOLS USED IN FORESTRY

Content Standards Unifying concepts and processes in science. *Systems, order, and organization. *Evidence, models, and explanation. *Change, constancy and measurement. Science as Inquiry. *Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry. *Understanding about scientific inquiry. Physical Science. *Properties and changes of properties in matter. *Motions and forces. Life Science. *Structure and function in living systems. Science and Technology. *Abilities of technological design. *Understanding about science and technology. Science in Personal and Social Perspectives. *Science and technology in society. *Science and technology in local, national, and global challenges. History and Nature of Science Standards. *Science as a human endeavor. *Nature of scientific knowledge. *Historical perspectives.

Assessment Standards Assessment Standard A Assessments must be consistent with the decisions they are designed to inform. *Assessments are deliberately designed. *Assessments have explicitly stated purposes. *The relationship between the decisions and the data is clear. *Assessment procedures are internally consistent. Assessment Standard B Achievement and opportunity to learn science must be assessed. *Achievement data collected focus on the science content that is most important for students to learn. *Opportunity-to-learn data collected focus on the most powerful indicators. *Equal attention must be given to the assessment of opportunity to learn and the assessment of student achievement.

97 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 98

Assessment Standard C The technical quality of the data collected is well matched to the decisions and actions taken on the basis of their interpretation. *The feature that is claimed to be measured is actually measured. *Assessment tasks are authentic. *An individual student’s performance is similar on two or more tasks that claim to measure the same aspect of student achievement. *Students have adequate opportunity to demonstrate their achievements. *Assessment tasks and methods of presenting them provide data that are sufficiently stable to lead to the same decisions if used at different times. Assessment Standard D Assessment practices must be fair. *Assessment tasks must be set in a variety of contexts, be engaging to students with different interests and experiences, and must not assume the perspective or experience of a particular gender, racial, or ethnic group. Assessment Standard E The inferences made from assessments about student achievement and opportunity to learn must be sound. *When making inferences from assessment data about student achievement and opportunity to learn science, explicit reference needs to be made to the assumptions on which the inferences are based.

TREE IDENTIFICATION Content Standards Unifying concepts and processes in science. *Systems, order, and organization. *Evidence, models, and explanation. *Change, constancy and measurement. Science as Inquiry. *Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry. *Understanding about scientific inquiry. Physical Science Standards. *Properties and changes of properties in matter. Life Science Standards. *Structure and function in living systems. *Populations and ecosystems *Diversity and adaptations of organisms *Interdependence of organisms *Matter, energy, and organization in living systems Science in Personal and Social Perspectives. *Science and technology in society. *Science and technology in local, national, and global challenges.

98 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 99

History and Nature of Science Standards. *Science as a human endeavor. *Nature of scientific knowledge. *Historical perspectives.

Assessment Standards Assessment Standard A Assessments must be consistent with the decisions they are designed to inform. *Assessments are deliberately designed. *Assessments have explicitly stated purposes. *The relationship between the decisions and the data is clear. *Assessment procedures are internally consistent. Assessment Standard B Achievement and opportunity to learn science must be assessed. *Achievement data collected focus on the science content that is most important for students to learn. *Opportunity-to-learn data collected focus on the most powerful indicators. *Equal attention must be given to the assessment of opportunity to learn and the assessment of student achievement. Assessment Standard C The technical quality of the data collected is well matched to the decisions and actions taken on the basis of their interpretation. *The feature that is claimed to be measured is actually measured. *Assessment tasks are authentic. *An individual student’s performance is similar on two or more tasks that claim to measure the same aspect of student achievement. *Students have adequate opportunity to demonstrate their achievements. *Assessment tasks and methods of presenting them provide data that are sufficiently stable to lead to the same decisions if used at different times. Assessment Standard D Assessment practices must be fair. *Assessment tasks must be set in a variety of contexts, be engaging to students with different interests and experiences, and must not assume the perspective or experience of a particular gender, racial, or ethnic group. Assessment Standard E The inferences made from assessments about student achievement and opportunity to learn must be sound. *When making inferences from assessment data about student achievement and the opportunity to learn science, explicit reference needs to be made to the assumptions on which the inferences are based.

99 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 100

FOREST MANAGEMENT Content Standards Unifying concepts and processes in science. *Systems, order, and organization. *Evidence, models, and explanation. *Change, constancy and measurement. *Evolution and equilibrium. Science as Inquiry. *Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry. *Understanding about scientific inquiry. Physical Science Standards. *Properties and changes of properties in matter. Life Science Standards. *Structure and function in living systems. *Populations and ecosystems. *Diversity and adaptations of organisms. *Interdependence of organisms. *Matter, energy, and organization in living systems. Science in Personal and Social Perspectives. *Science and technology in society. *Science and technology in local, national, and global challenges. History and Nature of Science Standards. *Science as a human endeavor. *Nature of scientific knowledge. *Historical perspectives.

Assessment Standards Assessment Standard A Assessments must be consistent with the decisions they are designed to inform. *Assessments are deliberately designed. *Assessments have explicitly stated purposes. *The relationship between the decisions and the data is clear. *Assessment procedures are internally consistent. Assessment Standard B Achievement and opportunity to learn science must be assessed. *Achievement data collected focus on the science content that is most important for students to learn. *Opportunity-to-learn data collected focus on the most powerful indicators. *Equal attention must be given to the assessment of opportunity to learn and the assessment of student achievement. Assessment Standard C The technical quality of the data collected is well matched to the decisions and actions taken on the basis of their interpretation. *The feature that is claimed to be measured is actually measured. *Assessment tasks are authentic.

100 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 101

*An individual student’s performance is similar on two or more tasks that claim to measure the same aspect of student achievement. *Students have adequate opportunity to demonstrate their achievements. *Assessment tasks and methods of presenting them provide data that are sufficiently stable to lead to the same decisions if used at different times. Assessment Standard D Assessment practices must be fair. *Assessment tasks must be set in a variety of contexts, be engaging to students with dif- ferent interests and experiences, and must not assume the perspective or experience of a particular gender, racial, or ethnic group. Assessment Standard E The inferences made from assessments about student achievement and opportunity to learn must be sound. *When making inferences from assessment data about student achievement and opportuni- ty to learn science, explicit reference needs to be made to the assumptions on which the inferences are based.

FROM TREES TO LUMBER AND FUEL

Content Standards Unifying concepts and processes in science. *Systems, order, and organization. *Evidence, models, and explanation. *Change, constancy and measurement. *Form and Function. Science as Inquiry. *Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry. *Understanding about scientific inquiry. Physical Science Standards. *Properties and changes of properties in matter. *Motions and forces. Life Science Standards. *Structure and function in living systems. Science and Technology Standards. *Abilities of technological design. *Understanding about science and technology. Science in Personal and Social Perspectives. *Science and technology in society. *Science and technology in local, national, and global challenges. *Natural hazards. *Risks and benefits. *Environmental quality. *Natural and human-induced hazards.

101 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 102

History and Nature of Science Standards. *Science as a human endeavor. *Nature of scientific knowledge. *Historical perspectives.

Assessment Standards Assessment Standard A Assessments must be consistent with the decisions they are designed to inform. *Assessments are deliberately designed. *Assessments have explicitly stated purposes. *The relationship between the decisions and the data is clear. *Assessment procedures are internally consistent.

Assessment Standard B Achievement and opportunity to learn science must be assessed. *Achievement data collected focus on the science content that is most important for students to learn. *Opportunity-to-learn data collected focus on the most powerful indicators. *Equal attention must be given to the assessment of opportunity to learn and the assessment of student achievement.

Assessment Standard C The technical quality of the data collected is well matched to the decisions and actions taken on the basis of their interpretation. *The feature that is claimed to be measured is actually measured. *Assessment tasks are authentic. *An individual student’s performance is similar on two or more tasks that claim to measure the same aspect of student achievement. *Students have adequate opportunity to demonstrate their achievements. *Assessment tasks and methods of presenting them provide data that are sufficiently stable to lead to the same decisions if used at different times.

Assessment Standard D Assessment practices must be fair. *Assessment tasks must be set in a variety of contexts, be engaging to students with different interests and experiences, and must not assume the perspective or experience of a particular gender, racial, or ethnic group.

102 chapter 8/27/56 9:34 AM Page 103

Assessment Standard E The inferences made from assessments about student achievement and opportunity to learn must be sound. *When making inferences from assessment data about student achievement and opportunity to learn science, explicit reference needs to be made to the assumptions on which the inferences are based.

National Science Research Council, National Science Education Standards, National Academy Press, Washington, DC. 1996.

103