TRANSGOVERNMENTAL NETWORKS AS A TOOL TO COMBAT TERRORISM: HOW ICE ATTACHÉS OPERATE OVESEAS TO COMBAT TERRORIST TRAVEL By KEITH COZINE A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-Newark Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Global Affairs written under the direction of Dr. Norman Samuels Ph.D: Professor and Provost Emeritus and approved by Newark, New Jersey January 2010 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION TRANSGOVERNMENTAL NETWORKS AS A TOOL TO COMBAT TERRORISM: HOW ICE ATTACHÉS OPERATE OVESEAS TO COMBAT TERRORIST TRAVEL By KEITH COZINE Dissertation Director: Dr. Norman Samuels Ph.D.: Professor and Provost Emeritus Globalization has led to a shift in the perceived threat to security from states to trans- border issues such as financial collapse, global warming, pandemics and threats from a variety of non-state actors. As a result of the terrorist attacks on New York, Bali, Madrid, London and Mumbai; international terrorism has become one of the most highly visible of these new threats. One mechanism of global governance employed to combat this threat is the use of transgovernmental networks comprised of government officials from various nations, forming both formal and informal global networks that reach out to their foreign counterparts. These networks are the foundation of a strategy of confronting “networks of terror with networks against terror.” This research seeks to understand how these networks operate to achieve their mission. The literature relating to transgovernmental networks and transnational advocacy networks (TANs) suggests that these two network types share numerous characteristics. These similarities led to the development of the hypothesis that transgovernmental networks operate to accomplish their missions in much the same way as TANs operate. To test this hypothesis, a single case study design was utilized to examine how one agency, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), utilizes its officers assigned to foreign jurisdictions as part of a transgovernmental network to combat terrorist travel. The research revealed that these officers are not only part of a transgovernmental network that operates to prevent terrorist travel, as well as other transnational crimes, in much the same way as TANs, but also mirrors the structure of the terrorist networks they are charged with combating. Furthermore, a foundation has been laid for continued investigative research of transgovernmental networks; while providing a potential blue print for a strategy of combating threats to global security with networks of government officials that are as fluid and effective as the groups that are posing these threats. ii Preface On September 11, 2001, I was working as an inspector for U.S Immigration and Naturalization Service at Newark International Airport. That morning, I was assigned to the International Arrivals Area of Terminal B. The far wall of the terminal was made up of large windows that overlooked the runways and beyond that, the New York skyline. It was through those windows and the various television monitors that were scattered throughout the area that I watched in disbelief with my fellow inspectors, airline representatives and passengers, who arrived to the United States just moments earlier, as the events of that morning unfolded and the New York skyline changed forever. In the months that followed, as more details about the attacks and those who carried them emerged, my emotions changed from shock and anger to a sense of failure and guilt. As an Immigration Inspector, I was entrusted to protect the citizens of the United States from individuals like those terrorists who had carried out the September 11 attacks and I had failed. These emotions created these need for me to understand how these terrorists were able to enter the United States and what steps could be taken to prevent others like them from gaining entry into the United States in the future. My original inquires into the topic were informal but rather than satisfying my appetite, it left me wanting more. I knew I had to pursue my quest for knowledge in a more formal manner. When I completed my Master’s degree in 1998, I had planned to return to school to complete a doctorate as some point. What I lacked was both the opportunity and the motivations. Now I had the motivation and in 2004, Rutgers University provided me the iii opportunity. While studying within the Rutgers’s Division of Global Affairs, I quickly learned that terrorism was far from the only security threat facing the world. Those threats that existed during the cold war remained and were now compounded by new threats such as; violent and criminal non-state actors, global warming, financial collapse and pandemics. I also discovered that these new threats were not just dealt with through traditional means of international relations between states, but rather a wide array of tools of global governance. As a government official who regularly interacted with officials from other nations, it was the governance mechanism of transgovernmental networks that I identified with most, and, despite the various other threats to security, terrorism as remained my primary interest. It is the merging of these two interests that has led to this dissertation. Despite my name appearing on the title page, I am far from the only contributor to this project. Over the past five plus years I have had the pleasure of working with and studying with some wonderful people. Through their support, their knowledge, expertise or their encouragement, they too have made significant contributions to this dissertation. In pursuit of my research special recognition needs to be given to both current and former members of Rutgers University’s Division of Global Affairs. Dr. Rey Koslowski, who served as my faculty advisor and mentor when I first return to Rutgers in 2004, whose knowledge in the areas of immigration, governance and border security was the foundation on which I built my studies. My dissertation advisor, Dr. Norman Samuels, whose knowledge in the areas of terrorism and intelligence were invaluable; and who was able to guide me through storms while helping me stay focused towards my goal. My dissertation committee; Dr Yale H. Ferguson, Dr. Leslie Kennedy and Prof. Richard iv Langhorne, whose guidance and knowledge have not only contributed to this dissertation, but have made immeasurable contributions to their fields as well. Professionally, there are countless people from U.S. Customs and Border Protection, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, and officials from various foreign agencies that have contributed to this dissertation in some small way. There are others without whose help this dissertation would have never been written. Dr John E. Thompson, District Director with U.S Citizenship and Immigration Service; who provided me the opportunity and the encouragement to return to school. George Pasiakos, my friend and colleague; whose passion for researching terrorism always added fuel to my fire. Doulas Henkel, Assistant Field Office Director of ICE’s Newark Field Office; who has assisted me in my scholarly pursuits for over a decade and half long. Raymond R. Parmer, Director of ICE’s Office of International Affair; for not only allowing his officers to participate, but also assisting in the data collection. Finally, the ICE attachés stationed around the global; without their participation this research could not have occurred. In my personal life there are many people, including my friends and family, who have also contributed to this dissertation. Special thanks go out to my parents, Michael and Louise Cozine, who instilled in me a love of learning. My beautiful wife Nancy, without whose love and support none of this would be possible. Finally, to my dear friend and colleague Patrizia “Pat” Sandri-Thomson; who was the former Migration Integrity Officer at the Consulate General of Canada in New York. She was taken from this world much too soon but not before she touched every life she encountered. She v taught me more could be accomplished with a smile and a kind word then ever could with a badge and a gun. She was the inspiration for this dissertation. vi Dedication For Nancy, Jack and Delaney, you are a constant reminder of what is really important. vii Table of Contents PREFACE: iii INTRODUCTION: 1 CHAPTER ONE: A WORLD OF NETWORKS 15 CHAPTER TWO: TERRORIST TRAVEL METHODS 60 CHAPTER THREE: INTERNATIONAL BORDERS AFTER 9/11 98 CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS 133 CHAPTER FIVE: RESEARCH RESULTS 161 CHAPTER SIX: DATA ANALYSIS 195 CONCLUSION 215 BIBLIOGRAPHY 230 APPENDICES 239 viii 1 INTRODUCTION: Since the Treaties of Westphalia marked the birth pangs of the state system, the primary perceived security threat to states has come from other states. With globalization, this security threat has shifted from states to trans-border issues such as financial collapse and global warming, pandemics and threats from a variety of non-state actors. The barriers lifted by the end of the Cold War and the openness of globalization has created an environment in which the illegal trade of drugs, arms, intellectual property rights and money is booming, and has allowed for terrorist organizations to operate globally as well. Governments, in an attempt to control these illicit markets and harmful organizations, are pitted not against the armies and navies of another nations, but stateless and resourceful networks that have no central government that can be engaged (Naim 2003: 29). As a result of the attacks on New York, Bali, Madrid, London and Mumbai, international terrorism has become a highly visible new threat. The Threat of Non-state Actors to Security The globalized world seems to continually shrink to a point where time and space are less and less important. Advancement and innovation in shipping allow for goods to be loaded onto ships, cross vast oceans, and then be unloaded and delivered to markets in days.