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Prevalence and Factors Associated with Smoking Intentions Among DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7314/APJCP.2014.15.10.4359 Factors Associated with Smoking Intentions among Non-smoking and Smoking Adolescents in Malaysia RESEARCH ARTICLE Prevalence and Factors Associated with Smoking Intentions among Non-smoking and Smoking Adolescents in Kota Tinggi, Johor, Malaysia Lim Kuang Hock1*, Sumarni Mohamad Ghazali2, Kee Chee Cheong2, Lim Kuang Kuay1, Lim Hui Li2, Teh Chien Huey1, Chan Ying Ying1, Yeo Lay Yen1, Fiona Goh Swee Ching3, Khoo Yi Yi1, Chong Zhuo Lin1, Normala Ibrahim4, Amal Nasir Mustafa2 Abstract Intention to smoke is a valid and reliable factor for predicting future smoking habits among adolescents. This factor, however, has received inadequate attention in Malaysia. The present paper elaborates the prevalence and factors associated with intent to initiate or to cease smoking, among adolescent nonsmokers and smokers in Kota Tinggi, Johor, Malaysia. A total of 2,300 secondary school students aged 13-16 years were selected through a two-stage stratified sampling method. A set of standardized questionnaires was used to assess the smoking behavior among adolescents and the inter-personal and intra-personal factors associated with smoking intention (intention to initiate smoking or to cease smoking). Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify factors related to smoking intention. The prevalence of intention to smoke in the future or to cease smoking among non- smoking adolescents and current smokers were 10.7% and 61.7% respectively. Having friends who smoke, social influence, and poor knowledge about the ill effects on health due to smoking showed significant relationships with intention to smoke in the future among non-smokers. Conversely, perceived lower prevalence of smoking among peers, weak contributory social influence, and greater awareness of the ill effects of smoking are factors associated with the intention to cease smoking sometime in the future. The study found that prevalence of intention to initiate smoking is low among non-smokers while the majority of current smokers intended to cease smoking in the future. Existing anti-smoking programmes that integrate the factors that have been identified in the current study should be put in motion to reduce the prevalence of intention to initiate smoking and increase the intention to cease smoking among adolescents. Keywords: Intention to smoke - adolescents - interpersonal - intrapersonal Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, 15 (10), 4359-4366 Introduction observed in the last 10 years (Institute of Public Health, 1997; 2008). The adverse effects of smoking on health, the national Smoking is a learned behavior and initiated during economy and society in general, have resulted in numerous adolescence (USDHHS, 2014), and an individual who efforts being undertaken by Malaysian authorities to does not initiate smoking during adolescence is found to try to reduce significantly the prevalence of smoking be less likely to initiate smoking during adulthood. The while ensuring that ailments associated with smoking earlier an individual initiates smoking, the more likely is no longer a public health concern by the year 2020 he or she will become a heavy smoker as an adult, and (Norsiah, 2013). Ample resources including finance have less likely to quit smoking (Reidpath et al., 2014), as well been specially allocated to fight the smoking menace as having an increased risk to develop smoking related over the last few decades. Despite all these efforts, the disease such as lung cancer. Reducing smoking Initiation smoking prevalence among adults and adolescents in among non-smokers and increasing cessation rate among Malaysia remains relatively high-almost half of men aged smokers have been identified as some of the measures that 18 and above, and one third of adolescents, still smoke could curb the smoking menace among Malaysians. (Manimaran, 2003; Institute of Public Health, 2008). Only Human behavioural theories such as the Theory of a negligible declining rate in smoking prevalence has been Reasoned Action (Fishbein and Azjen, 1975) and the 1Institute of Public Health, 2Institutes for Medical Research, Kuala Lumpur, 3Faculty of Health life Sciences, Management and Science University, Selangor, 4Psychiatric Department, University Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia *For correspondence: [email protected] Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, Vol 15, 2014 4359 DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7314/APJCP.2014.15.10.4359 Lim Kuang Hock et al Factors Associated with Smoking Intentions among Non-smoking and Smoking Adolescents in Malaysia Theory of Planned Behavior (Azjen and Madden, 1986) was responsible for the initiation, preparation of study posit that behavior intent (intention) preceded the actual proposal, design and the instruments used in the study. behavior. In some cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, PKD Kota Tinggi was responsible for coordinating it had been proved as a valid and reliable predictor of actual the activities of data collection. Data collection was behavior later in life, and this includes the smoking habit carried out by the Principal Investigator, trained research or smoking cessation (Conrad et al., 1992; Eckhardt et al., assistant and Public Health Nurses. The study protocol 1994; Engel et al., 1999; Wakefield et al., 2004; Olds et al., was approved by the Ministry of Education of Malaysia 2005). The validity of this concept has led researchers to and Johor State Education Department. The Malaysia conduct further studies to identify the factors associated Research Ethical Committee of Ministry of Health granted with smoking intent and intention to quit smoking. This permission to conduct the study. is to ensure that appropriate formulation of steps and actions are taken in order to prevent smoking intent or to Sampling encourage smoking cessation among adolescent smokers. Two-stage stratified sampling was used to select Several studies reported factors such as smoking the sample for this study. The first stratum consisted of behavior among the significant others, that is, either a classification of schools according to Urban, Rural and brother or father who smoked or having best friends who FELDA areas. 10 schools were selected: six from Felda, smoked (Victoria et al., 2011; Mohammadpoorosi et al., three Urban, and one Rural; the number of schools selected 2012), produced a positive social perception towards from each stratum was proportionate to the total number smoking. Perceived high prevalence of smoking among of schools in each stratum. The second stage involved peers and poor knowledge about the health effects of the selection of students using simple random sampling smoking were also significantly associated with smoking from each selected school using a software “Digenerate intention among non-smoker adolescents (Sen and epi- info 6” from a list of names provided by the school Basu 2000; Halpern-Flesher 2004; Brown et al., 2010). administration. The number of students selected from each Similarly, having a positive perception of the smoking school was proportionate to the enrolment of each school. habit, the perception that positive effects can result from A total of 2700 students (Form 1, 2 and 4) were ontained smoking was reported to be associated with the intention from a pilot study and selected based on the prevalence to smoke within the population (Sen and Basu, 2000; of 3.5% for Form 1 (13 year olds), Form 2 (14 year olds), Halpern-Flesher, 2004; Tyc et al., 2004; Brown et al., and 6% for Form 4 (16 year olds. A maximum tolerable 2010). On the other hand, having a negative perception of error of 3% with design effect of 0.67 and assumed intra- smoking being aware that people smoked fewer cigarettes class correlation coefficient of 0.5 was used. The average (Wong et al., 2012), being male (Wong et al., 2012), proportion of students per strata was 0,33 and 30% of having parents who were non-smokers (Wong et al., 2012), non-response rate were considered in order to generate and having the perception of lower social acceptability the estimated sample size. of tobacco users and the potential hazardous effects of tobacco use (Savvides et al., 2014) were associated with Study instrument the future intention to cease smoking among current A set of validated questionnaire adopted from Hanjeet smokers. et al. (2001) and Lim et al. (2006) was used in the present The existing literatures on this aspect are abundant and study. It was pre-tested among Forms 1, 2 and Form 4 frequently reported in developed countries, but they refer students from three secondary schools in Kota Tinggi to only specific ethnic groups. Socio-cultural differences, district from the respective urban, rural and FELDA however, between Malaysia and these developed countries areas, who were subsequently excluded from the sampling may result in some findings that may not be relevant to frame. Minor amendments were done to the questionnaire the Malaysian context. In addition, local researches in based on the finding from the pilot study. The dependent this important aspect of smoking behaviour are scarce variables in this study were “Intention to initiate smoke” despite many reports dealing mainly on the prevalence and “Intention to quit smoking”. These variables were and associated psycho-social factors of smoking habits assessed using a question “Do you intend to smoke in among adolescents. In the light of this, a local study may the future?”; this was answered only by non-smokers, i.e. help to bridge this existing knowledge gap, Therefore, it those who did not smoke in the previous 30 days, with was the aim of the study to determine the prevalence and ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ options. Respondents who were current factors associated with smoking intention and intent to quit smokers, i.e. those who smoked in the previous 30 days smoking among adolescents who were either non-smokers were asked, “Do you intend to quit smoking in the future?” or current smokers in Kota Tinggi, Johor, Malaysia. with similar response options. Those who answered ‘Yes’ were categorized as having ‘Intention to initiate smoking’ Materials and Methods or ‘Intention to cease smoking’ in the future based on the relevant questions.
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