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The Global Industrial Metabolism of E- Waste Trade a Marxian Ecological Economics Approach

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The Global Industrial Metabolism of E- Waste Trade a Marxian Ecological Economics Approach The Global Industrial Metabolism of E- Waste Trade A Marxian Ecological Economics Approach Davor Mujezinovic Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Sociology Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Lancaster University October 2020 Table of Contents Acknowledgment…………………………………………………….……………vii Figures, Tables and Diagrams ……………………………………………………viii Preface ……………………………………………..................................................1 Part 1: Introduction and Background Chapter 1: An Introduction to Informal E-waste Recycling 1. Why study e-waste? …………………………………………………………………………….7 1.1 A brief overview of the e-waste problem ……………………………….………9 2. Composition of WEEE ………………………..……………….................................................11 3. Approaches to studying e-waste - a brief overview ……………………………………….…...15 3.1 Metabolic studies ……………………………………………………………….…………….15 3.2 World systems theory and unequal exchange …….…………………………....18 3.3 Discard studies …………………………………………………………………19 Chapter 2: Theory and Practice 1. Theory: The Materialist Dialectic as a Method of Scientific Inquiry in Studies of Social Metabolism and Socio-Natural Interaction…………………………….24 1.1. Introduction …………..……………………………………………………….25 1.2. Dialectics and the relation between social and natural sciences…27 1.3. Totality and analytical separation in dialectical models ……………………….30 1.4. Dialectics and systems science ………………………………………………...31 1.5. Critical Realism ……………………………………………………………….33 2. Theory to Practice: MFA and micro-ethnography ……………………………………………...37 2.1. Socially embedded MFA and the industrial ecology of e-waste ……………….37 2.1.1. A brief note on energy and labour ……..……………………...39 2.2. MFA and Dialectics ……………………………………………..…………….39 2.3. Marxism, ethnography, micro-ethnography ………………………………..….42 3. Practice: Approaches, Issues and Documentation …………………..…………………………44 3.1. Qualitative Data …………………………………………………………….…44 3.2. Quantitative data and secondary data analysis ……………………………..…46 3.3. On-Site Situations and Access Issues ………………………………………….48 3.3.1 Agbogbloshie ………………………………………………….48 3.3.2 Guiyu ………………………………………………………….50 4. List of people interviewed ………………………………………………………….………….53 iii Chapter 3: The Global Flow of E-waste 1. Global e-waste generation and flows ………………………………………………….………58 2. The counter-narrative on flows …………………………………………………….…….…….61 2.1. Lepawsky’s foundational work ……………………………………………..…61 2.2. Analysis of Lepawsky’s empirical work …………………………………...….62 2.3. Towards a world-systems view …………………………………………..……68 2.4. Conclusions on Lepawsky …………………………………………………….70 3. Hidden flows: illegal shipments ……………………………………………………………..…72 3.1. Illegal shipments from Europe …………………………………………..…….72 3.2. Illegal shipments from the USA ………………………………………………76 3.3. Illegal shipments from Sweden ………………………..………………………77 3.2.1. Possible causes …………………………………….………….81 4. Conclusions on flows ……………………………………………………………….………….82 Chapter 4: E-waste in Ghana and China 1. The flows of e-waste and issues with estimations …………………………………..……….…90 1.1. Overview of imports into Ghana …………………………………….………...90 1.2. Flows of e-waste into Ghana …………………………………………..………93 1.3. Imports into China/Hong Kong ……………………………………................100 2. Illegal shipments into Nigeria ………………………………………………………...………105 3. A final note on flows and narratives ……………………………..……………………………108 Part 2: Case-studies Chapter 5: The Situation in Ghana and Agbogbloshie 1. Agbogbloshie’s beginnings ……………………………………………………..…………….117 2. At the ports ………………………………………………………………………….………...119 3. Legal and technical framework ……………………………………………………..………...121 4. The new facility ……………………………………………………………………...……….125 4.1 Green Advocacy Ghana: a way to sustainable recycling? …………..………...127 5. Conclusions …………………………………………………………………………………..130 Chapter 6: Conditions of the Working Class in Agbogbloshie 1. Living and working in Agbogbloshie ……………………………………………………..…..136 1.1. Living conditions ……………………………………………………….…....144 2. The Old Fadama slum ………………………………………………………………..……….149 3. Second-hand markets ……………….………………………………………………...………151 4. Conclusions ……………………………………………………………………………….….155 Chapter 7: Conditions of the Working Class in Guiyu 1. The situation at Guiyu ……………………………………………………………...…………169 1.1. The early history of e-waste recycling in Guiyu ……………………………...169 1.2. Government intervention and the Industrial Park …………………………….171 2. Living and working in Guiyu ………………………………………………………………....172 2.1. The city of Guiyu ……………………………………………………….……175 iv 2.2. The Industrial Park ……………………………………………………...……178 2.3. The Longgang District …………………………………………………….…183 3. Conclusions ……………………………………………………………………………..……185 Chapter 8: E-waste Contaminants and Health Impact of Recycling Work 1. Health impact at Agbogbloshie ……………………………………………………..………...191 2. Findings of Chinese studies …………………………………………………………..………194 3. Final comments …………………………………………………………………………...….198 Chapter 9: E-waste Handled Right? The Case of Sweden 1. The Swedish legal framework ………………………………………………..……………….203 2. Swedish recycling and refurbishing in practice ……………………………………….………206 3. Final remarks …………………………………………………………………………………209 Part 3: Analysis of the Case-studies Chapter 10: The Limits of Regulations: Lessons from Sweden And Guiyu 1. Further reflections on Guiyu …………………………………………………………….…....213 2. Lessons from Sweden ……………………………………………………….……………..…216 Chapter 11: The Social Embedding of E-waste Flows: A Marxist Perspective 1. E-waste flows, cars and second-hand goods ……………………………...………….……….223 1.1 The disagreement on flows of second-hand electronics …………………...….225 2. The ‘unequal exchange’ and ‘maker-spaces’ of Agbogbloshie: a Marxist response ……….….227 2.1. A historical materialist perspective on violence ……………………………...229 Chapter 12: A Historical Materialist Account of Agbogbloshie 1. A Marxist view on the establishment of Agbogbloshie ……………………….………………234 1.1. The traditional structure at Agbogbloshie …………………………………....237 1.2. Why Agbogbloshie? ……………………………………………………….…241 2. The Agbogbloshie ‘working class’? …………………………………………………….……242 2.1. Health, livelihood and the fishing industry ……………………………...……247 3. The “Hour of the Machine” ………………………………………………………………..…249 3.1. The development of scrap-sites ………………………………………………249 3.2. A final note on class relations at Guiyu and Agbogbloshie …………….……255 Part 4: The Political Economy of E-waste Chapter 13: Towards A Marxist Ecological Economics 1. Idealist and materialist concepts of the natural world …………………..…………………….263 2. The materialist dialectic and ecological economics …………………………...……………...265 3. Recycling in the framework of ecological economics ………………………………………...270 v Chapter 14: E-waste in the World-system and unequal ecological exchange 1. Unequal ecological exchange in the world system ……………………………………………279 1.1. ‘Dark value’ and unequal exchange as anti-wealth …………………………...282 2. Unequal entropic exchange …………………………………………………………..……….287 3. Use-value and class conflict: approaches to unequal ecological exchange ……………..……291 Chapter 15: Value-theory and the Ecomarxist Approach 1. Nature, labour and exchange value …………………………………………………………...298 2. Alienation, value and the Ecological Rift …………………………………………………..…302 2.1. Alienation in the Ecomarxist project …………………………………………302 2.2. Towards a socio-metabolic value theory …………………………………..…305 Chapter 16: Closing Reflections 1. Reflections on the project …………………………………………………………………….311 2. A commentary on social metabolic research …………………………………………….……315 2.1. Different approaches to social metabolic research ………………………...…315 2.2. The use of material flow analysis ………………………………………….…316 3. The underlying philosophy of social scientific research and the methodological goals of the project ……………………………………………………….…318 3.1. The process of combining approaches …………………………………….....318 3.2. Justifying the Marxian approach …………………………………………..…320 3.3. Facing and overcoming a lack of data …………………………………..……322 4. Various lessons from the research ………………………………………………………….…324 4.1. Where is the rest of Marx? Avenues for future research ………………..……324 4.1.1. Varieties of capitalism vs variegated capitalism ………..……326 4.2. The role of traditional society – what Marx missed ……………………….…327 4.3. The developmental path of e-waste recycling industries ……………….……331 5. E-waste & the Law of Value ……………………………………………………………..……332 5.1. Labour theory of value, or value theory of labour? ………………………...…333 5.2. The meaning of the law of value ………………………………………..……335 5.3. How e-waste illuminates the global metabolic rift ……………………..……336 Afterword: Humanism = Naturalism ……………………………………….…….342 Appendix 1 ………………………………………………………………….……345 vi Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without a great deal of help from a great many people, all of whom I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to. In no particular order, I am grateful to: Professor Uta Papen and Dr Benjamin Neimark for assistance with ethics concerns, Dr Dennis Zuev for advice and information on Guiyu, Jinghan Wang and Mingzhen Wu for help with settling in the South China Agricultural University, the Joint Institute of Environmental Research & Education (JIE) at SCAU, Jiambin Deng (John) at the SCAU for help with translation, travel assistance and everything else, Kevin Stairs of Greenpeace for information on their e-waste work, Óðinn the Alföðr who is wisest of the gods, Torsten Kjellgren of IT For Children and Mr James Turing of the Turing Trust for information on their work with 'bridging the digital divide', Dr Claire Waterton for being on
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