Beatrix Hauser University o f Frankfurt/Main From Oral Tradition to “Folk Art” Reevaluating Bengali Scroll Paintings Abstract This article contributes to the scholarship on the politics of production and consump­ tion of the arts in modern India as well as to relating issues of aesthetics and develop­ ment. It describes the tradition of scroll painters— Patuas (patuya)— and the practice of storytelling in contemporary West Bengal, where a small number of picture showmen who follow this caste-based occupation can still be found. In this article the process by which this tradition was recognized as “folk art” is analyzed and a shift of genre from a primarily oral tradition to a primarily visual tradition (i.e., from the performance of scrolls to their selling as art products) is demonstrated. It is argued that “Patua art,” as it is perceived today, is a quite recent phenomenon, generated to a great extent by the urban intellectual elite of Calcutta. Keywords: Storytelling— scroll painting— folk art— politics of authenticity— Bengal Asian Folklore Studies, Volume 61，2002: 105—122 HOULD YOU COME to Calcutta one day, you might be invited to the house of a Bengali family. And while you are in their house, a Patua Smight happen to call in. Your host will introduce him as a atradition­ al scroll painter，” who comes by from time to time to sell his scrolls. He will ask you whether you are interested in seeing his paintings. Okay, why not? Both of you go out on the veranda, where the old man is already waiting for you. He squats on the floor, opens his bundle, and starts to unwind a scroll. Divided into a series of framed pictures, the scroll narrates the story of Behula. The old man starts singing the corresponding rhymes in a rather monotonous melody. Keeping pace with the story, he unfolds the pictures one by one. The recitation lasts for about ten minutes. Then the Patua pres­ ents all the other scrolls in his bundle. The paintings are in bright, intense colors; figures are outlined dramatically in black; trees, buildings, elemen­ tary details are depicted in a schematic fashion. By this time you will have already chosen your favorite scroll. You ask your host to inquire about the price. The bargaining begins. Soon both men are arguing quite loudly. Your host explains that the Patua is demanding an “enormous” amount of money, taking into account the presence of a foreigner. Finally, the painter goes down with his demands, and you purchase the scroll for a ridiculously low price. The Patua leaves grumbling. You and your host go back into the house and have tea. Then he shows you around and points out all the different kinds of Bengali folk art he has collected and displayed in his living room: Kalighat paintings, ^antha-quilts, dhof{ra-bronzcs, handmade playing cards, and also a scroll painting. You become aware of his educated upper-middle class status. Your host speaks proudly of all the different arts and crafts of Bengal, the inherent artists，” the spontaneity of the “naive village crafts- m e n ，” the beautiful “folklore.” He explains that Bengal is exceptionally rich in such “old traditions.” The Patuas, however, did not always sell scrolls. Basically, they were a community of wandering bards, whose hereditary occupation was less to paint scrolls than to display them in villages as illustrations to accompany [106] FROM ORAL TRADITION TO “FOLK ART” 107 their storytelling. In fact, only a few of them knew how to paint. It is only during the last twenty-five years that the Patuas，tradition has no longer been identified with an oral and visual performance but with a particular kind of painting. The scrolls have become rather famous art products. In this article I analyze the process by which this tradition came to be recognized as “folk a r t.，，1 First, I will describe what I consider to be the Patuas，oral tradition (i.e., the practice of storytelling as it is occasionally found even in contemporary West Bengal). As will become clear, a crucial aspect of this tradition is its classification as a form of “begging.” Then I will examine the discourse on scroll paintings, which has developed in two socio- historical settings: first, in connection with the emergence of folklore studies in early twentieth century Bengal, resulting in the Patuas，identification with the Chitrakars; second, in the light of the commercialization of scrolls that began in the 1970s. My aim is to demonstrate a shift of genre from a pri­ marily oral to a primarily visual tradition (i.e., from the performance of scrolls to their selling as art products). I argue that “Patua art” as it exists today is a quite recent phenomenon, generated to a great extent by the urban intellectual elite of Calcutta. Thus, this essay contributes to the discussion on the politics of production and consumption of the arts in modern India as well as to relating issues of aesthetics and authenticity.2 T h e Storytelling T r a d it io n In contemporary West Bengal the term “Patua” {patuya) has three different meanings. It refers to a community (caste) whose hereditary and name-giv- ing occupation is handling a pat, which is literally a scroll, canvas or paint­ ing; i.e., a Patua refers to somebody who paints scrolls and/or to their display. Furthermore, it functions as a surname for the members of this caste. Finally, it indicates a practicing picture showman.3 These three meanings may over­ lap, but this is not necessarily the case. In historical perspective, there is no uniform usage of this term either. Even though colonial reports usually dif­ ferentiated between caste/class on the one hand and occupation on the other, their classification of the Patuas is not clear. On the basis of the 1872 census report, H u n t e r (1876，77) mentioned more than a thousand “Potidars” liv­ ing in Medinipur district and only twenty professional “Chitrakars” (painters). In 1891 RlSLEYdescribed the “Patud，，4 as “...an endogamous class of low Mahomedans, who paint pictures illustrating Hindu mythology and hawk them from door to door with songs” （1981，v o l.II， 169—70). This “class” overlaps with a professional group of painters called “Pdtua” (also known as Patu, Pota, Putua, Patudar). RlSLEY (1981，v o l.I ， 206) distin­ guished them from the Chitrakars, “a profession followed by Acharji, Ganak， Sutradhar, and other low castes.” In other words, Patuas and 108 BEATRIX HAUSER Chitrakars were considered as two different categories. I will come back to this point later. For the time being I want to show that scroll paintings were not made only by this particular community. In the first half of the twentieth century, Acarya (astrologers), Sutradhar (carpenters), and Kumbha^ar (pot­ ters) were also involved in this activity (G h o s e 1926，98—99; Ray 1953, 307). On the other hand, the painting and showing of scrolls was never the Patuas， only mode of income. They earned their livelihood by taking on a variety of jobs (mostly as agricultural day labors and peddlers), which they could com­ bine with their peripatetic lifestyle. Besides, the Patuas were and are particu­ larly known for several trades associated with low caste status, including those for making and selling clay idols and a variety of wickerwork articles, for catching birds, for snake charming, and for being magicians, jugglers, pyrotechnicians, etc. (BHATTACHARJEE 1980， 16-17; Ray 1953, 307).5 However, while the community of Patuas is spread over many districts of pre­ partition Bengal (including present-day Bangladesh), there are only a few practicing picture showmen today, who are active almost exclusively in the Indian districts of Medinipur and Birbhum (West Bengal). When a Patua travels around the countryside to display his scrolls, he has to leave his village for a couple of days or even for some weeks. He visits an area where he has not been for a long time and which he considers prof­ itable for his work. As soon as he enters a village, the children announce his arrival. Usually all the people from one compound gather for a performance: children, women, and others who have been busy around the house. The Patua shows about three to four scrolls at each presentation. The narratives tell the well-known myths and legends of the Bengali Hindus: Behula and Lakhindar, the renunciation of Caitanya, stories on Radha and Krsna， episodes from the Ramayana (see Figure 1 )etc. Apart from these, political and social events have also become topics for narratives. A performance takes about half an hour altogether. Then the Patua asks for gifts {dan) and alms {bhil^sd). Usually he is paid in rice, sometimes he also receives a meal, some rupees or old clothes. The Patuas mostly visit lower and middle class house­ holds, preferably Hindu farmers. Rural upper- and upper-middle class peo­ ple, who often own TV sets, are not interested in their performances. For many Patuas, picture showing is a seasonal occupation: while it seems fruit­ ful to move around with scrolls after harvest, during monsoon they rely on other work.6 The social status of the Patuas is very low. Wandering from village to village in order to narrate stories illustrated on scrolls provides only a mea­ gre income. Moreover, it is considered by the Patuas as well as the audience to be a form of begging {bhihsa \ara). The Patuas’ attitude toward this status is an ambivalent one. On the one hand, in Hindu society asking for gifts is FIGURE 1.Two pictures from the scroll “The Abduction of Sita” (Sltdharan), painted by Niranjan Chitrakar in 1990.