SOCIAL EXCHANGE Advances in Theory and Research SOCIAL EXCHANGE Advances in Theory and Research

EDITED BY KENNETH J. GERGEN Swarthmore College Swarthmore, Pennsylvania AND MARTIN S. GREENBERG AND RICHARD H. WILLIS University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

PLENUM PRESS • NEW YORK AND LONDON Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 80-18170 ISBN-13:978-1-4613-3089-9 e-ISBN -13:978-1-4613-3087-5 DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-3087-5

© 1980 Plenum Press, New York Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1980

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No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher Contributors

HARUMI BEFU, Department of , Stanford University, Stanford, California EDNA B. FOA, Department of Psychiatry, Temple University Health Sciences Center, Eastern Pennsylvania Psychiatric Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania URIEL G. FOA, Department of , Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania IRENE HANSON FRIEZE, Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania HOWARD L. FROMKIN, Department of Psychology, York University, Downsview, Ontario, Canada KENNETH]. GERGEN, Department of Psychology, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania NELSON H. H. GRABURN, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, California MARTIN S. GREENBERG, Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania EDWIN P. HOLLANDER, Department of Psychology, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York L. ROWELL HUESMANN, Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, Chicago, Illinois GERALD S. LEVENTHAL, Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan GEORGE LEVINGER, Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts WALTER R. NORD, Department of Business, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri FREDERIC L. PRYOR, Department of Economics, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania

v vi CONTRIBUTORS

BARRY SCHWARTZ, Department of Psychology, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania C. R. SNYDER, Clinical Psychology Program, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas RICHARD H. WILLIS, Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Preface

INTRODUCTION

In developing scientific theory there is perhaps nothing more propi• tious than a compelling metaphor. If the metaphor is rich in imagery, complexly differentiated, emotionally evocative, and vitally wedded to the cultural lore, the theory to which it gives rise may enjoy a long and vigorous life. If the metaphor is sufficiently powerful, the theory may even be sustained in independence of systematic empirical support. Role theory is likely to remain prosperous so long as there is a thriving theater; decision theory experienced a dramatic rejuvenation with the development of the electronic computer; and, in spite of its archaic construction, Jungian theory will prevail so long as ancient myths and symbols continue to haunt us (d. Smith, 1978). From this standpoint, the development of social exchange theory is hardly surprising. Ex• perience with the marketplace is extensive in society, its images are both complex and richly evocative, its challenges are often exciting and its lessons sometimes painful. It is thus both intellectually and emo• tionally invigorating to consider the social arena in all its diversity as an extended market in which each individual seeks to maximize profits. The economic metaphor is hardly new to the social sciences. The recent intellectual roots of contemporary exchange theory can be traced to the works of Claude Levi-Strauss, Marcel Mauss, , and B. F. Skinner. The exchange orientation also embodies a sophisticated form of Homo economicus, and thus owes much to classic economic theory. However, the first clear articulations of the exchange orientation were provided by George Homans (1961), John Thibaut and (1959), and (1964). Although the works were inde• pendently conceived, their similar vision of social relations is a com• pelling tribute to the pervasive strength of the economic metaphor. Each of the volumes essentially views the individual as hedonistically motivated (d. Abrahamsson, 1970). All action represents a search for pleasure and/or a reduction of pain. Actions which succeed in gaining vii viii PREFACE such ends will be maintained, and those which fail will be abandoned. In order to obtain rewards and reduce punishment in the social sphere, the individual must perform various behaviors. If others find these behaviors rewarding, they will furnish behavioral outcomes in return which may be of to the individual. Thus, social life is constituted by a series of transactions in which rewards and costs (in the form of behavior) are being provided to others in exchange for behaviors that may be "consumed" by self. A variety of compelling extensions immediately emerges from this view. For one, the framework suggests that individuals may develop preferred types of exchanges, essentially those which provide them maximal payoffs. These preferred arrangements may then become reflected in the norms of the relationship, or indeed, of the society as a whole. Norm sanctions may often be established to reduce deviations from preferred exchange patterns, and such sanctions may often be elaborated in the legal codes of the society, and even buttressed by armed force. In this light, the one major task of socialization is to instill an appreciation of commonly preferred exchange patterns. Large-scale , such as business and government, may also be viewed in terms of normative exchange arrangements governing more specific arenas of action. Leadership and power are further implicated. Where group leaders are needed, the individual who provides maximal profit to the group may obtain senior status. Differences in social power may be cast in terms of the ability of the individual to obtain costly behaviors from others at little expense to self. Social attraction may also be understood in terms of exchange: attraction is directly related to the profit which another provides. Since its inception, the exchange framework has captured the interest of investigators throughout the social sciences. Within , the framework has been applied to such diverse phenom• ena as cooperation, competition, and conflict (d. Deutsch, 1975), social conformity (Nord, 1969a), the development of leadership and status in informal groups (Harsanyi, 1966; Hollander, 1964), helping behavior (Greenberg, Block, & Silverman, 1971), norm formation (Thibaut & Faucheux, 1965), the search for uniqueness (Fromkin, 1972a), reactions to assistance (Gergen & Gergen, 1971), social attraction (Huessmann & Levinger, 1976), coalition formation (Thibaut & Gruder, 1969), the perception of pay (Weick, 1966), the distribution of pay in groups (Leventhal & Whiteside, 1973), the achievement of equity in intimate relations (Walster, Walster, & Berscheid, 1978), and self-presentation (Reis & Gruzen, 1975), to name but a few. Sociologists have found the framework fruitful in examining organizational behavior (Evan, 1966), PREFACE ix interorganizational relations (Levine & White, 1960), the attractiveness of work roles (Yuchtman, 1972), the fairness of earnings (Alves & Rossie, 1978), administrative decision making (Gamson, 1966), anomie and (Hamblin & Crosbie, 1977), collective decision making (Coleman, 1964a), social obligation (Muir & Weinstein, 1962), group cooperation (Schmitt & Marwell, 1977), and the distribution of power in society (Coleman, 1973; Emerson, 1972). Anthropologists have fur• ther utilized the exchange formulation in understanding such diverse behavior as gift giving (Befu, 1966; Lebra, 1973), reciprocity (Hollen• steiner, 1964), ceremonial activities (Hogbin 1971), in primitive cultures (Schwimmer, 1970), and primitive trade (Sahlins, 1972). Social psychologists with a cross-cultural perspective have also been much stimulated by the exchange perspective (d. Gergen, Morse, & Gergen, 1979). Within political science, Waldman (1970), and Curry and Wade (1968) have relied upon the exchange framework to integrate understanding of wide-ranging political activities. Rapoport and Chammah (1965) have used a form of exchange theory to account for conflict, negotiation, and decision making in both the interpersonal and the international arenas. Within the field of law, Nimmer (1977) has adopted the exchange approach to account for decision making in the criminal justice system, and Lempert (1972) has applied the theory to relate contract law to norm formation.

THE PRESENT VOLUME

The purposes of the present compendium are several in number. Recent years have seen a number of invaluable syntheses of early contributions to the exchange orientation. Homans has undertaken a revision of his classic, 1961 work, and in his recent volume (1974) has done much to clarify, defend, and extend his initial formulation. Likewise, Thibaut and Kelley have further elaborated the suppositions contained in their initial work, integrating many relevant contributions ensuing since the publication of their 1959 volume. Although both abstract and formalized, the new work (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978) is important in its novel consideration of psychological processes of perception, motivation, and self-regulation. Other scholars have ren• dered detailed analyses of the exchange orientation, its potential and its shortcomings. Richard Emerson's essays (1972a,b) have done much to clarify inconsistencies in the initial writings and to flesh out the social-structural implications of the early works. Maris (197D) has usefully examined Homans's theoretical suppositions on the basis of their logical adequacy. In a highly thoughtful and carefully detailed x PREFACE volume, Chadwick-Jones (1976) has examined the structure of the initial formulations, and much of the research which they have spawned. Ekeh's (1974) examination of exchange theory is equally significant in its critical concern with the sociological and anthropol• ogical implications of exchange theory. Hamblin and Kunkel's (1977) edited essays in honor of Homans add further insight and substance to the developing orientation. Yet, simultaneous with this impressive effort at critical syntheses and elaboration, other scholars have been absorbed with new depar• tures. Novel lines of research have developed, interdisciplinary inquiry has fermented, innovative forms of application have emerged, and fresh lines of critical thinking have coalesced. Either because of its recency and/or its positioning outside mainstream social psychology and , much of this work has not been integrated into the various syntheses of the past decade. However, it is important to give voice to this work, for not only does it demonstrate the continued vitality of the general paradigm, but it represents the initial impetus of the theory's third decade. The contributions represent the new voices in the arena, and as such demand critical attention. A second major aim is more catalytic. As we have seen, the exchange orientation has flourished throughout the social sciences. However, within these disciplines investigators have often labored in ignorance or disregard of relevant departures in other disciplines. When such work has been discovered, the results have often been intellectually exciting and empirically productive. The use of economic exchange in anthropological field work (d. Chapter 10), the reliance on cognitive developmental thinking to understand social-structural pat• terns (d. Chapter 4), and the employment of basic operant conditioning derivatives to understand organizational relations (d. Chapter 6) are exemplary of the fruits of such cross-fertilization. By bringing together major lines of thinking both within the various disciplines and within the interstices, it is our hope to facilitate further boundary-breaking endeavors. Finally, our hope is that the volume will represent a useful step toward a unified conceptual view. Although there may be no funda• mental unity among social events, it is both intellectually challenging and humanly satisfying to discover formal similarities among highly diverse phenomena. From this standpoint, it has been our attempt to assemble a group of investigations that employ a similar set of concep• tual constructs, but grapple with the most diverse aspects of behavior. Through such varied exposure, a unification may be discerned, not only across behavioral contexts, but across levels of social analysis• from the psychological to the sociocultural. It is not that we believe PREFACE Xl

this to be the only significant lens through which coherency is dis• cerned, nor necessarily the most promising for all purposes. However, if the theoretical lens is to be useful at all, one must be trained in its employment. By focusing on highly disparate phenomena, the inten• sity of the training is much enhanced. The contributions to the present volume are placed into three major sections. In the initial section we have included a series of innovative extensions of the original exchange formulation. These papers deal with highly general issues relevant to exchange in all walks of life. Issues of indebtedness, equity, uniqueness, and the structure of resources all receive attention. In the second section the focus sharpens considerably. The papers in this section all take a more detailed look at more specific domains. The papers deal with such diverse topics as group leadership, behavior organizations, and sex roles. The final part of the volume is concerned with the critical analysis of the exchange perspective. Significant new questions are raised concerning the reciprocity norm, the motivational basis for exchange, the empirical basis of the exchange approach, and the transhistorical durability of the orientation. In the same way that it is hoped the contributions in the preceding sections will open up new lines of thinking and research, it is hoped that the latter chapters will contribute to continued and much needed debate.

KENNETH J. GERGEN MARTIN S. GREENBERG RICHARD H. WILLIS Contents

PART I THEORETICAL EXTENSION

Chapter 1 A Theory of Indebtedness MARTIN S. GREENBERG Introduction ...... 3 Definition of Indebtedness ...... 3 Determinants of the Magnitude of Indebtedness ...... 4 The Donor's Motives for Aiding the Recipient ...... 5 The Magnitude of the Recipient's and the Donor's Rewards and Costs ...... 6 The Locus of Causality of the Donor's Action ...... 8 Cues Emitted by Comparison Others ...... 10 Assessment of the Magnitude of Indebtedness ...... 11 Self-Reports ...... 12 Behavioral and Cognitive Attempts to Reduce Indebtedness ..... 14 Comparison between Indebtedness and Inequity ...... 21 Cultural Variations ...... 23 Chapter 2 What Should Be Done with Equity Theory? New Approaches to the Study of Fairness in Social Relationships GERALD S. LEVENTHAL Introduction ...... 27 The Problem of Allocation ...... 27 Issues in Equity Theory ...... 28 A Multidimensional Approach to Distributive Fairness ...... 28 The Unidimensional Approach of Equity Theory ...... 28 The Multidimensional Approach of Justice Judgment Theory ....30 Judgments of Distributive Fairness ...... 30 The Perception of Procedural Fairness ...... 34 Procedural Fairness Defined ...... 34 Structural Components in Cognitive Maps of the Allocative Process ...... 37 Justice Rules for Evaluating Procedural Fairness ...... 39 xiii xiv CONTENTS

The Relative Weight of Procedural Rules ...... 46 The Impact of Perceived Fairness on Behavior ...... 47 The Importance of Fairness ...... 47 Activation of the Justice Judgment Sequence ...... 48 Concern for Fairness and Other Causes of "Fair" Behavior ...... 51 A Distinction between Fair and Quasi-Fair Behavior ...... 52 Summary ...... 53

Chapter 3 The Search for Uniqueness and Valuation of Scarcity: Neglected Dimensions of Value in Exchange Theory HOWARD L. FROMKIN AND C. R. SNYDER Introduction ...... 57 Conformity as Social Exchange ...... 58 Uniqueness Studies ...... 59 Uniqueness as a Neglected Cost ...... 61 Uniqueness Attributes ...... 63 Scarcity ...... 64 Names ...... 66 Clothing ...... 68 Dates and Mates ...... 69 Beliefs ...... 70 Performance ...... 72 Deindividuation and Uniqueness ...... 73 Summary ...... 75

Chapter 4 Resource Theory: Interpersonal Behavior as Exchange EDNA B. FaA AND URIEL G. FaA Introduction ...... 77 Six Resource Classes ...... 78 Relationship between Resource Exchange and Interpersonal Behavior ...... 81 Differentiation of Resources in Childhood ...... 82 Exchange Outcomes and Environmental Influences ...... 84 Relationship between Self and" Other ...... 84 Relationship between Giving and Taking ...... 85 Relationship between Interpersonal Situation and Exchange ..... 85 Time for Processing Input ...... 85 Delay of Reward ...... 85 Optimum Group Size ...... 85 Empirical Support for Resource Theory ...... 86 Homogeneity of Classes ...... 86 CONTENTS xv

Similarity and Substitution ...... 87 Structure ...... 87 Exchange ...... 88 Effect of Restrictions ...... 89 Helping Behavior ...... 89 Recent Development ...... 90 Differentiation of Resources in Hetero- and Homosexual Males .. 90 Asymmetry in Generalization ...... 91 Further Results ...... 92 Rules of the Game ...... 93 Application to Problems of Society ...... 94

PART II EXCHANGE THEORY IN SPECIALIZED SETTINGS

Chapter 5 Leadership and Social Exchange Processes EDWIN P. HOLLANDER Introduction ...... 103 Leadership in Retrospect ...... 104 Leadership as a Transactional Influence Process ...... 105 Leader Legitimacy and Social Exchange ...... 109 Idiosyncrasy Credit and Innovation ...... 110 Leader Legitimacy and System Progress ...... 113 Leadership Effectiveness and a Fair Exchange ...... 115

Chapter 6 The Study of Organizations through a Resource- Exchange Paradigm WALTER R. NORD Introduction ...... 119 Resource Exchanges in Organizational Analysis ...... 122 Historical Development ...... 122 R-E Processes in Organization-Environment Relationships .....124 Some R-E "Extra-Economic" Aspects of Interorganizational Relations ...... 125 Organizational Coping ...... 126 Interorganizational Networks ...... 127 Power and Dependence ...... 129 Implications of the R-E Paradigm for Intraorganizational Processes ...... 131 xvi CONTENTS

Internal Processes: Some Macrolevel Studies ...... 133 Internal Processes: Some Micro-Considerations ...... 136 Conclusions ...... 138

Chapter 7 Sex Roles, Social Exchange, and Couples RICHARD H. WILLIS AND IRENE HANSON FRIEZE Introduction ...... 141 Role Expectations ...... 142 Ascribed and Achieved Status ...... 142 Evaluation of Male and Female Role Occupants ...... 145 Partner Markets and Initial Formation ...... 147 Intrinsic Compatibility ...... 148 Components of Compatibility ...... 149 Overall Compatibility ...... 154 Relations among Formation, Compatibility, and Stability ...... 156 Market Characteristics and Mean Compatibility ...... 158 Effects of Loners on Stability ...... 159 Preliminary Research Support ...... 161 Summary ...... 162

Chapter 8 An "Incremental Exchange" Perspective on the Pair Relationship: Interpersonal Reward and Level of Involvement GEORGE LEVINGER AND L. ROWELL HUESMANN Introduction ...... 165 Exchange Theory in a Sequential Perspective ...... 165 Incremental Exchange Theory ...... 166 The RELATE Model ...... 168 Simulation of a Romantic Involvement ...... 170 The Meaning of "Reward" in Dyadic Interaction ...... 173 Dimensions of Reward ...... 174 Behavioral versus Relational Rewards ...... 174 Other Dimensions of Reward ...... 175 Adaptation Levels, Comparison Levels, and Gradients ...... 176 The Meaning of Involvement ...... 178 Toward a Revised Model ...... 178 Reconsidering the Simulation of Interpersonal Involvement ...... 180 Differing Levels of Involvement ...... 181 Toward a Revised Simulation of a Heterosexual Relationship ... 183 Conclusions ...... 187 Implications for Exchange Theory ...... 187 CONTENTS xvii

PART III CRITICAL ANALYSIS

Chapter 9 Structural and Motivational Approaches to Social Exchange HARUMI BEFU Introduction ...... 197 The Norm of Reciprocity and Normative Values ...... 199 Mauss and Gouldner Compared ...... 201 Rules of Exchange ...... 202 Strategies of Exchange ...... 203 Cultural Frame of Reference ...... 204 Structural versus Motivational Approaches ...... 206 Introduction ...... 206 The Structural Approach ...... 207 The Motivational Approach ...... 210 Summary ...... 213

Chapter 10 The Myth of Reciprocity FREDERIC L. PRYOR AND NELSON H. H. GRABURN Introduction ...... 215 Anthropological Approaches toward Reciprocity and Some Hypotheses ...... 216 The Ethnographic Setting of the Study ...... 218 The Society ...... 218 Data Gathering ...... 220 The Methods of Handling the Data ...... 221 Testing Various Reciprocity Theories ...... 224 The Regression Analysis and Its Implications ...... 224 Reciprocity and Kinship Distance ...... 229 Native Interpretations versus Our Interpretations of Exchange Transactions ...... 233 Summary and Conclusions ...... 235

Chapter 11 New Developments in Operant Conditioning and Their Implications BARRY SCHWARTZ Introduction ...... 239 The Experimental Analysis of Behavior: Methods and Assumptions ...... 241 Is Learning in Nature Biologically Neutral? The Ethological View ...... 245 Instinctive Drift ...... 246 xviii CONTENTS

Taste-Aversion Learning ...... 248 Is the Skinner Box Biologically Neutral? ...... 250 Implications of Specialized Learning for Extensions of Operant Conditioning Principles to Human Affairs ...... 254 Summary ...... 258

Chapter 12 Exchange Theory: The Transient and the Enduring KENNETH J. GERGEN Introduction ...... 261 Enlightenment Effects: Exchange Theory as Prescription ...... 263 Level of Abstraction and the Incorporation of Change ...... 265 Theoretical Utility and the Exchange Orientation ...... 268 The Explanatory Function ...... 269 The Sensitizing Function ...... 270 The Organization of Experience ...... 273 The Integration Function ...... 275 The Generative Function ...... 276 The Value-Sustaining Function ...... 278 Conclusion ...... 279

References ...... 281

Index ...... 303