Article — Artikel

Use of herbal remedies by small-scale farmers to treat livestock diseases in central Province,

P J Masikaa, W van Averbekeb and A Sonandic

plant of which samples sent to Germany ABSTRACT revealed to be a new species of Asclepiad The use of herbal remedies by African farmers in the treatment of livestock diseases was that was later used in the treatment of investigated using a range of methods, including group interviews, structured interviews, cancer patients12. Pharmacological re- semi-structured interviews and participant observation. The study was concerned mainly search has demonstrated that many of the with the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of herbal remedy use among African livestock holders farming on plants used by Africans in the Eastern Cape communally-owned land in central Eastern Cape Province. We found that the use of herbal in the preparation of herbal remedies have remedies was still widespread because these remedies were cheap, locally available and some activity. For example, in a study by convenient to administer. Farmers also used herbal remedies because they did not have Fourie et al.6, at least 31 % of 300 plants knowledge of conventional remedies or found these too expensive and therefore used screened showed marked activity, 21 % herbal remedies as a last resort. Most of the farmers interviewed (73 %) had used some form were considered inactive, and 48 % mod- of herbal remedy. A small number of farmers did not use herbal remedies at all. They re- 4 jected them because they had bad experiences in the past or because they considered the erately active. On the other hand, Brown practice outdated and socially inferior. Often farmers used herbal remedies in combination was of the opinion that plant remedies with conventional ones, but a substantial number relied on herbal remedies only. Farmers should be regarded with scepticism obtained herbal remedies principally by preparing their own or by purchasing from herbal- because the efficacy of many had not been ists. Different plant parts were used to prepare herbal remedies in the form of infusions, de- proven. coctions, powders, pastes, and juices from fresh plant material. Preparations were made The objective of this study was to record from a single plant or from a range of plants. Application of a remedy was by different the reasons why contemporary African routes and methods, depending on the perceived cause of the disease condition. Topical farmers in the central Eastern Cape Prov- applications were used for skin conditions, powders were rubbed into incisions, drenches ince used herbal remedies to treat live- were common in the treatment of systemic conditions, and drops to treat ears and eyes. We stock ailments, the plants and methods identified several aspects of herbal remedy utilisation that could be subject to improve- they used in preparing and adminis- ment, which included the absence of standard dose regimes, the potential toxicity of certain tering herbal remedies, and the livestock compounds present in plants used, over-exploitation of the plant resource and a lack of ailments treated with these remedies. interest by the youth to learn the art.

Key words: central Eastern Cape Province, herbal remedies, livestock diseases, small-scale STUDY AREA AND PROCEDURE farmers. The study was conducted during 1996 Masika P J, Van Averbeke W,Sonandi A Use of herbal remedies by small-scale farmers to in 7 districts in the central part of the treat livestock diseases in central Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Journal of the South Eastern Cape Province, namely Victoria African Veterinary Association (2000) 71(2): 87–91 (En.). Department of Livestock and Pasture East, , Middledrift, Science, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice, 5700 South Africa. Zwelitsha, Mdantsane, Peddie and Stut- terheim (Fig. 1). Information was col- lected from African livestock owners who INTRODUCTION of the principles and practices of herbal produce cattle on communally managed The use of plants in the preparation of therapy has been sporadic at best. In some rangeland and from traditional herbalists. medicines is an age-old practice that re- areas, documenting the art and practice of To conduct our investigation we made mains common in many parts of the herbalists is urgent because the knowledge use of several methods, both qualitative world1. For modern society, traditional is threatened with extinction. and quantitative. In the preliminary plant uses and botanical knowledge are of Africans in the Eastern Cape have a long phase of data collection, participatory more than academic or historical interest. tradition of using plants in treating both research methods (matrix ranking, dia- They can be linked directly to the utilisation human10, and animal14 ailments. How- gramming and group interviews) were and conservation of plants13 and continues ever, the effectiveness of the various used to elicit information from a total of to play an important role in the develop- herbal remedies remains controversial. 138 livestock owners, in 6 villages: ment of modern medicines. The art of Historically, cases where herbal remedies Mnqaba-Kulile (Middledrift district), healing with herbal remedies is empirical, were effective in treating livestock Gqumashe (Victoria East district), Gwaba and it is usually transferred directly by diseases in the Eastern Cape have been (Zwelitsha district), Upper Gxulu oral teaching from master (father) to reported. Smith18 wrote in the late 19th (Keiskammahoek district), Dongwe apprentice (son). Written documentation century that, whenever herds sickened (Mdantsane district) and at Feni and Fair and died, the herbal preparations admin- View (Peddie district), and 8 herbalists aLivestock and Pasture Science and ARDRI, University of istered by African herdsmen produced re- from Kubusi ( district), Upper Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice, 5700 South Africa. sults far in advance of European remedies Gxulu (Keiskammahoek district), bResearch Office, Border Technikon, East London. of that time. A documented case involved Kwezana (Victoria East district) and Fair cDepartment of Animal Science, Fort Cox College of Agriculture. the treatment of a horse with a cancer-like View (Peddie district). The data obtained Received: October 1999. Accepted: February 2000. growth with Euphorbia sp. latex and a during the preliminary phase were used

0038-2809 Jl S.Afr.vet.Ass. (2000) 71(2): 87–91 87 Limited financial means being the general condition of livestock farmers, they preferred the use of cheap and locally available herbal remedies instead of expensive conventional medicines available only in urban centres. Four of the 60 farmers stated that herbal remedies were the only option available, because they could not afford to purchase conven- tional medicines, even if they preferred to do so. Knowledge of the plants used in the preparation of remedies was not in the public domain. On the contrary, we found that many treated this knowledge as a secret to be guarded closely. How- ever, even when farmers did not have personal knowledge of how to prepare herbal remedies, they indicated that access to the remedies was easy, because in most villages there was a resident herbalist. Farmers also indicated that herbal remedies were convenient to administer, because they did not require the purchase and use of syringes and needles as was often the case with conven- tional medicines. Four farmers stated that their lack of knowledge about conventional remedies was a reason why they still use herbal Fig 1: Maps of the Eastern Cape showing the former homelands of Transkei and Ciskei and the districts and locations in which the study was conducted. remedies. However, of the 44 responding farmers who used herbal remedies, 27 did to develop a questionnaire, which was remains common practice. Sixteen of the so in combination with conventional pre-tested for content validity and reli- 60 responding farmers rejected their use medicines and only 17 relied solely on ability before it was presented to 60 outright. Nine of the 16 listed past stock herbal preparations (Fig. 2). There was individual livestock-keeping households losses when treating their animals with evidence that the choice between herbal at 5 sites consisting of 1 or 2 locations. The herbal remedies, herbal remedies being and conventional medicines was influ- test sites were Makuzeni and Kwezana outdated and socially inferior, and 7 indi- enced by the type of ailment. For exam- (Victoria East), Koloni (Middledrift dis- cated lack of knowledge of which plants ple, in the treatment of redwater and trict), Zanyokwe and (Keis- to use, and ‘weakness’ of herbal remedies, gallsickness, 2 tick-borne diseases, the use kammahoek district), Kwabhonke as the main reasons for their rejection. or inclusion of herbal remedies in the (Zwelitsha district) and Tshabo (Mdan- Among the 44 farmers who used herbal treatment was very common. Thirty-nine tsane district). Potential respondents to remedies, 20 stated the low cost of these of the 44 herbal remedy users included the questionnaire were identified as remedies to be their primary reason for herbal remedies in the treatment of these being owners of high and densely-woven using them. Generally, the population of 2 diseases. Twenty-six did so in combina- kraals, using convenience sampling. livestock farmers in the region consisted tion with conventional remedies, while Experience had shown that such kraals of old men (the average age of responding the other 13 relied on herbal remedies were used almost exclusively for cattle. livestock owners was 58 years), and many alone. This confirmed the results of an This enabled us to find out which farmers of them relied heavily on state transfers in earlier study on the treatment of these 2 were still using herbal remedies in the the form of old-age pensions for survival. diseases in the central Eastern Cape14. treatment of livestock ailments and why. In order to obtain information on compo- sition and methods of preparation of herbal remedies, survey results were complemented with in-depth semi- structured interviews and participant ob- servation involving selected farmers and herbalists.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Contemporary use of herbal remedies Among African livestock farmers in cen- tral Eastern Cape the use of herbal reme- Fig 2: Relative proportions (%) of use of herbal and conventional remedies by small-scale dies in the treatment of livestock ailments farmers (sample size 60).

88 0038-2809 Tydskr.S.Afr.vet.Ver. (2000) 71(2): 87–91 From our interviews with farmers, we had to resort to making their own prepa- cases powders were mixed in water, and understood that combination of herbal rations. The remaining 5 users of herbal dispensed as a drench, in a similar way to and conventional remedies was generally remedies were not willing to disclose the infusions and decoctions. Preparation of based on the belief that mixing the 2 types source of their preparations. herbal remedies also involved mixing of remedies gave better results than sole several concoctions of different plants, use of either. Generally, farmers indicated Methods of medicinal preparation and plant parts, and at times animal that they preferred to administer conven- Plant parts used to prepare herbal reme- parts were included in these prepara- tional medicines 1st, followed by herbal dies included bulbs, bark, leaves, fruits, tions. In cases of spiritually-perceived remedies, but there were contrasting roots and flowers, as also recorded by causes of ailment, a dried plant part or views. Some farmers questioned the ben- Hutchings10,11 and Brown4. These plant powder was sprinkled into a fire, and the efit of combining the 2 types of remedies, parts were used individually, or in combi- affected animal was made to inhale the and a few even attributed cases of live- nation with other plant parts (Table 1). smoke. stock death to combining them. Surpris- Various methods were used to prepare The perceived cause of a disease deter- ingly, 3 of the 60 farmers that were herbal remedies. One method was prepa- mined the type of medication and the interviewed claimed that they had never ration of infusions, where the plant parts route of its administration. Plants with treated their livestock for diseases. were soaked in water, and left for some purgative properties were often included Sucessful livestock production in the time to allow the active ingredients to in the remedies (Table 1). This needs to absence of medical treatment is possible infuse into the water. Another method be understood in the context of Nguni only when specific breeding practices involved the preparation of decoctions people’s perception that illness is a that favour the use of indigenous breeds whereby the plant material was boiled in condition of internal corruption (accu- known to develop immunity against water. Other remedies were prepared in a mulation of toxins) and ‘uncleanliness’11. tick-borne diseases and ticks17, other powdered form by grinding dried or As a result, many herbal medicines were ectoparasites, endoparasites and infec- roasted plant material. Pastes were made found to seek the cleansing of the inner tious diseases are applied19. However, we by mashing fresh plant parts. Other medi- system of the patient by inducing purging did not investigate this matter further. A cines consisted of juices obtained by and vomiting. For example, all herbal small number of farmers (4 of 60) said that pressing the sap out of fresh leaves, stems, preparations administered to animals they had no knowledge at all about how flowers and other plant parts. thought to suffer from gallsickness and to treat livestock diseases. They de- Generally, herbal remedies contained redwater contained plants to assist the pended on assistance from neighbours or material from more than one plant removal of excess bile from the animal’s relatives to treat their livestock. species. Mixing plants was believed to body14. give the medicine ‘more power’. Some In several instances conventional and Sources of herbal remedies commonly used multiple-plant remedies herbal treatment of livestock diseases Farmers obtained herbal remedies in 2 are shown in Table 1. On the other hand, were similar in approach. For example, in ways, namely by preparing their own, or some remedies were prepared from single conventional treatment of gallsickness, by purchasing them from herbalists. plants. The most common single-plant antibiotics are coupled with symptomatic Forty-eight percent of the 44 farmers remedies are summarised in Table 2. treatment in the form of transfusions2, using herbal remedies prepared their and laxatives (mild purgative)7. Herbal own (Fig. 3). This indicated that knowl- Routes and mode of application gallsickness remedies (Table 1) were edge about herbal remedies used in the Routes and mode of application of found to contain plants with anti-micro- treatment of livestock was not limited to herbal remedies varied, depending on the bial and purgative properties, whose herbalists only. Fourteen farmers lacked perceived diagnosis16. Topical application efficacy against gallsickness-causing the knowledge needed to prepare herbal of lotions and leaf/root paste was common organisms (Anaplasma spp.) is yet to be remedies, and relied entirely on remedies practice in the treatment of skin condi- demonstrated. Other plant constituents prepared by herbalists. The prices charged tions, such as wounds, sores, warts and of the remedies were added to provide by herbalists for a preparation varied. At cuts, as also recorded by Liengme13 and relief from fever and pain. Herbal treat- the time of the fieldwork (1996), prices Mzamane15. Remedies were in the form of ment of retained placenta was by admin- ranged from R5 to R20, but often payment drops for treatment of ear and eye condi- istration of plants with purgative proper- was in kind. Four farmers had limited tions, but eye conditions were also treated ties, the assumption being that this will knowledge of herbal preparations, and with ointments obtained by the addition cause evacuation of the reproductive sys- preferred to purchase their remedies of glycerine. Mixes of several powders tem in the same way as purgatives act on from herbalists. However, at times they (umhlabelo) were used for treatment of the digestive system. Retained placenta lacked the financial means to do so and skin and intra-dermal scarring. In some was also treated with plants that have anti-microbial activities to protect animals from acquiring metritis. Conventional treatment of retained placenta usually in- volves a similar approach2,7. Conventional treatment of 3-day stiff-sickness (ephem- eral fever), a viral disease, characterised by fever, stiffness, and lameness, employs anti-inflammatory drugs2. Treatment of this disease with herbal preparations (Ta- ble 1), made use of plants that had docu- mented anti-inflammatory activities. In both approaches, anti-inflammatories are Fig 3: Relative proportions (%) of how small-scale farmers obtain herbal remedies (sample administered to reduce muscle stiffness size 44). that accompanies this ailment.

0038-2809 Jl S.Afr.vet.Ass. (2000) 71(2): 87–91 89 Table 1: Parts and documented activity of plants used in the preparation of multiple-plant in the Eastern Cape accumulated knowl- remedies by small-scale farmers and herbalists to treat selected livestock ailments. edge of medicinal plants and herbal remedies. Traditionally, this knowledge Plant combinations Plant part used Documented activity Condition was transferred from generation to gen- treated eration by oral means. Often the father, but in some cases also the mother, passed Eucomis undulata Leaf Purgative3 Anaplasmosis on the knowledge to other family mem- Kedrostis africana Bark Purgative3,20 bers, usually the eldest son. Many of the Plectranthus spp. Roots Anti-microbial* farmers and herbalists we interviewed Hypoxis spp. Leaf and bulb Purgative20 Anaplasmosis and complained that contemporary youths Salix capensis Bark Antipyretic, laxative20 babesiosis were no longer interested in this knowl- Rhoicissus spp. Bark Anti-inflammatory* 3-day stiff-sickness edge, because they considered it to be Kedrostis africana Bark Purgative3,20 outdated, backward and of questionable Teucrium spp. Leaves Purgative20 Retained placenta value. Many of those interviewed feared Plectranthus spp. Bark Antimicrobial* that they would take their knowledge

*T G Fourie, Noristan, pers. comm., 1995. with them when they died and welcomed our study as one way of preventing this Threats to the use of herbal remedies had caused over-exploitation of the plant from happening. Other authors have The information collected indicated resources. In some cases, the unsustainable stated that indigenous knowledge of that dosing of herbal remedies usually in- exploitation of certain plants had led to herbal remedies is disappearing at an volved 750 m in cattle and 375 ml in small the total extirpation of plants that were alarming rate worldwide, owing to accul- stock, irrespective of the concentration of once found in the region. Examples were turation9. The results of our study suggest the remedies. As a result, farmers applied cited of individuals who removed up to that documenting the vast body of indig- herbal remedies in variable concentrations, 50 % of the bark of trees, cut down medi- enous knowledge held by herbal practi- and this, in turn, might provide variable cinal trees for firewood and building tioners is an urgent task, because most of results. On one hand, there was a possibil- material, and uprooted young plants the present-day practitioners we spoke to ity that application of a standard dose of when more mature ones were no longer appeared unable to find successors. very concentrated preparations could available. Typically, the 1st area to be actually be toxic to animals. On the other stripped of useful plants was the land sur- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDA- hand, some preparations probably were rounding settlements, requiring collec- TIONS too dilute to be effective, explaining why tors to travel longer distances to find Our study showed that the use of herbal some farmers considered herbal remedies certain plants. From our interactions with remedies in the treatment of livestock ail- to be weak and ineffective. users we gained the impression that me- ments was still common practice among Herbalists and selected farmers identi- dicinal plant resources in central Eastern small-scale livestock farmers in central fied that commercialisation of herbal Cape were disappearing rapidly, and that Eastern Cape, mainly owing to low cost, remedies had led to city-based herbalists there is a real threat that useful plants convenience and ease of administration. using poorly-skilled people to collect may become extinct before they can be Although the study did not seek to estab- plants in rural areas. According to the conserved or known to science. lish the effectiveness of the different reme- herbalists interviewed, this development Over many centuries the Nguni people dies, we found evidence that plants used

Table 2: Preparation, route of administration, dosage and documented activity of single-plant remedies used by small-scale farmers and herbalists to treat some livestock ailments.

Plant name Local name Condition Preparation Route Dosage Documented (Xhosa) activity

Acacia decurrens Indywabasi Hastens oestrus Bark decoction per os Cattle 750 m Aloe ferox Khalakhulu Redwater Juice from leaves per os Ad libitum in drinking Purgative5 Ikhalana Intestinal worms Leaf infusion water of chickens and pigs Combretum cafrum UmDubi Conjuctivitis Squeeze leaves Eye drop 2 drops twice a day None Drops used Cussonia spicata UmSenge Gallsickness Bark decoction per os Cattle 750 m Anti-inflammatory* Heteromorpha trifoliata UmBangandlela Redwater, Root infusion per os Cattle 750 m Anti-inflammatory* Gallsickness Hibiscus malacospermus UmSongelwa Retained afterbirth Root decoction per os Cattle 750 m None Intestinal worms Small stock 375 m Hippobromus pauciflorus Ulathile Eye inflammation Leaf decoction Eye wash Twice a day Analgesic* (uLwathile) Leonotis leonurus UmFincafincane Eye inflammation Squeeze leaf Eye drop Once a day Analgesic* Drops used Pittosporum viridiflorum UmKwenkwe Gallsickness Bark decoction per os Cattle 750 m Emetic and enemata20 Podocarpus latifolius UmKoba Gallsickness Bark decoction per os Cattle 750 m None Rhoicissus spp. Isaqoni 3-day stiff-sickness Bark decoction per os Cattle 750 m Anti-inflammatory* Paratyphoid Small stock 375 m Salix spp. UmNcunube Retained placenta Decoction or infusion per os Cattle 750 m in evening, Antipyretic and no grazing until morning laxative20

*T G Fourie, Noristan, pers. comm., 1995.

90 0038-2809 Tydskr.S.Afr.vet.Ver. (2000) 71(2): 87–91 in the preparation of remedies for specific plant gardens. Large- or small-scale culti- 8. Hedberg I 1987 Research on medicinal and ailments had documented activities that vation of plant species, especially those poisonous plants of the tropics – past, present and future. In LeeuwenbergAJM were similar to those of remedies used in extensively used in the herbal remedy (comp), Medicinal and poisonous plants of the the conventional treatment of these ail- sector, could reduce the pressure on the tropics. Pudoc, Wageningen: 9–15 ments. Laboratory and field experiments plant populations that remain in the wild 9. Hedberg I 1993 Conservation of medicinal are indicated to determine the effective- in addition to providing a source of plants in the tropics – a global responsibility. ness of selected remedies and their consti- income. This particular option could re- Medicinal and aromatic plants. Acta tuents. ceive support from user groups because Horticulturae 330: 59–66 10. Hutchings A 1989 A survey and analysis of Wealso found a possible threat of herbal we encountered some herbalists who traditional medicinal plants as used by the remedies being toxic. Research is needed were growing selected medicinal plants Zulu, Xhosa and Sotho. Bothalia 19: 111–123 into optimal dosing and concentrations of in their gardens. 11. Hutchings A 1989 Observations on plant herbal remedies, as is the identification of usage in Xhosa and Zulu medicine. Bothalia possible side-effects of these remedies. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 19: 225–235 Field work was conducted while the 12. Johannes (Rev.) 1915 Native medicine. Without such work the threat that animals South African Journal of Science 11: 404–405 may be exposed to toxic levels of certain authors were working at the Agricultural 13. Liengme C A 1981 Plants used by the compounds present in plants will remain. and Rural Development Research Insti- Tsonga people of Gazankulu. Bothalia 13: Toxins that are introduced may even af- tute at the University of Fort Hare. The 501–518 fect human health, as some toxins are authors acknowledge the Directorate of 14. Masika P J, Sonandi A, Van Averbeke W Applied Research, Training and Educa- 1997 Perceived causes, diagnosis and treat- transferred to humans through the con- ment of babesiosis and anaplasmosis in tion in the Department of Agriculture and sumption of milk and meat. cattle by livestock farmers in communal ar- We identified threats to medicinal plant Land Affairs of the Eastern Cape Province eas of the central Eastern Cape Province, resources and also to the indigenous for financial support that made this South Africa. Journal of South African Veteri- knowledge of their utilisation. Conserva- research possible. nary Association 68: 40–44 15. 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