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Zeitschrift/Journal: Stapfia
Jahr/Year: 2005
Band/Volume: 0085
Autor(en)/Author(s): Minayeva T., Sirin A.
Artikel/Article: Sketches of Russian Mires / Streiflichter auf die Moore Russlands 255- 321 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at
Sketches of Russian Mires
Edited by T. MINAYEVA & A. SIRIN
Introduction and low destruction on the other (high hu- midity, but low temperature). This situation Russia is not commonly associated with is typical for Russia's boreal zone, where, in mires. In countries such as Finland or Ire- some regions, mires cover over 50% of the land, mires cover a greater proportion of the land surface (Fig. 1). All possible combina- country's territory and play a more signifi- tions of geomorphologic, climatic, and pale- cant role in its social and economic life. In ogeorgaphic factors across the territory of Russia, mires cover about 8% of the coun- Russia, the world's largest country, result in try's area, and, together with paludified great variation of mire types. lands, account for 20% of its territory (VOM- Mires became a part of land use and cul- PERSKY et al. 1999). However, there are few ture in many regions, and objects of thor- places in the world where one finds such a ough interest for different branches of sci- high diversity of mire types and biogeo- ence. Knowledge of mires in Russia was ini- graphical variations. tiated by German and Dutch experience Mire distribution is distinctly connected (Peatlands of Russia ... 2001, SlRIN & Ml- with bioclimatic zones and subzones. Opti- NAYEVA 2003), but later Russia contributed mum conditions for paludification are to the world brilliant ideas and unique ex- perience in mire study. reached when there is equilibrium between conditions suitable for high production on The origin of mire science is rather pro- one hand (high humidity and temperature), saic and materialistic. In southern areas,
Stapfia 85, zugleich Kataloge der OÖ. Landesmuseen Photo 1: A vast expanse of Western Siberian mires. Photo by A.SIRIN. Neue Serie 35 (2005), 255-321
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Fig. 1: Peatlands in Russia (peat depths people were in need of arable lands and be- over the course of 20 years, beginning in over 30 cm), percent coverage gan to drain mires to use them for haying 1875. Results were published in a number of (source: VOMPERSKY et al. 1999). and pasturing. In northern areas, where editions (ZHILINSKY 1875, AVGUSTINOVITCH there were too many mires, people drained 1885, VlKHLYAEV 1914 etc.). The expedi- mires to create roads and to protect pastures tions drained large territories, improved the and arable lands from the lateral expansion microclimates of hard-to-reach paludified of mires and from land paludification. In areas, and built roads. During that period, some regions, there was a deficit of timber the inundation of many rivers in European for fuel and people burned peat. The afore- Russia changed, and some experts attributed mentioned examples of direct mire use are this to the reclamation work. The problem known to have existed in Russia since the attracted public attention and launched a seventeenth century. In the eighteenth cen- broad discussion on the hydrological role of tury, peat was already widely used both as a mires, which eventually promoted mire re- fertilizer and as a fuel. In the second half of search. the nineteenth century, mires were already considered to be a land resource, which Research on peat and mires became a stimulated investigations of them as objects rapidly developing branch of science. Sig- of nature. nificant contributions were made by publi- cations of famous researchers such as TAN- Two state-organized expeditions in the F1L1EV (1888), SUKATCHEV (1914), and DOK- nineteenth century- were very important for TUROVSKl (1915). In 1914, the first issue of mire research and for the development of a new scientific journal, «ToptJWHOe fle/lO» mire reclamation methods. The Western ex- (Peat Business), was published. Two peat re- pedition, or Polesskaya, which was led by search institutes were soon established: the General Iosif Zhilinslcv, worked in the Peat Research Institute (1921) and the Ukrainian and Byelams Polessye and in cen- Teaching Peat Institute (1922). During the tral European Russia. The Northern expedi- Soviet period, peat studies were very pro- tion, which was led by Ivan Avgustinovich, ductive. It should be noted, especially for worked in northern and north-western Eu- readers outside of Russia, that VLADIMIR ropean Russia and in what are now the LENIN, who would later become the head of Baltic states. The aforementioned expedi- the first Soviet Russian government, read tions carried out large-scale investigations the book by Vladimir SUKATCHEV, "Mires:
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Genesis, Development, and Features", in (1948, 1971) became classical works famil- October 1917, and shortly after the revolu- iar to mire scientists in Russia and abroad. tion promoted and supported mire research Published in 1940, and later revised and re- and exploitation. published in 1949 and 1976, a book by Sergei TYUREMNOV became a reference for A national policy for mire research and many beginning and experienced mire sci- use was created. The Russian government entists. The latest review of mire diversity in established the State Peat Committee as Russia that was made available to foreign early as spring 1918; peatland inventory was readers was prepared by BOTCH & MASING launched in Russia; and field surveys of peat (1983); this review was based on their Russ- deposits in the central part of Russia were carried out. A special decree "On peatlands" ian book published in 1979. YURKOVSKAYA was issued in 1922 and thus promoted the (1992) reviewed the subject based on results development of standardized peatlands in- of recent studies and presented it in a num- ventory and monitoring across the country. ber of maps published in Russia and abroad. Since 1940, the peatlands depositary has ex- Botanists and geobotanists in the former isted as an autonomous organization, and in Mire Science Society (within the All- 1980 it was integrated into the geological Union Botanical Society) contributed much depositary. Presently, the peat depository is to mire science. For many years an unique database covering a great majori- (1971-1998) the head of the Mire Science ty of peatlands. It includes mire mapping, Society was Marina Botch. Society activi- characteristics of peat deposits, and sketch- ties included monthly seminars and bienni- es on their vegetation and hydrology. Regu- al field excursions, which were associated lar inventories and publications based on with symposia and thematic workshops and standardized national surveys offered broad followed by publications (Nature of mires ... possibilities for peatlands studies. 1967, Main principles ... 1972, Mire types of the USSR ... 1974, Genesis and dynam- Later on, the development of Russian ics ... 1978, Mires and mire berries 1979, mire science was focused on special aspects Anthropogenic changes ... 1985, Methods of mires' natural functions and components, of mire study... 1986, Peatland resources ... from the points of view of geobotany, hy- 1989, Structure and development ... 1989, drology, landscape ecology, etc. The land- Mires of protected areas ... 1991). The last scape complex approach to mire research, (eleventh) field seminar-excursion was held which is typical for the Russian school and during the waning days of the Soviet Union, was developed by BOGDANOVSKAYA- in August 1991, in the Tsentralno-Lesnoi GUIENEUF (1969), GALKINA (1946), MAS- Biosphere Nature Reserve in Tver Oblast ING (1974) and others, is very productive (in the European part of Russia). and well known among mire specialists. The Russian school of mire hydrology, which was Over the last decade, a number of col- presented by DUBACH (1936, 1944), IVANOV lective studies were published. They includ- (1953,1957,1975,1981), ROMANOV (1961, ed an analysis and clarification of peat cov- 1968a,b) and others, is considered to be the erage in Russia (VOMPERSKY et al. 1994, foundation of mire hydrology all over the 1999), investigations of mires in several re- world. gions of the country (Mire systems of West- The period 1950-1970 was very produc- ern Siberia 2001, etc.), analyses of available tive as far as the geographical scope of stud- information on mires (Peatlands of Russia ies was concerned. Numerous expeditions in ... 2001) and others. Collective discussions mires were carried out in different regions of on issues such as the wise use of peatlands the country. A comprehensive description (Mires and paludified forests ... 1999) and of regional mire types was given for example the role of mires in the carbon cycle and cli- by PYAVCHENKO (1955,1958) and later sum- mate change (Dynamics of mire ecosystems marized in (1963,1985). Beginning in 1930, ... 1998, Western Siberian peatlands ... mire type distribution and zonation became 2001) were organized. As a result of collab- regular subjects of mire surveys. Well known oration between experts in different sectors, reviews by ZlNSERLING (1932) and KATZ an Action Plan for Peatland Conservation
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and Use in Russia (2003) was compiled and AVGUSDNOVICH I.K. (1885): ABrycntHOsm M. K. KpaTOtii approved. Broad information exchange on ofcop 60J10T M MX ocyiuemie Ha cesepe Pocom. CTI6., 1885. 19 c. (A brief review of mires and mire problems of mire research, use, and conser- reclamation in northern Russia. — St. Peters- vation has been promoted on the website burg: 1-19. In Russian). www.peatlands.ru. BOGDANOVSKAYA-GUIENEUF I.D. (1969): EorflaHO- Describing mires in Russia is tanta- M.fl. 3axoHouepHOcni (popunpoBaHMsi 60J10T BepxoBoro Tuna Ha npnuepe mount to embracing an ocean. In this chap- nojiMCTOBo-JloaaTCKoro MaccnBa. JlennHrpaa: Hayxa, ter, we tried to synthesiie the experiences of JleHKHrp. OTfl., 1969. 186 c. (Development pat- mire experts and institutions from different terns of sphagnum raised bogs based on the regions in Russia and, through these several example of the Polysto-Lovat mire massif. — sketches, introduce the reader to the role of Nauka Leningrad Branch, Leningrad, 1969: 1- 186. In Russian). mires in nature and in the social life of this country. In the first paper, Tatiana BOTCH M.S. & V.V. MASING (1979): BOH M.C., Ma3MHr B.B. 3KooiCTeubi 60J10T CCCP. Jl.:Hayxa. 1979. 188 YURKOVSKAYA presents her own view on the c. (Ecosystems of mires in the USSR.— Nauka, distribution of mire types in Russia. The au- Leningrad: 1-188. In Russian). thors of the second sketch offer a brief idea BOTCH, M.S. & V.V. MASING (1983): Mire ecosystems of main types of mire use, threats to them, in the USSR. — In: GORE A.J.P. (Ed.), Ecosystems and mire conservation in Russia. Two addi- of the World. Volume 4B - Mires: Swamp, tional regional papers are devoted to two Bog, Fen, and Moor. Regional Studies. Elsevi- contrasting mire sites - one in Western er, Amsterdam: 95-152. Siberia, and one in Western European Rus- DOKTUROVSKI V.S. (1915):flOKTyDOBCKMM B.C . BO/lOTa, sia. A group of authors prepared a paper de- crpoeHne M pa38HTne m. 1-e M3flaHtte. EeHflepu: BeHflepcKoe 3eMCT80, 1915. 68 c. (Mires, their scribing the world's largest mire - the Great structure and development. First edition. — Vasyugan Mire. We are sorry to say that this Bendery: Benderskoje Zemstvo, 1915: 1-119. was the last work of Olga LlSS, a mire scien- In Russian). tist who devoted many years of her life to DUBAKH A.D. (1936): flyßax A.A. OnepxH no rnaponornn the selfless study of Western Siberia's expan- 60J10T. PefliUflaT UYErMC, 1936. 119 c. (Sketches sive mires. The chapter ends with a short on mire hydrology. — 119 pp. In Russian). sketch about inner-mire mineral islands in DUBAKH A.D. (1944): flyöax A.fl. rnflpojiornsi 6O;IOT. Jl: the Polisto-Lovat mire system in western rViflpoMeTeoMAaT, 1944. 228 c. (Mire hydrology. European Russia and about the interactions — Hydrometeoizdat, Leningrad: 1-228. In Russian). of mires with other landscapes and man. We hope that readers will acquire some sense for Dynamics of mire ecosystems of Northern Eurasia in Holocene (1998) — In: ELINA G.A., KUZNETSOV Russian mires, for their diversity, and for O.L. & P.F. SHEVELIN (Eds.),.Materials of Interna- their importance to humans. tional Symposium Petrozavodsk, 5-9 October, 1998. Karelian Research Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Petrozavodsk: 1-55.
Acknowledgements GALKINA E.A. (1946): fanxMHa E.A. EojiOTHwe naHfluia$Tbi vi npuHqunbi MX KJiaccvicpvuoLivivi. C6. HayMHux pafcT We would like to gratefully thank Olga MHCTMTyra MM. B./l.KoMapoBa, STEPANOVA and Melissa MOOZA for translat- B JieHMHrpajie 3a Tpn rofla Be^MKOü ing and language editing all of the articles in OeHecTBeHHOü BOMHU (1941-1943). Jl., 1946. this chapter. C.139-156. (Mire landscapes and the princi- ples of their classification. — In: A collection of scientific works of the Komarov Botanical References Institute carried out in Leningrad during the three years of the Great Patriotic War (1941- Action Plan for Peatland Conservation and Use in 1943). Leningrad: 139-156. In Russian). Russia (2003) —Wetlands International Russia Programme, 2003, Moscow: 1-20. Genesis and dynamics ... (1978): feeac n ot-auvaa tarr. t/L-MSy, 1978, 200 c (Genesis and dy- Anthropogenic changes ... (1985): AHTponoreHHHe namics of mires. — Moscow State University K3MSH8HC! &GBT M KX axpSJffi TS3- PPUl 6-fO SSyH. Publishing House, Moscow: 1-200. In Russian). ceuxHapa no pauK0Han>H0!ay KcnaTbaraa™» ton. MHHOC Hayna H raoooca, 1985, 43 c. (Anthro- IVANOV K.E. (1953): IteaHOB K.E. rMflKUionci SOJIOT. /1.: pogenic changes of mires and their conserva- rMApouerecptmoniHecicoe MSflarejibcrBO, 1953.299 c. tion. Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on (Mire hydrology. — Gidrometeorologichesko- Peatland Wise Use. — Nauka i Technika. Min- je Izdatelstvo, Leningrad, 1953:1-299. In Russ- sk: 1-43. In Russian). ian).
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IVANOV K.E. (1957): MBaHOB K.E. OCHOBU rnflporaniM Mires and paludified forests ... (1999): EonoTa n (SO/IOT necHOii MHbi n pacMeTw BOflHoro SanaHca 6ojio- 3a6ontweHHbie neca B esere 3anaM ycroünviBoro npMpo- THbK uacotBOB. Jl.: fiiApoMeTeoiaflaT, 1957. 500 c. Aonojib3OBaHMsi. MaTepxajiu coBemaHnn. flo« pefl. (The foundations of mire hydrology in the C.3. BounepcKoro n A.A. CiipxHa. M. TEOC. 392 c. forest zone and calculations of the water bal- (Mires and paludified forests in frame of the ance of mire massifs. — Hydrometeoizdat, sustainable nature use tasks. — In: VOMPERSKY Leningrad, 1957: 1-500. In Russian). S.E. & A.A. SIRIN (Eds.), Proceedings of the workshop. Geos Publ., Moscow: 1-392. In IVANOV K.E. (1975): MBaHOB K.E. BoflOo6ueH B (xuiombn Russian). jiaH#iia
KATS N.Ya. (1971): Kau H. 51. So/iOTa 3eMHoro wapa. M.: Peatland resources... (1989): Pecypcu ÖOJIOT CCCP M HayKa, 1971. 295 c. (Swamps of the Earth — nym m HcnonwoBaHUü. flofl pea. C.3.BoMnepcKoro, Nauka, Moscow: 1-295. In Russian). K).C.npo3opoBa. XaöapoBCK: flBO PAH, 1989. 160 c. Main principles ... (1972): OcHOBHbie npKHurnibi (Peatland resources in the USSR and the main Hbix (moreoueHO3OB. flofl pea. directions of their use. — In: VOMPERSKY S. & O. Jl.: HayKa, 1972. 119 c. (Main Yu. PROZOROV (Eds.), Far East Branch of Acade- principles of investigating mire biogeoceno- my of Science, Khabarovsk: 1-160. In Russian). sis. — In: PYAVCHENKO N.I. (Ed.), Nauka, Peatlands of Russia ... (2001): Top
Mire systems of Western Siberia (2001): /luce O.J1., PYAVCHENKO N.I. (1963): flbüBHeHKO H.H. JlecHoe AfipaMoaa n.M., AseTOB H.A., M pp. EonoTHbie cMcreMbi 60/iOTOsefleHne. M. M3fl. AH CCCP, 1963. 192 c. 3anaflHoü Cn6npn n nx npnpoaooxpaHHoe 3HaHeHMe. (Forest mire science. — USSR AS Publ., riofl pefl. B.E. KyBaesa. Ty/ia, PpiKp M K°, 584 c. Moscow: 1-278. In Russian). (Mire Systems of Western Siberia and their PYAVCHENKO N.I. (1985): flbsiBMeHKO H.H. Topcpsmbie nature conservation role. — In: KUVAEV V.B. SonoTa, HX npnpofiHoe n xo3üücTBeKHoe 3HaneHne. (Ed.), Grif, Tula: 1-584. In Russian). Mocxaa: HayKa, 1985. 152 c. (Peatlands, their Mire types of the USSR ... (1974): Tnnbi 6OJIOT CCCP natural and economic value. — Nauka, n npHHqnnw nx luiaccncpnnam™. flofl pen. Moscow: 1-152. In Russian). TJ.A6paM0B0ii, M.C.EOM, E.A.rajiHHoii. Jl.: Hayxa, ROMANOV V.V. (1961): PoMaHOB B.B. TnflpoiJjionKa 6onoT. 1974, 254 c. (Mire types in the USSR and prin- Jl.: ruflpoMeTeowflaT, 1961. 360 c. (Hydrophysics ciples of their classification. — In: ABRAMOVA of mires. — Hydrometeoizdat, Leningrad: 1- T.F., BOTCH M.S. & E.A.GALKINA (Eds.), Nauka, 360. In Russian). Leningrad: 1-254. In Russian). ROMANOV V.V. (1968a): Hydrophysics of bogs. — Is- Mires and mire berries ... (1979): EojiOTa n 6onoTHbie rael Program for Scientific Translations, sroAHHKH. TpyAbi flapBHHOoro rocyflapcmeHHoro Jerusalem. 3anoBe«HHKa. Bun.XV. floa pea. M.C.EOM. CeB.-3an. M3Ä-B0, 1979. 176 c. (Mires and mire berries. — ROMANOV V.V. (1968b): Evaporation from bogs in In: BOTCH M. (Ed.), Proceedings of Darvinsky the European territory of the USSR. — Israel State Nature Reserve. North-West Publishing Program for Scientific Translations, House, Vologda: 1-176. In Russian). Jerusalem.
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SIRIN A. & T. MINAYEVA (2003): The role of C. A. We- tory of Russia as factor of atmospheric carbon ber in the development of Russian mire sci- fixation. — In: Selected scientific transactions ence. — In: COUWENBERG J. & H. JOOSTEN (Eds.), on the problem: "Global Biosphere Evolution. C.A. Weber and the raised bog of Augstumal The Anthropogenic Input". The Scientific - with a translation of the 1902 monograph Council "Global Changes in Environment and by Weber on the "Vegetation and develop- Climate": 124-144. In Russian). ment of the raised bog of Augstumal in the Memel Delta". Grif, Tula, 2002: 22-29. Western Siberian peatlands and carbon cycle: past and present (2001) — In: VASIUEV S.V., Structure and development ... (1989): CTpyioypa H TYTLYANOVA A.A. & A.A. VEUCHKO (Eds.), Pro- pa38nme 6on0THbix anocncTeM n peKOHcrpyxum ceedings of the Intern. Field Symposium naneoreorpaiJWHecKMx ycnoBnü. Roa pea. M.MnoMeTca. (Noyabrsk, Aug. 18-22, 2001). Agenstvo TarowHH: Axafl. Hayx SCTOHIW. - 1989. 137 c. Sibprint, Novosibirsk: 1-250. (Structure and development of mire ecosys- tems and paleogeographic reconstructions. YURKOVSKAYA T.K. (1992): tOpKOBOcaü T.K. feorpaipvisi M — In: ILOMETS M. (Ed.), Estonian AcSci Publish- Kaprorpacpvta pacmre/ibHocTM OOJIOT EBponeüCKOfi ing House, Tallinn: 1-137. In Russian). Poccttn H conpeaejibHbix TeppnTopnS. Cfl6., Tpyabi BMH PAH, BbinycK 4. 256 c. (Geography and cartog- SUKATCHEV V.N. (1914): Cymes B.H. BonoTa, KX raphy of mire vegetation in European Russia o6pa3OBaHne, pa3BHTxe n ceoücrBa. C6. nexuHA and adjacent areas. — Transactions of the Ko- TpeTbMXflOnOJIHMTe/lbHblX KypCOB «IH JieCHMHMX. CF16., marov Botanical Institute 4, St.-Petersburg: 1- 1914. C. 249-405 (Mires, their genesis, devel- 256. In Russian). opment, and features. — In: Collection of lec- tures for the third additional courses for ZINSERUNG Yu.D. (1938): L|nH3epjiiiHr lO.fl. foresters. St-Petersburg: 249-405. In Russian). PacTMTe/ibHocTb 60TOT. B: PacmrenbHOCTb CCCP. T.1. TANFIUEV G.I. (1888): TamfMibeB P.M. 0 6owrax Jl., 1938. C.325-428. (Vegetation of mires. — neTepöyprcKoÄ ryßepmm. - Tpyaw Bo/ibHoro SKOH. Vegetation of the USSR, Leningrad 1: 355- OömecTBa Cfl6, 1888, Bbin. 2, C.50-80. (On mires 428. In Russian). of the Petersburg Province. —Transactions of ZHILINSKY I.I. (1875): >KM^MHCKMM U.M. 0 pe3ynbTaTax the Independent Economic Society, St-Peters- Hcc/ieflOBaHHs H onbiT ocyujKn 6onoT B FIHHCKOM burg, 2: 50-80. In Russian). rionecbe. M3B. PyccKoro reorpacpHMecKoro o6m-Ba, TYUREMNOV S.N. (1940): TiopeMHOB C.H. TopcpüHbie 1875, T. 6, OTfl. 1. C. 64-67. (Research results MecTopoxyieHHü. rbcTorrrexM3flaT, MocKBa. 371c. and experience in mire drainage in Pinskoye (Peat deposits. — Gostoptekhizdat, Moscow: Polessye. — Proceedings of the Russian Geo- 1-371. In Russian). graphic Society, 6/1: 64-67. In Russian). TYUREMNOV S.N. (1949): TiopeMHOB C.H. Toptpmie Me- CTOpoxgieHwi H MX pa3Beai TYUREMNOV S.N. (1976): TiopeMHOB C.H. ToprpiWbie si. M3«. 2-e nepepalkrraHHoe v. aono- e. MocKBa: HeApa. 488 c. (Peat deposits. Second edition, revised and expanded. — Ne- dra, Moscow: 1-488. In Russian). VIKHLYAEV I.I. (1914): BtmraeB M. M. McTopxa ToptpflHoro Aejia B POCCHK. fleTporpafl, 1914. 20 c. (History of the peat business in Russia. — Petrograd: 1- 20. In Russian). Address of the authors: VOMPERSKY S.E., IVANOV A.I., TSYGANOVA O.P., VALYAE- Tatiana MINAYEVA VA N.A., GLUKHOVA T.V., DUBININ A.I., GLUKHOV Wetlands International Russia Programme A.I. & L.G. MARXELOVA (1994): Bog organic soils Nikoloyamskaya str., 19, bld.3, Moscow, and bogs of Russia and the carbon pool of their peat. — Eurasian Soil Science 28:91-105. Russia, 109240. VOMPERSKY S.E., TSYGANOVA OJ5, KOVALYOV A.G., E-Mail: [email protected] GUIKHOVA T.V. & NA VALYAEVA (1999): Andrey SlRJN Bounepaaiü C.3., LjuraHOBa O.fl., Koaanes A.F., Laboratory of peatland T.3., Ba--3ie3a H.A. 3a6a-i«eHKOCTb wppti- PCCCHU K2X ({HXTOp rRtnwaamra aTUOOpepHOrO forestry and hydrology Vtoßp. Hay™, ipysu no npo&isue Institute of Forest Science Russian Academy of Sciences, Uspenskoye, BKnafl». M.: HayHHKA CoBeT HTTI H3M8HSHMH npXpOAHOÜ CpSffJ M KTJaaTan, 1999. C. Moscow Region, Russia, 143030 124-144. (The paludification rate of the terri- E-Mail: [email protected] 260 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Distribution of Mire Types in Russia T. YURKOVSKAYA Abstract: Mire distribution is distinctly connected with bioclimatic zonation. From tundra regions, to the southern limit of the taiga, the following mires types give way to each other sequentially: polygo- nal, palsa, ribbed fens (aapa), and raised bogs. Herbaceous and herbaceous-moss fens occur in all zones and regions. From the north to the south, they differ in their community structure, species composition, and syntaxonomical composition. In boreal and nemoral regions, forest swamps are distributed. In each bioclimatic zone, not one, but rather several, of the aforementioned regional mire types is found, and their distribution ranges are overlapping. Key words: bioclimatic zonation, polygonal mire, palsa mire, ribbed fen, bog, unpatterned fen, swamp, Russia Introduction of Ratmanov Island (169°02' W). Russia's northernmost point on the continent is sit- With its borders extending for 60.900 uated in Siberia, on the Taimyr Peninsula, km, Russia occupies a considerable part of at Point Cheluskin (77°43'N), whereas the northern Eurasia. The country's territory northernmost point on an island is Point stretches for more than 4.000 km from Fligeli on Rudolf Island (81°51'N), which is north to south, and for 10.000 km from west part of the Franz Josef Archipelago. And, fi- to east. When considering the geography of nally Russia's southernmost point can be vegetation cover (including mires as an in- found in the Caucasus, on the border with tegral part), it is worthwhile to examine a Azerbaijan and southwest Mount Bazard- geographical map. It helps to have an un- zuzu (41°00- N). derstanding of the actual size of the country, its reach from north to south, and from west The main factor influencing mire type to east, and to realize its place among other distribution is climate. Thus, we will intro- countries and its position on our planet. A duce Eurasian bioclimatic zonation and how geographical map offers the opportunity to it presents within Russia. We will further see the location of low and up-lifted plains, follow these zones to describe mire types. mountains, rivers, lakes, and seas, i.e. the whole environment in which living nature Bioclimatic Zonation exists. Therefore, I recommend that you and Azonal Factors have a geographical map in front of you when reading this paper. Two huge lowlands lie in the western part of Russia: the Eastern European Low- First, of all, look at a map of Eurasia, and land in European Russia and the Western then at a map of Russia. You'll see that Rus- Siberian Lowland in the Asian part of the sia's westernmost point is located on the country. They are separated by the Ural Baltic Spit (19°38' E). The easternmost Mountains. In these plains, bioclimatic point on the continent is on the Bering zonation is clearly pronounced. At the same Strait, which separates Asia and North time, almost the entire eastern part of Asian America; specifically, this point is Point Russia (from the Yenisey River eastward) is Dezhnev, located on the Chukotka Peninsu- occupied by mountains and high plateau. It la (169°40'W). The easternmost point on is well known that, in mountainous areas, it an island can be found on the eastern shore is difficult to trace latitudinal zonation as al- 261 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Fig. 2: Mire Distribution in Russia. 1 - Herbaceous-moss fens; 2 - Polygonal titudinal zonation becomes more pro- outside of Russia. Mire distribution is dis- mires and herbaceous-moss fens; 3 - nounced. Zonation is also affected by the tinctly connected with bioclimatic zones Palsa mires with participation of ribbed huge expanses of ocean area that are re- and subzones. The highest percentage of fens and unpatterned fens; 4 - Raised bogs; 5 - Raised bogs with participation sponsible for transferring air masses and mires by area can be observed in the north- of ribbed fens; 6 - Raised bogs with thus, moisture. First, in the Far East, let us ern part of the country. In some boreal re- prevailing ribbed fens; 7 - Raised bogs note the influence of Pacific monsoons, gions, such as the Western Siberia or White with prevailing fens; 8 - Herbaceous- which transform zonal regularities and influ- sedge fens with raised bogs and Sea Lowlands, for example, the portion of occasional palsa; 9 - Reed fens; 10 - ence all natural processes in the region. In paludified lands can be as high as 50-80%. Mires in mountains, muskeg, and palsa; the North, the Arctic Ocean's cold masses 11 - Mires in highlands; 12-Territory play a great role, as 14% of Russia's territory with occasional presence of mires. is situated north of the Polar Circle. In the Latitudinal Mire Distribution West, Atlantic Ocean air masses penetrate (Mires from North to South) the continent as far as the Western Siberian After briefly introducing you to Russia's Lowland. Therefore, there is not a single bioclimatic zonation, we will now lead you bioclimatic zone, which extends across the through the entire country from the far ex- country from west to east, as might be seen treme north to the south. From the tundra on some maps. Latitudinal zonation is well- to the southern limit of the taiga, the fol- defined within certain meridial sectors and lowing types of mires give way to each oth- provinces, primarily within the plains. Five er sequentially: polygonal, palsa, ribbed fens bioclimatic zones are distinguished within (aapa), and raised bogs (Fig. 2). Herbaceous Russia. They are, from north to south: Arc- and herbaceous-moss fens have the widest tic (tundra); boreal (taiga); nemoral (broad- distribution range. They are found from the leaved forest); steppe; and desert. Only in high arctic till the southern limits of Russia. the European part of Russia can one observe It does not however mean that those mires all of the aforementioned zones in their typ- are azonal. From the north to the south they ical sequence. In Siberia, the nemoral rone change their floristic composition, syntax- is absent, although it appears again in the onomy, and type along with the latitudinal Far East. In Asian Russia, the steppe zone is gradient.) represented only by its northern subzones. In Asia, both the southern part of the steppe zone and the desert zone can be found only 262 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Arctic Mires The Arctic is considered to be the terri- tory situated north of the polar forest boundary up to the northernmost terrestrial limits (ALEXANDROVA 1980). Within Rus- sia, the Arctic occupies a vast area extend- ing longitudinally over 150°, from the At- lantic to the Pacific Oceans. Mires comprise a significant part of vegetation cover in the Arctic, except in high latitudes (the High Arctic Tundra Subzone). The main reason for this is that permafrost creates a layer that is impenetrable by water. During the short period of warmth in the summer, water from snow melt stays in place because of "hy- droisolation". Permafrost is also responsible for the uniquely patterned structure of Arc- tic mires, which is formed by thermokarst processes. ing from 1 to 4 meters. Crack widths are de- Photo 2. t-hgr. centred polygon mire The Arctic mire systems are presented scribed as being 0.5-1 m for the European complexes in Eastern European northern by herbaceous and herbaceous-moss fens tundra. North, while PYAVCHENKO (1955) has re- in river and stream valleys and in sea low- ported widths of 4 m and more for the Yamal lands, and polygonal mires and palsa mires Peninsula. in watersheds. Peat deposits in polygon mires are Polygonal mires are the most remark- able Arctic mire type. My colleague, Prof. formed by sedges, brown mosses and horse- Galina ELINA (1993), has come up with an tails. They are shallow and often include silt apt expression for them: "checkered mires." or sand. For most of the year, the peat is Their polygonal structure arises from the frozen, which prevents it from decomposing. network of deep cracks, which divides the Typical vegetation cover structure, in- mire surface into polygons. cluding that for polygonal mires, is present- Fig. 3: The entire structure of polygon Scientists have distinguished low-cen- ed by mixed mire massifs formed by combi- mires. 1 - polygons and cracks; 2 - hollows tred and high-centred morphological types nations of polygonal complexes and homo- in polygons; 3 - sedge-cotton grass fens in polygon mires. High-centred complexes are comprised of flat polygons separated by cracks, as can be seen in the picture. Thus, high-centred polygon mire complexes have two morphological elements: polygons and cracks. Low-centred complexes have plate- like depressions in the center of the poly- gon, which form a hollow. The lower part of the polygon, or hollow, is distinguished from the crack by a type of rim. Therefore, three morphological parts can be distinguished in low-centred polygon mires: a hollow, a rim, and a crack. The hollow and rim form a polygon. The scheme (Fig. 3) helps to un- derstand the entire structure. The height of the polygons varies from 0.25 to 0.7 m, and their diameter ranges from 10 to 40 m. Rims rise above the hol- lows by 0.25-0.35 m and have widths rang- 263 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at matic conditions of the Asian part of Russia. Polygonal mires are widespread on the Ya- mal Peninsula, and frequently occur on the Gydan and Taymyr Peninsulas, and in Northern Yakutia and Chukotka (Fig. 2). However, in a map published in 1979, I pre- sented data on polygonal mire findings in the northeastern part of European Russia (ISACHENKO & LAVREKKO 1979). Through aerial-visual and land-surface field studies, together with aerial photographs analysis, S.A.GRIBOVA and I discovered a rather ex- tensive range of polygonal mires located be- yond their previously known geographic limits (GRIBOVA & YURKOVSKAYA 1984). This altered the traditional understanding that polygonal mires are a typical feature for the northern part of Asian Russia and for North America. In European Russia, polyg- onal mires are confined to the northern Photo 3: Low-centred polygon mire geneous sedge fens. Fig. 3 presents a large- (typical) tundra strip and occur in its north- complexes in Taymyr peninsula. Photo by scale map, which illustrates such a mire A.NECHAEV. eastern part (Fig. 4) in the Malozemelskaya massif. It includes a linear depression with a and Bolshezemelskaya tundra and on the stream, surrounded by sedge and sedge-cot- Yugor Peninsula. They are found in the ton grass plant communities, together with basins of the Kheyakha, Sibirchatayakha, polygonal complexes of different forms such Korotaykha and Chernaya Rivers, extend- as quadrangular to polygonal, with a flat sur- ing to the Kara River. The westernmost lo- face or various-sized hollows bordered by cations of polygonal mires were recorded in rims. the eastern part of the Malozemelskaya tun- dra, in the region of the Nenetsky Ridge. For a long time, polygonal mires were Here, they are especially numerous in the considered to be a typical phenomenon for Neruta River Valley. The southernmost Asian Russia and the North American Arc- Fig. 4: Distribution of Polygonal Mires in polygonal mires are recorded in the upper the European Part of Russia: 1 - Polygonal tic only (KATS 1948, BOTCH & MASING flow of the Kolva River. These results have mires; 2 - Southern boundary of the 1979, KIVINEN & PAKARINEN 1981, etc.). To northern tundra; 3 - Boundary between been reflected in a number of maps, includ- some extent, this is true; they are more low-dwarf-birch and tall-dwarf-birch strips ing "Vegetation Map of Europe" (2001), as of the southern tundra. widelv distributed in the continent.il cli- well as in other publications (YURKOVSKAYA 1992, Succow & JOOSTEN 2001). I have shown polygonal mires for the entire Russ- ian Arctic in the "Vegetation Map of the USSR" (1990). The southern limit of polygonal mires generally coincides with the southern boundary of the northern (typical) tundra subzone, although in some places the mires extend southward and occur in a northern strip of the southern tundra subrone, a strip of low-dwarf-birch tundra (Fig. 4). The southern boundary of polygonal mires in the European North is shifted considerably northward, compared to that in western Siberia. In general, the latitudinal range of polygonal mires in northeastern Europe is substantially narrower than tt is in Siberia. 264 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at noo 1200 WA, »7 in \a. Fig. 5: Graded Profile of Palsa Mire in Northern Forest-tundra (Pechora River REBR1STAYA (2000) wrote that on the Yamal "Palsa" is a term to describe a mound of peat Basin). I - Palsa weakly divided complex; II- Peninsula, polygonal mires extend from the containing a core of ice lenses that remain III - Palsa-ridge-hollow complexes; IV-VI - Flat palsa complex; VII - Herb swamp; VIM - southern strip of the Arctic tundra subzone frozen throughout the year. Palsa have vari- Edge vegetation. 1 - Melted peat, 2 - up to the northern forest-tundra, but they ous forms. They may be rounded, laciniate, Frozen peat, 3 - Mineral ground, 4 - Water, are most numerous and floristically rich in or stretched into ridge-like forms. The top 5 - Ledum palustre, 6 - Chamaedaphne calyculata, 7 - Rubus chamaemorus, 8 - of palsa can be dome-shaped or flat. Palsa the subzone of northern (typical) tundra. Carex magellanica, 9 - Crariflora, 10 - varies greatly in size. Their height averages Crotundata, 11 - Eriophorum vaginatum, Herbaceous and herbaceous-moss fens from one to four meters, with diameters 12 - E.russeolum, 13 - E.polystachion, 14 - are distributed across the entire Arctic. In ranging from 10-30 m. Much larger palsas Baeothryon caespitosum. the high Arctic, on the islands of the Arctic Note: The bottom is represented by a have also been described. Palsa differ not dotted line. Therefore, the sampling of Ocean (Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, only in their morphology, but also in their mineral ground was conducted for melted Severnaya Zemlya, and the DeLong Islands) location within the structure of mire mas- peat only; for frozen peat, it is estimated. only herbaceous-moss fens occur. Most typ- sifs. They may be presented by a single palsa ical for the coastal part of the Arctic are with an adjacent hollow or lake; or by a grass-sedge fens with Dupontia fischeri and group of palsas in the middle of water. Some Carex stans. These fens are characterised by mire massifs with palsas can be likened to high water saturation and often merge with raised bogs in their morphology and compli- salted marshes, thus forming huge wetlands. cated structure of vegetation cover. The Throughout the entire tundra, except in the highest part of such a mire massif usually has high Arctic, sedge-cotton-grass-moss fens a palsa complex, which is hardly pro- occur with Eriophorum medium, E. russe- nounced. The slopes are occupied by high olum, E. polystachion, Carex chordorrhiza, C. palsa-hollow and high palsa-ridge-hollow concolor, etc. in river and stream valleys, in complexes. At the edges, flat palsa-hollow lake depressions, as well as in coastal low- complexes follow each other, and after lands (at some distance from coast). In them, marginal herbaceous-swamps extend Siberia, peculiar fens called "khasyrei" can up to the edge of the mire. Sections of such be found. They replace lakes naturally massifs have a complicated, graded profile drained due to the thermokarst processes, (Fig. 5). what is usual phenomenon in this area. These fens are overgrown with long rhi- Peat deposits in palsa mires are diverse zomatous grasses and cotton grasses (Arc- in composition. Peat depth can reach 4-5 m, tophila fulva, Calamagrosas langsdorfii, but is usually much less deep. Deposits are Dupontia fisheri, Eriophorum scheuchzeri). primarily frozen and can melt in the sum- mertime up to depths of 25-40 cm below In his review, KATS (1948, 1971) recog- the surface of the palsas, and from 75 cm nized the integrated zone of sedge mineral and more to the bottom in hollows. fens without delineating a special zone for For palsa, species of dwarf birch are most polygonal mires. Regardless, I managed to characteristic, and are especially abundant find descriptions of this key fen type only in at the foot of palsas. Regional differences are publications after REBRISTAYA (1977, 2000). marked by different dwarf birch species. For Another peculiar mire type is the so- example, Betula nana grows in the European called "palsa-mire" type. It is associated North and in western Siberia, whereas B. with the sporadic distribution of permafrost. exilis can be found in central and eastern 265 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at sub:one. In Asian Russia, the geographic range of palsa mires lies outside of the Arc- tic, extending from the southern forest-tun- dra to the northern taiga, inclusively, and moving far southward over the mountains and occurring locally in regions with per- mafrost islands, for instance, almost in the southern Far East. Their northernmost loca- tion is on Kolguev Island. Russia's palsa mires are described by PYAVCHENKO (1955). Their geographic range may be termed Arc- tic-boreal, and if one uses floristic terminol- ogy, they have typical meta-arctic range. It should also mentioned that the region of palsa mire distribution is the ecotone be- tween the Arctic and boreal mire ranges. It should be noted that Arctic mires are poor- ly studied, and that most investigations were conducted before the 1950s. Mire scientists work in the Arctic on a case to case basis. Photo 4: On a flat palsa mire. The author Siberia. European palsas are usually treeless. The exception to this is the study by and Prof. Stanislav Vompersky are standing In western Siberia, Pinus sylvestris, P. sibirica at the center of the group. PYAVCHENKO (1955). Arctic mires are also and sometimes Larix sibirica grow on palsas, Photo by A. SIRIN. underrepresented in official state invento- while in eastern Siberia and in the Far East ries, such as geological surveys. They are, - Larix gmelinii grows. Among local features, however, partly mapped within the land one can note the absence of Ledwn species cadastre. on palsas on Kolguev Island, while it regu- larly occurs on palsas on the continent. The tops of high palsas are often eroded and lack Boreal Mires vegetation. Lichens are sometimes abun- Boreal mires are presented by ribbed dant on palsas, especially Cetraria cucuUata fens (or "aapa" mires) and raised bogs. and C. nivalis. The next mire type in the north-south In European Russia, palsa mires appear Photo 5: Closer to river valleys the palsas sequence is ribbed fen (aapa mires). Since south of the Arctic, but they are most dis- become of considerable height. CAJANDER (1913) described and defined tinctive outside of it, in the forest- tundra Photo by A. SIRIN. this mire type for the first time, ribbed fens have attracted the attention of researchers (ZINSERLING 1932, 1938, KATS 1948, YURKOVSKAYA 1964, 1992, ELINA et al. 1984, KUZNETSOV 1986, ALEKSEEVA 1988, etc.). Nevertheless, our knowledge of these mires has been poor up until now. The main teatures of ribbed fens are as follows: they have a concave surface; high water satura- tion in the central part with a heterotroph- ic string-flark complex; and an oligotrophic development trend at the periphery. The latter means that the center of the mire is xxupied by communities with higher min- eral nutrition demands. Usually, these are herbaceous and herbaceous-moss communi- ties in flarks, and herbaceous-sphagnum on strings, while at the edges, they are mesooligotrophic dwarf shrub-peatmoss with pine trees and Sphagnum fuscum. 266 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Atmospheric, deluvial water, and under- ground water discharge provide water-min- eral supply. The diversity and relative rich- ness of mineral nutrition are responsible for the diversity of vegetation cover in ribbed fens. There, we find three dominating synu- sia: herbaceous, peatmoss and brown moss (Amblystegiaceae). Their ratio and role in the composition of vegetation cover varies distinctly depending on their location with- in the mire massif. The positive elements of microrelief and marginal parts of mire mas- sifs are dominated by peatmoss synusia. Negative forms of microrelief, mainly in the central parts of the mire massifs, are occu- pied by herbaceous and brown mosses synu- sia. The presence of herbaceous flarks, which lack moss cover, is one of the charac- teristic features of ribbed fens. The increas- ing role of sphagnum synusia in the north Photo 6: Ribbed fen in the north taiga in West Siberia. Photo by A. SIRIN. and south of the geographic range of ribbed fens massifs should be noted. They are well distinguished by airplane, as well as in aeri- al and satellite images, due to the peculiar structure of string-flark complexes: thin, winding light strings on a dark background of watered flarks. The heterogeneity of vegetation cover is reflected in peat deposit composition (Fig. 6). Peat deposits are eutrophic or mesotrophic in the center, and mixed at the edges of the mire massif. The picture illus- trates the differences in botanical composi- tion and pH indices under different ele- ments of a string-flark complex (high string with Sphagnum fuscum, low string with the dominance of S. papillosum and flark). As a whole, the peat deposit is comprised of eu- trophic and mesotrophic peat, with thick- ness varying from 1-2 to 6-7 m. Photo 7: Ribbed fen from the air. Photo by P. TOKAREV. J» «* /» m m 4M 9 267 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at T f T ? ? T, t . I 2 I 3 I « I 5 I . V? «Pi Fig. 7: Profile of an Eastern European Raised Bog. 1 - ft'cea obovata. 2 - Betula pubescens 3 - Pinus sylvestris f. uliginosa, A- P. silvestris f. litwinowii, S - P. sylvestris Investigations conducted during the last the area occupied by different mire types f. wilkommii, 6 - Ledum palustre, 7 - quarter of the twentieth century confirmed change depending on geomorphologic, Chamaedaphne calyculata, 8 - Betula nana, the a priori statement of R.UUHIJÄRVI (1960) edaphic, and hydrologic conditions, just fol- 9 - Eriophorum vaginatum, about the panboreal distribution of ribbed lowing the regularity of changes in dark and 10 - Scheuchzeria palustris, 11 - fiufaus chamaemorus, 12 - Vaccinium myrtillus, fens. Localities of ribbed fens in Canada light coniferous forests in the taiga. 13 - Equisetum fluviatile, have been mapped (ZOLTAI & POLLETT 1983, Raised bogs are the most dominant mire 14 - Calamagrostis canescens, WELLS & ZOLTAI 1985). They occur in the 15 - Phalaroides arundinacea; eutrophic type in Russia, both in their coverage and in peats: 16 - Hypnum, 17 - Equisetum peat; northern USA from the state of Maine over peat storage. They are most diverse with re- transitional peats: 18-wood, 19-birch, to Minnesota (GLASER et al. 1981, HOFSTET- spect to their complicated structure, genesis, 20 - birch-cottongrass, 21 - wood- TER 1985, DAVIS & ANDERSON 2001). Some and geomorphology. Common features for Sphagnum, 22 - Sphagnum, data on ribbed fens in Siberia are also avail- 23 - Scheuchzeria-Sphagnum, 24 - sedge, raised bogs are: a domed surface; poor, but 25 - cottongrass; raised-bog peats: able (STOROZHEVA 1960, ROMANOVA &. highly specific biota; thick peat deposits 26 - cottongrass-Sphagnum (Sph. fuscum), USOVA 1969, TODOSIJCHUK 1974, PREYS formed by sphagnum oligotrophic macrofos- 27 - cottongrass-Sphagnum (Sph. 1978, SMAGIN 2002). Analysis and interpre- sils; primarily atmospheric nutrition; and magellanicum), 28 - cottongrass-Sphagnum {Sph. angustifolium), 29 - cotton grass- tation of satellite images has definitively low levels of mineralization and high acidi- Sphagnum (Sph. hollow), 30 - cotton grass, confirmed the pan-boreal distribution of this ty of water and peat. 31 - fuscum, 32 - Sphagnum hollow, mire type. The geographical distribution of 33 - Scheuchzeria Sphagnum hollow, Large bogs have lake genesis, and their ribbed fens differs in the European and Asian 34 - pine, 35 - stump, 36 - clay, 37 - pit size increases at the mire's expense to the number. parts of Russia. In European Russia, they are surrounding territory. According to phy- restricted to forest-tundra, northern, and tosociological literature, raised bogs primari- middle taiga. In Asian Russia, their range is ly include communities of the Oxycocco- wider, and they extend from the southern Sphagnetea class, but in this paper, raised tundra to the southern taiga. Thus, the bogs are considered as massifs on the whole, northern part of their range overlaps with correspondingly including all diversity of riiat of palsa mires, whereas in the southern macro- and meso-forms and corresponding part of their range, they overlap with raised vegetation from the top of the bog down to bogs (Fig. 2). The nature of Asian ribbed the border of mineral soil. Therefore, if the fens has been studied very little. Neverthe- essential floristic composition of raised bogs less, it is known that ribbed fens always oc- numbers 20 species of vascular plants, it to- cur together with mires of other types (palsa tals 60-90 species for the whole massif. In and raised bogs). In only a few regions, does dieir form, raised bog massifs resemble 268 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at miniature hills. They have a mire massifs distinct top, slope, and foot (edge) (Fig. 7). According to macroform classification, dis- tinctly convex, gradually-convex, and flat- convex peat bogs are distinguished (GALKI- NA 1946). Only a few raised bogs in Russia have a classic concentric form; the majority of them have a gradually-convex surface (excentric bogs). Raised bogs are concentrated in the taiga, but extend beyond it southward, to the nemoral region up to forest-steppe. Ac- cording to BOGDANOVSKAYA-GUIENEUF (1949), we differentiate three groups of raised bogs: "Fuscum", "Magellanicum" and "Degraded". These three categories reflect regional differentiation and the dynamic status of raised bogs. The group "Fuscum" covers typical boreal raised bogs, in which sphagnum mosses have the most significant Russian mire science does not tradition- Photo 8: A hollow with bare peat in the community-building role. The "Magellan- ally give geographical names to regional northern taiga of the European part of Russia. Photo by author. icum" type consolidates all typical raised types of mire massifs. Thus, their distribu- bogs of the southern taiga, the hemiboreal tional range is underscored. The Fuscum and nemoral zones, where peatmosses are group contains 7 regional types of bogs: somewhat overcome by well developed tree North-Karelian, Mid-Karelian, Northwest- stands. In the "Degraded bogs" group, we European, East-European, West-Siberian find raised bogs where the role of peatmoss- boreal, West-Siberian Sub-boreal, and Far- es is weakened by the processes of erosion Eastern. Degraded bogs types are equally di- and denudation that are associated with pe- verse: West-Baltic, East-Baltic, White Sea riodic floods and frost. Peatmosses here are Coastal, Northeast-European, North-Mid- replaced by liverworts and lichens. Ob, Sakhalin, and West-Kamchatka. The raised bogs of the Magellanicum group are In their dynamic aspect, bogs of the represented in Russia by two types: Mid- "Fuscum" group correspond with the mature Photo 9: A ridge-pool complex in the phase of raised bogs, in conditions of opti- Russian and South-Russian. A truly tremen- raised bog. Photo by author. mal development. Bogs of the "Magellan- icum" group correspond with the mature phase, in conditions of limited develop- ment. Bogs of the "Degraded bogs" group correspond with the concluding phase, in conditions of regressed peat formation. Raised bogs of the "Fuscum" group are the most widespread in Russia. Elsewhere in Eurasia, their distribution is limited mainly to northwestern Europe. "Magellanicum" bogs in Russia represent the eastern (conti- nental) part of this group's geographic range, which is now essentially absent from Europe due to peat extraction and drainage. "Degraded" bogs are located primarily in the sub-oceanic boreal and hemiboreal regions, and also include large massifs in moderately continental taiga regions on the Eastern Eu- ropean and Western Siberian plains. 269 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at phorum vaginatum dominates, in larger and watered ones, Scheuchzeria palustris, Carex limosa and other hydrophyllous species. On- ly a few types of raised bogs have homoge- neous vegetation cover; these are usually small, pine-dwarf shrub-sphagnum bogs. They can be found throughout the entire range of raised bogs types, but especially near their southern limit. In European Rus- sia, they are represented by the South-Russ- ian type of the Magellanicum group, and in Siberia, by the West-Siberian Sub-boreal type, known by the term "17am". This is a rather peculiar type, with a distinctly con- centric structure. The typical appearance of these mires is: not large, sharp convex bogs with pine, dwarf-shrubs and Sphagnum fus- cum, rarely of S. magellanicum. They are confined to the southern limits of the taiga, particularly to its small-leaved birch-aspen subzone. Some authors delineate this strip as being a separate bioclimatic zone. These raised bogs of the "ryam" type are also found in the forest-steppe subzone. It is typical for these mires to have a lag as a strip of highly water-saturated tall-grass fens with Phrag- mites australis, Scolochloa festucacea, and tall ^edges. It is presumed that this strip of fens is a buffer against the penetration of salts in- to the waters supplying the "17am," as soils 1 if this strip, especially in the forest-steppe, are very salty. Photo 10: An aerial view of a mire system dous bibliography, which ranges from classic formed by raised bogs and ribbed fens. works to modern publications, is devoted to Sebboloto, Archangelsk oblast. Northern Changes in the vegetation of raised bogs taiga. Russia's raised bogs. It is impossible to de- from west to east are consistent with those scribe them all in a brief outline. in zonal vegetation, but they are less pro- nounced and much more weakly expressed The most characteristic structural parts than changes in mire vegetation in the lati- of raised bogs are the ridge-hollow and tudinal direction. So, throughout the Mid- ridge-pool complexes. Depending on the taiga area, the main forest dominants re- type of bog, they are located on tops or place one another from west to east. But, in slopes. The pattern of these complexes is raised bogs across the entire Mid-taiga, well pronounced in aerial or satellite im- Sphagnum fuscum predominates. Only the ages. presence of geographically different species Ridge-pool and regressive complexes are causes some changes at the level of associa- especially typical for degraded raised bogs. tions and sub-associations. More seldom, higher syntaxa allows one to distinguish re- In regressive complexes, hollows lack peat- gional types among raised bogs. For in- moss cover and bare peat is exposed on the stance, in the Fuscum group, the North- surface. On ridges, Sphagnum fuscum disap- West-European type is characterized by Cal- pears almost completely, as well, and it is re- luna vuigaris, Chamaedaphne cabtculata. placed by lichens. Sphagnum rubellum; in the North-East-Euro- Ridge-hollow complex diversity de- pean type, Calluna vuigaris and S. rubellum pends on the differences in size and ratio of disappear, but Chamaedaphne still dominates ridges and hollows. In small hollows, Eno- in West-Siberian bogs throughout the entire 270 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at range, as does Pmus sylvesais, P. sibirica, while ridge vegetation is presented by Em- pevrum subholarcticum and abundant Vaccini- um vias-idaea. In the group of degraded raised bogs, changes in species and syntaxa composition are not very considerable and are gradual. In the East-Baltic and White Sea Coastal bogs, Calluna vulgaris dominates on ridges; lichens are also abundant. At the same time, species composition reflects the more western and southern position of the East Baltic (Sphag- num rubellum, S. mageüarucum, S. cuspida- turn) and the more northern position of the White Sea: (presence of Sphagnum lindbergii, absence of Sphagnum cuspidatum, S. rubel- lum, abundance in hollows ofCarex rariflora, instead of Carex limosa, presence of Cetraria nivolis). On Sakhalin Island, Sphagnum lenense is the distinguishing species in bogs syntaxonomical composition, from north to Photo 11M sedge fen in the Ob River valley in Western Siberia. Photo by A. SIRIN. of this group; on Kamchatka, Carex midden- south, they are distinctly differentiated by dorfii is the distinguishing species. community structure. For example, an analysis of changes in the mean layer of Sphagnum transitional mires have a spe- herbaceous plant height within communi- cial place among other mire types. On the ties of unpatterned fens from north to south vegetation map of the USSR, I recognized in Eastern Europe creates a very distinct pic- five regional mire types, ranging from the ture (YURKOVSKAYA 1992). western boundary of Russia to the Pacific Ocean (Vegetation of ...1990). It is very im- Forest swamps are also typical for the portant, that this sphagnum bog type be boreal and nemoral region. In the northern traced far northward (to the northern forest- boreal region in the European part of Russia, tundra) and far southward (to the steppe). these are predominantly birch; spruce-birch By this way, that offers the chance for nu- swamps are especially widespread in the ter- merous boreal species to advance further to ritory leading up to the Ural Mountains. the north and south within that mire type. Starting from the southern taiga and in the nemoral region, including forest-steppe, Boreal and Nemoral alder-swamps (with AInus glutinosa) are Unpatterned Fens and Swamps widely distributed in the European Russia. In Siberia, AInus glutinosa dose not occur, Herbaceous and herbaceous-moss fens but forest-swamps are very characteristic for have their own special place in mire vegeta- southern Siberia (LAPSHINA 2003). In tion. They are found within all zones and re- Siberia, they are called by a local term, "so- gions. We have already noted their charac- gra", and are characterized by well devel- teristic features in the Arctic. In the boreal oped mixed tree-stands of Betula pubescens, zone, both small-sedge and tall-sedge fens Pinus sibirica, etc. The so-called peatmoss with Carex rdgra, C.lasiocarpa, C. rostrata, muskegs, with a layer of dwarf-birch, often C, vesicaria, etc. are described. In the with larch (LarixgmeUnii, L. cajanderi), com- nemoral area, tall-sedge fens with Carex prise a type quite characteristic for East acutiformis, C.riparia, C. omskiana prevail. Siberia and the Far East. The tall-grass-reed, reed-sedge fens are typi- cal for the steppe zone. In the Far East, there are very typical fens dominated by Calama- grostis langsdorfii, Carex middendorfii. Various types of fens differ not only by species and 271 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Unfortunately, in Russia, the latter are in- sufficiently, and more importantly, inconsis- tently, studied. This is especially the case for mires in mountainous territories. Acknowledgements I am grateful for the financial support provided by the Russian Fund for Funda- mental Research, Grant 03-04-48791 References AIEKSEEVA R.N. (1988): AnenceeBa P.H. Eo/iora flptineHO- pbs. Jl.:HayKa, 1988. 136 c. (Mires of the Pecho- ra Region. — Nauka, Leningrad: 1-136. In Russian). ALEXANDROVA V.D. (1980): The Arctic and Antarctic: their division into geobotanical areas. — Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1- 247. Photo 12: A black alder-spruce swamp in Conclusion BOGDANOVSKAYA-GUIENEUF Y.D. (1949): BorflaHOBCKas- the southern taiga of the European part of PM3H3(J) H.fl. Tnnw BepxOBbix 6OHOT CCCP. Tpyaw 2-ro Russia. Photo by A. SIRIN. Thus, one can observe a distinct picture BcecoiO3. reorp. ctesaa. M.: reorpa4>rn3, 1949. T.3. of successive latitudinal changes in mire C.144-152. (Types of raised bogs in the USSR. types from north to south. These changes — Proceedings from the second All-Union Ge- correlate with bioclimatic zones. From the ographical Congress. Geographgiz, Moscow 3: 144-152. In Russian). north to the south, not only the flora and vegetation of mires changes, but also their BOHN U.& R. NEUHAUSL (Eds.) (2000): Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas. — Bonn- morphology, peat deposit, and hydrological Bad-Godesberg: 1-9 (Germ./ Eng). regime. Large groups of mire massifs, unit- BOTCH M.S. & V.V. MASING (1979): BOM M.C., Ktawr ing, in their turn, regional types, also B.B. 3K0CMCTeubi ÖOJIOT CCCP. Jl.:HayKa, 1979. 188 change from north to south. Regional types c. (Ecosystems of mires in the USSR. — Nauka, form within groups due to changes along the Leningrad: 1-188. In Russian). oceaneity-continentality gradient in a west- CAJANDER A.K. (1913): Studien über die Moore Fin- east direction, or, more precisely, in two di- lands. — Fennia 35: 1-208. rections - from the west (sub-Atlantic) and DAVIS R.B. 8 D.S. ANDERSON (2001): Classification and distribution of freshwater peatland in from the east (Pacific) to the ultra-conti- Maine. — Northeastern Naturalist 8/1: 1- 50. nental eastern Siberia. These changes defin- ELINA G.A. (1993): Emma T.A. ArrreKa Ha 6onoTe: itively form regional types, but are chiefly nyTewecTBue B HeioBeaaHHwit Mnp. CriC: Hayxa, reflected in floral composition and in 1993. 496 c. (Pharmacy in a mire: a journey to changes in low-level syntaxonomical units an unknown world. — Nauka, St. Petersburg: (associations and subassociations). One of 1-496. In Russian). the essential conclusions of the conducted EUNA G.A., KUZNETSOV O.L. S A.I. MAKSIMOV (1984): analysis is that no :one is dominated by a Fjitwa P.A., KysHeuoe 0.J1., MaxcMMOB A.n. dpyiay- pHO-0yH«mnoHa^bHas oprawuauMs » AHauma 6ono- single mire type or group of types, as sup- THbix SKoccTeu Kapern™. /1., 1984. 128 c. (The porters of mire zone demarcation believe structural-functional organization and dy- (KATS 1948, BOTCH & MASING 1979 etc.). namics of mire ecosystems in Karelia. — Nau- ka, Leningrad: 1-128. In Russian). Each bioclimatic -one or subione (strip) is characterbed not by one regional type, but GALKJNA E-A. (1946): Tanama E.A. EonoTHue irawwacpTbi M npMHUMnu Mx KnaccKpMKauMM. C6. nayMMux paGor by several. In other words, within an indi- EoTamsecicon) MHCTxryra MM. B./l.Kouapoea, Bwno- vidual bioclimatic zone, the ranges of sever- B Jlemwrpafle aa nw roaa Benwoti Oe- al types of mires overlap. It should also be aoÜHbi (1941-1943). /1., 1946. C.139- mentioned that analysis of mire distribution 156. (Mire landscapes and the principles of their classification. — In: A collection of sci- should be based on cartographic sources, as entific works of the Komarov Botanical Insti- well as on data about flora and vegetation. tute carried out in Leningrad during the 272 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at three years of the Great Patriotic War (1941- 598. (Vascular plants of mire communities on 1943). Leningrad: 139-156. In Russian). the Yamal Peninsula. — Siberian Ecol. J. 5: 585-598. In Russian). GLASER P.H., WHEELER CA., GORHAM E. & H.E. WRIGHT (1981): The patterned mires of the Red Lake ROMANOVA E.A. & L.I. USOVA (1969): PouaHOBa E.A., peatland, northern Minnesota vegetation, YcoBa Jl.M. reofiOTaxHHecKafl n KpaTxafl rnfiponorvme- water chemistry and landforms. — J. Ecol. 69/2: 575-599. flena pac Bax n BaxTHHCKnu Eran 3anaAHoü CK6MPM. TpyAbi rrvi. 1969. Bun. 157. C.98-122. (The GRIBOVA S.A. & T.K. YURKOVSKAYA (1984): TpwooBa CA., geobotanical and brief hydrological charac- lOpKOBCKaü T.K. K reorpactmn nonnroHanbHHX OOJIOT teristics of mire landscapes on the interfluve EBponeüocoü Macm CCCP. leorpacpvisi n npxpoAHue of the Vakh and Vakhtinsky Yegan Rivers in pecypcw. 1984. 2. C.41-46. (On the geography western Siberia. — Tr. GGI, Vyp. 1S7, of polygonal mires in the European part of Leningrad: 98-122. In Russian). the USSR. — Geography and natural re- sources 2: 41-46. In Russian). RUUHIJARVI R. (1960): Ober die regionale Einteilung der nordfinnischen Moore. — Ann. Bot Soc. HOFSTETER R.H. (1985): Wetlands in the United Vanamo31/1: 1-360. States. — In: GORE A.I.P. (Ed.), Ecosystem of the world, Mire: swamp, bog, fen and moor. SMAGIN V.A. (2002): CMATWH B.A. O pacTMTenbHOcnt Vol. 4B. Elsevier, Amsterdam: 201-244. 3anaHHO-CM6npcKoro aana-6onoTa. BoTaHHHeocnS )KypHan. T.87. No. 7. C.74-76 (On the vegeta- ISACHENKO T.I. & E.M. LAVRENKO (Eds.) (1979): tion of a western Siberian aapa-mire. — HcaneHKO T.M., JlaspeHKO E.M. KajJTa pacniTejibHOCTM Botanical. J. 87/7: 74-76. In Russian). EBponeücKOÜ nacm CCCP M 1:2,500,000. M.:ryrK. 4 racra. (Vegetation map of the European STOROZHEVA M.M. (1960): CropojKeBa M.M. MaTepwanu K part of the USSR. Scale 1:2,500,000. — GUGK, xapaiaep«cntKe 6onoT BOCTOHHoro anoHa CeBepHoro Moscow, 4 Sheets. In Russian). ypana M 3aypanbsi. Tp. MH-Ta önononiM yo AH CCCP. 1960. Bbin.20. C.1-54 (Materials for the de- KATS N.YA. (1948): Kau H. fl. Tnnbi 6OJIOT CCCP M scription of mires on the eastern slope of the 3ana/)H0ü Eßponbi M nx reorpadpiwecKoe northern Ural Mountains and in the Trans-Ur- pacnpocTpaHeHne. M.: reorpatprn3, 1948. 320 c. al Region. — Tr. Inst. Biol. UF Asci. USSR 20: 1- (Mire types of the USSR and western Europe 54. In Russian). and their geographic range. — Geographgiz, Moscow: 1-328. In Russian). Succow M. & H. JOOSTEN (Eds.) (2001): Landschaft- sökologische Moorkunde. — Stuttgart: 1-622. KATS N.YA. (1971): Kag H. fl. Bomrra 3eMHOro uiapa. M.:HayKa, 1971. 295 c. (Swamps of the Earth. — TODOSIJCHUK I.V. (1974): ToflOceÜMyx M.B. Tnnu 6onoT Nauka, Moscow: 1-295. In Russian). ceBepa 3anaAH0ü Cn6wpn KaK HHflHKaTopw HeKOTopux MH>KeHepHo-reojioriiHecKMx ycnoBnü. THnu ÖOJIOT CCCP KMNEN E. & P. PAKARINEN (1981): Geographical dis- M npuHMünbi MX KnaccMCpMKaivw. Jl., 1974. C.221- tribution of peat resources and major peat- 227. (Mire types of northwestern Siberia as an land complex types in the world. — Ann. indicator of some engineering-geological Acad. Sei. Fennicae Ser. A.lll, 132: 11-28. conditions. — In: Mire types of the USSR and KUZNETSOV O.L. (1986): The structure and age of principles of their classification. Leningrad: ridge-hollow aapa mire complexes. — Univer- 221-227. In Russian). sity Joensuu, Publications of the Karelian In- Vegetation map of the USSR for high schools. stitute 79:73-79. Scale: 1: 4,000.000 (1990) — GUGK, Moscow: LAPSHINA E.D. (2003): JlanuMHa E.fl. (Dnopa (XMIOT Kjro- 4 sheets. In Russian. 0ü Cn6«pn. TOMCK: M3fl-B0 TOMCKOTO Vegetation map of the USSR for high schools. a. 296 c. (Flora of mires of the Scale: 1: 4,000,000: Explanatory text and leg- southeast of Western Siberia. — Tomsk Uni- end (1990) — GUGK, Moscow: 1-31. In Russ- versity Press, Tomsk: 1-296. In Russian). ian. PREYS A.A. (1978): flpeiic A.A. Eyrpucrbie oojiOTa WELLS E.D. & S.C. ZOLTAI (1985): Canadian system of öacceSma peKM XairraüKH M HX pymaumiz. feHe3«c n wetland classification and its application to AHHaMHKa 60TOT. M., 1978. C.43-50. (Palsa mires circumboreal wetlands. — Aquilo 21, Ser.Bot.: of the Khantayka River and their dynamics. — 45-52. Mire genesis and dynamics, Moscow, 2:43-50. In Russian). YURKOVSKAYA T.K. (1964): lOpKOBCKaa T.K. THnu 6onoT JloyxcKoro paüoHa KACCP. yieHue 3anncnn fleTpo3- PYAVCHENKO N.I. (1955): flbHBMeHKO H.H. Eyrpucrae aBOflCKOro yHHBepcnTeia. Euon. HayKM. 1964. T.42. ToptpHHHKK. M., 1955. (Palsa peatlands. — Nau- Bbin.2. C.34-71. (Mire types of the Loukhsky ka, Moscow: 1-278. In Russian) District of the Karelian Autonomous Soviet REBRISTAYA O.V. (1977): PeopMcraa O.B. (Dnopa Bocraa Socialist Republic. — Transactions of Petroza- GoflbUJe3eMejibCKOÄ TyHflpw. /1., 1977. 334 c. (Flora vodsky University, Biol. Sei. 42/2: 34-71. In of the eastern part of Bolshezemelskaya tun- Russian). dra. — Nauka, Leningrad: 1-334. In Russian). YURKOVSKAYA T.K. (1992): lOoxoBCKaü T.K. feorpa^na M REBRISTAYA O.V. (2000): PeflpncTafl O.B. CocyflHCTue KapTorpacpHS! pacTMTenbHocm 6onoT Eßponefocoü pacreHHü OOHOTHUX cooSmecTB nonyoopoBa Ruan. POCCMH M conpeaenbHbix TeppnTopnu. CF16., Tpy/ibi EHH CnBnpcxiiii SKO/ionwecKHÜ xypnan. No. 5. C.585- PAH, BbinyCK 4. 256 c. (Geography and carto- 273 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at graphy of mire vegetation in European Russia and adjacent areas. — Transactions of the Ko- marov Botanical Institute 4, St.-Petersburg: 1- 256. In Russian). ZINSERUNG Yu.D. (1932): L(HH3£pnaHr lO.fl. reorpatpiu! pacnrrejibHoro noxpoBa CeBepo-3anaua EBponeücxoü Mac™ CCCP. Jl, 1932. 376 c. (Geography of vegetation cover of the northeastern Euro- pean part of the USSR. — Leningrad: 1-376. In Russian). ZINSERUNG YU.D. (1938): UMH3epjntHr lO.fl. PaCTMTe/lbHOCTb (XM10T. B: PaCTOTejlbHOCTb CCCP. T.I. Jl, 1938. C.325-428. (Vegetation of mires. — Vegetation of the USSR, Leningrad 1: 325- 428. In Russian). ZOLTAI S.C. & F.C. POLLETT (1983): Wetlands in Cana- da: their classification, distribution and use. — In: GORE A.I.P. (Ed.), Ecosystem of the world, mire: swamp, bog, fen and moor. Vol. 4B. El- sevier, Amsterdam: 245-268. Address of the Author: Tatiana YURKOVSKAYA Department of Vegetation Geography and Cartography, Komarov Botanical Institute, Prof. Popov Street, 2, St. Petersburg, Russia 197376. E-Mail: [email protected] 274 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Use and Conservation of Mires in Russia T. MlNAYEVA & A. SlRIN Abstract: The paper presents a general view on the history and current status of mire use and conser- vation in Russia. The geographical regularities of peatland exploitation follow the land paludification rate. In time, tendencies in mire use are connected to social development. Periods of intensive peat cut and drainage for forestry and agriculture cause overexploitation on one hand, and rapid development of peat science on the other. Peatlands that have been abandoned after use cause ecological problems like peat fires. One of the primary current threats to mires is related to construction and infrastructure de- velopment, including for the oil and gas industry. Through the present, mires have played a key role as source of natural resources for local communities. The conservation of mires and peatlands in Russia is still not integrated into territorial planning concepts. The mires can be found within protected nature areas and Ramsar sites, but very few of them were established exclusively to protect mires. Usually more mires are protected in higher paludifted regions, where people are better acquainted with the mires. In southern regions, where mires are rare, they are less protected and human activity could cause them to disappear. Protected nature areas can not preserve all mires and support their functions, so wise use of mires should be the main strategy to protect them in Russia. Key words: mire, peatland, peat cut, drainage, forestry, agriculture, hunting, nature conservation, pro- tected areas, wise use, Russia Introduction Changes in time are connected mainly with social processes, and depend on the Mires and paludified lands occupy 20% availability of human resources and access of Russia's total territory (VOMPERSKY et al. to natural resources, especially fuel and 1999). This means that mires and related standards of living. In the following short ecosystems are responsible for natural and article, we invite you to take a look at dif- social processes on one fifth of the country's ferent mire uses in space and time in Russia, area. However, the role of peatlands and focus on main threats, and assess how ade- mires in Russian society has been very un- quately mire conservation efforts are ad- even in time and space. dressing those threats in our country. The spatial diversity can be easily ex- plained by the high heterogeneity of natural Mire Use from Peter the Great conditions throughout the country. In to the Present Western Siberia, the northeastern European Mires are, on one hand, a source of var- part of Russia, and the Russian Arctic, mires ious resources (peat, timber, medicinal are a natural part of human life. People were plants, wild berries, mushrooms, etc.) and swathed in sphagnum at birth and buried in an important, though sometimes ambiguous, peat after they have died. People use mires regulator of natural processes (river runoff, as a resource in different ways and know no ground waters, microclimate, etc.). On the life other than that in mires. In steppe re- other hand, they limit tree growth, impede gions in the southern part of Russia, people agricultural development in the area, and had heard nothing about mires and peat for obstruct the establishment of transportation centuries. Mires there were destroyed years and other infrastructure. The history of ago and now people do not care about how man-mire interactions in Russia can be seen useful the mires might be for them today. in the current status of mires across the 275 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Photo 13: Drying harvested sphagnum moss in Mariy-El Republic, in the Volga region. Photo by T. MINAYEVA. country's vast territory. Let us trace how these interactions have changed throughout the country's history to the present. Harvesting Biological Resources Mires have always been used locally for their biological resources (berries, mush- rooms, game species, medicinal plants, raw materials), with varying intensity, depend- ing on the region and time. Cartularies from the fourteenth century show that sphagna mosses were used in construction, as cattle bedding and even fodder. They also offer ev- idence that bog berries played a significant role in the monastic diet. Special sociologi- cal studies showed that people still regard mires as sources of vital biological resources. Picking cranberries, hunting moorfowl, and collecting moss for construction purposes re- main essential parts of village lifestyles, even in industrially developed regions. In many highly paludifided northern and east- ern regions, humans are even more closely connected to mires. Mires cover parts of in- digenous peoples' tribal lands. There, they practice traditional nature use, which is ^metimes very intensive. The potential of biological resources is often immense. Annual production of sphagnum may reach 2.OO0-3.O0O kg/ha. Berry yields may reach 300 kg/ha for cloud- berries, 1.000 kg/ha for cranberries, up to 1.200 kilograms/hectare for blueberries, and up to 1.500 kg/ha for red lingberries (Peat- Photo 14: Capercaillie traps on upland midmire pate na are a popular massive hunting method used by the local population. Photo by T. MINAYEVA. lands of Russia ... 2001). Difficult economic conditions in Russia Fig. 8: Peat production during the last two decades have resulted in in Russia (source: enormous pressure by berry pickers, espe- Peatlands of Russia ... 2001) cially near small towns in provinces where unemployment is quite high. Often, berry picking on mires is a very important, if not only, income of entire families. Consumer demand for medicinal plants has grown in recent years. The overuse of mire vegetative resources is becoming a problem in some cases. Mires have long been regarded as special hunting grounds. Many game species are characteristic for mires in the forest zone: 276 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at the capercaillie, black grouse, willow grouse, Photo 15: Lingonberries some species of ducks, geese, and waders. in a mire. Photo by A. SIRIN. Mires serve as a seasonal foraging base for mammals, especially ungulates, bears, and hares. Other species permanently settle in mire habitats, such as the beaver, two species of mink, and the otter. Often, mires, as less frequented areas, become refuges for animals (including game species) that move there from neighboring areas, which are in- tensively used by man. For example, mires and old peat extraction sites are actively colonized by typical meadow species, such as the grey partridge, quake, and corncrake. The fowl are followed by hunters, which cannot but cause concern. However, it is only in Siberia that hunting on mires has a large-scale character. Various traps and oth- er hunting methods are used there, includ- ing shooting from helicopters. As a result, the local indigenous population, together with workers from oil and gas fields and in- habitants of industrial towns, pose a certain threat to species diversity on mires. oped by \ laJimir Lenin. It was the only op- Peat Extraction portunity to promote the country's rapid de- The practice of cutting peat for fuel has velopment during those unstable times. Peat long been known, but it increases signifi- extraction steadily increased since that time cantly in critical economic situations, when until the mid 1980s, when it reached 140 the country is oriented on local fuel types. million tons per year (Fig. 8). Peat winning Based on his experience in Holland, Peter methods have gradually changed: manual the Great organized the first peat-burning and partly mechanical peat-cut gave way to factory in southern Russia, which was fixed hydro peat production and, later, to milled Photo 16: Mushrooms on a path along a in his decree from 1697. In 1766, LEMAN one. In addition to the industrial peat win- forest drainage ditch. Photo by A. SIRIN. published recommendations for using peat as fuel. The first scientific study on peat in Russia was conducted by LOMONOSOV (1784), who described the macrofossil struc- ture of peat and its characteristics as a fuel. SOKOLOV (1798) developed the first de- tailed scheme of a mire. During the same pe- riod, peat was already used as a fertilizer and a growing medium (FOMIN 1790). In the early nineteenth century, peat was widely used as a fuel, especially on railways, and as a soil improver. During the civil war of 1917-1921, and during the period of foreign intervention against the young Soviet state, peat became a strategic fuel for the country, as access to coal and oil fields was closed. Peat fuel was a key starting point for the ambitious project to electrify Soviet Russia, which was devel- 277 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Photo 17: Fields of milled peat production in Moscow oblast. Photo 18: Local farms use peat to fertilize their agricultural lands. Photo by T. MINAYEVA. Photo by T. MINAYEVA. Photo 19: An expansion of cotton-grass over a mined-out Photo 20: Sixty years after industrial hydro peat extraction. Photo peatland. Photo by V. PANOV. by V. PANOV. Photo 21: Abandonee ar.c r.or.-recuitiwated peat deposits m Photo 22: In a small boiler-room in Novgorod Oblast, peat is used Vladimir Oblast. Photo by A. SIRIN. instead of coal. Photo by A. SIRIN. 278 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at ning for fuel and further processing, large- Photo 23: Pasturing scale extraction for fertilizing was main- on peatland, which was previously used tained by agricultural enterprises. They usu- for local peat ally worked small fens often located in river extraction in Tver valleys. Oblast. Photo by A. SlRIN. The increase in peat extraction promot- ed the development of the peat industry and studies on peat resources, structure, and de- posits. Since the 1960s, research on, and in- ventory of, peat deposits became a part of the geological branch. This helped to stan- dardize the collection, analysis, and storage of data on the exploration, mapping, and in- vestigation of peat deposits; it also made the data more easily available for users and pub- lications (Peat fund ... 1957, KHOROSHEV & em Russia. First of all, peat can be used in- KRESHTAPOVA 1979, OLENIN & KHOROSHEV stead of brown coal; the latter being is defi- 1983, SOKOLOV 1988). nitely a non-renewable fuel source, and The total area of mined-out peat de- much more harmful as far as air pollution is posits over the entire period of exploitation concerned. Secondly, in most cases, build- in Russia is estimated to range from 850.000 ing up industrial peat extraction for fuel to 1,500.000 ha. According to the Land does not mean exploration of new peat de- Cadastre, the total area of mined-out peat- posits, and a renewal of work on abandoned lands in 2000 measured a little over 240.000 peat plants would certainly decrease the ha. The rest of the lands were «cultivated danger of peatland fires. and transferred to other land categories (Peatlands of Russia... 2001). Agriculture Mined-out stretches of peatland deposits were to be recultivated for further agricul- Using peatlands as agricultural lands is tural use, afforestation, establishment of typical for the central and southern regions fishing ponds, or simply watering. However, of European Russia, southern Siberia, and the Russian Far East. Floodplain grass and the existing political stance towards the ex- Photo 24: Growing vegetables on a pansion of agricultural lands led to the dom- black-alder mires and peatlands in forest drained peatland in Moscow Oblast. inance of this recultivation direction, which steppe/steppe hollow- inJ valleys have Photo by A. SIRIN. was often unreasonable from an economic and ecological points of view. At the same time, watering of worked-out peat deposits leads to the gradual, but slow, restoration of wetlands. Economic changes during the 1990s brought about a crisis in the peat in- dustry. As a result, large areas of partly worked-out and non-recultivated peatlands were transferred to the so-called reserve lands, and thus became a constant source of potential fires. In recent years, the attention to peat ex- traction has begun to increase again. In ad- dition to the constant interest in peat as a fertilizer and raw material for further pro- cessing, there is a rapidly growing demand for peat as a fuel, primarily for local needs. Using peat for heating purposes has a num- ber of positive ecological arguments in mod- 279 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at All in all, by 1917 amelioration work had been carried out on at least 3,000.000 ha of mires, the large part of which was meant for agricultural use. Agricultural use of peatlands had a con- siderable positive impact on the develop- ment of peat science. Databases grew, re- search institutes were established, and jour- nab were published. For the first thirty- years, the inventory of peat resources in So- viet Russia was carried out by agricultural institutions. Drained stretches on large peatlands were used as hayfields, pastures, and arable lands. In the 1970s, peatlands were used for small garden plots. This process was large scale in some regions, especially those close to large cities in European Russia. Fully or Photo 25: Private gardens made on mostly been destructed or transformed. The partially worked-out small peatlands were worked-out and recultivated fens often process of agricultural development of peat- often used for this purpose. The floodplain follow their contours. Photo by A. SIRIN. lands began in the late eighteenth century. mires, which were most valuable as far as Peat as a fertilizer was first mentioned in a their hydrology and biological diversity were Russian text in 1790. In the late nineteenth concerned, sustained great damage during century, several plants, which manufactured that period. peat bedding and fertilizers, were built in By 1967, the area of lands including the Moscow Province. However, despite the mires in Russia that were drained for agri- considerable total volumes of annual peat culture measured 1,600.000 ha, although it production on the national scale, peat cut reached 5,100.000 ha by 1990 (Peatlands of for agricultural purposes was, and has re- Russia... 2001). Currently, most of them are mained, a local-scale occupation, with sim- inefficiently used or abandoned. In contrast ple equipment and low production rates. to drained for forestry, secondary paludifica- Large-scale mire improvement to estab- tion seldom occurs there. The drained peat lish arable lands and hayfields began in the layer undergoes mineralization and com- 1880s-1890s, under the authority of two busts sporadically. well-known national expeditions. The west- ern expedition was headed by General I.I. Forestry Zhilinsky and the northern one by I.K. Av- gustinovich. After the expeditions were Drainage for forestry is concentrated mainly in north-western and central Euro- Fig. 9: Dynamics of forest drainage in closed, provincial departments of agricul- Russia, (source: Peatlands of Russia 2001) ture and state assets carried out their tasks. pean Russia; in the eastern Polessye at the border with Ukraine and Byelanis; in Kare- miflion hectares lia; and, to a lesser extent, in the Volga re- gion and Cisuralia. Forest drainage has also been carried out in south-western Siberia. Drainage for forestry was first mentioned in official documents in 1820, in the report of landowner Ivan PlSKAREV to the "Forestry Promotion Society". That report stated that near St. Petersburg, PlSKAREV had drained around 340 ha of peatland covered by dwarf - 1921- 19)1- 1941- 19S1- 19C1- 19K- 1971- 197C- 19S1- 19»*- pine and birch trees. More than 65 km of 19» 193* 1*41 KM ISM 19C5 197« 1975 1M0 19«5 199« shallow ditches were cut, which resulted in 280 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at the rapid height increment of trees by more than threefold. In 1844, the first documenta- tion of a mire drainage project was prepared; the project was implemented on an area about 2.200 ha, also near St. Petersburg. In 1853, the government endorsed the practice of draining forested peatlands. In the late nineteenth century, forests were actively drained together with agricul- tural lands and during road construction dur- drainage ing the two aforementioned expeditions. The expeditions were conducted over a peri- od of more than 20 years and covered the majority of the European part of Russia. Among other lands, drainage activity in- 1_ cluded 615.000 ha of forested peatlands. The Photo 26: The increase in pine increment rate after Torest income from forest melioration was estimat- drainage in Tver Oblast, in central European Russia. ed to be 1.06 million rubles. It was decided Photo by A. SIRIN. to develop further this activity. As a result, before World War I, over 850.000 ha was drained for forestry: 50.000 ha had been drained before 1870, while 800.000 ha had been drained during the period, 1870-1915 (KONSTANTINOV 1999). The next period is characterized by the rapid development of the forest melioration theory. A number of background investiga- tions and practical recommendations were developed (DUBAH 1945). Numerous scien- tific studies were carried out in connection to forest drainage and focusing on biological background (VOMPERSKY 1968), hydrology (VOMPERSKY et al. 1988, VOMPERSKY & SlRIN 1997), changes in biodiversity, and primary Photo 27: A thirty-year-old forest drainage ditch. Birch trees have production (NlTSENKO 1951, PLATONOV penetrated the dwarf shrub pine bog over excavated material. 1967, GRABOVIK 1989), etc. The discussion Photo by A. SIRIN. on the influence of forest drainage on the mire regulation functions were resulted in a number of publications (The role of peat- lands... 1980, PYAVCHENKO 1985a) and in 1980th it was resumed that the drainage could have different impact on the catch- ment hydrology. Forest drainage work was at its peak dur- ing the period 1966-1990. The area of drained forests exceeded 4,000.000 ha main- ly in northwestern, western, and central Eu- ropean Russia. It was achieved through es- tablishing special ameliorative plants that were economically interested in increasing work loads and decreasing expenses, includ- ing transportation costs. This did not pro- Photo 28: Drains hamper the progress of peatland fires. Tver mote selective drainage and resulted in con- Oblast. Photo by S. VOMPERSKY. 281 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Photo 29: A beaver however, some drained forest areas, especial- dam in a forest ly those with ripe spruce that have already drainage canal. begun to fall down, require the implementa- tion of urgent forest-management measures. Indirect Use: Life among Mires When mires are all around, one has to explore, use, and transform them in order to eke out some living space. In highly paludi- ried regions, most human impacts on mires can be attributed to so-called indirect use. An example of this use is the construction of transportation and other industrial infra- structure. In Russia, it is difficult (and in many regions impossible) to find a road that Joes not cross a mire. Standards imply building spillway facilities, but they do not support the natural flow of mire water, and an artificial concentration of it in the upper vater by digging drains usually does not meet with the approval of engineering and environmental agencies. As a result, stretches of flooded and disturbed mires can he seen along most roads in Russia's forest :one. Drained stretches on the other side of roads are often less evident, but also present. Similar impacts are caused by oil and gas centrations of drained mires in distinct ar- pipelines that are laid not only in produc- eas, often accompanied by a low efficiency ing, but in other regions of the country. Un- of forestry. In general, however, this work fortunately, the impacts of the oil and gas helped to improve the forest management of complex on mire ecosystems are not re- the territories, to increase fire protection stricted to this and have many other mani- (due to the fragmentation of the area and festations (VASILIEV 1998). During the con- building fire protection ponds), and to in- struction of drilling rigs, the mire surface is crease the accessibility of the territories for damaged physically and can hardly be recul- vehicles. tivated. Adjacent sites degrade and lose their productivity and natural functions. Unfortunately, at many reclaimed sites, no necessary forest-management activities Oil production may cause pollution of were carried out, and therefore no econom- the mire surface. Drilling oil wells usually ic effects were received. Drainage networks involves the preservation of wastes in slime gradually deteriorated without maintenance chambers, which are vessels of natural work. This outcome was also promoted by ground and plastic. If broken, they become the economic changes during the 1990s. massive sources of surface pollution by oil According to the latest inventory and related substances. Another pollution (1999-2000), only about 3,000.000 ha of type results from spills of underground water drained forests were registered in the Euro- rich in mineral salts that destroy all vegeta- pean part of Russia. Most of the drained ar- tion cover and promote the rapid degrada- eas have undergone secondary paludifica- tion of the peat bed. Oil spills from broken tion, often with the active assistance of pipelines are another pollution source. In beavers, the population of which has grown addition to impact pollution, there is also rapidly in recent years. This may even be carpet pollution that is spread by surface positive from an ecological point of view; runoff or falling precipitation. This may lead 282 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Photo 30: Seasonal houses in the endless mires in the Khanty- Photo 31: The infrastructure of an oil-and-gas producing complex Mansi Autonomous Area, in Western Siberia. Photo by A. SIRIN. among mires in Western Siberia. Photo by A. SIRIN. Photo 32: Trees that were flooded and died after the natural mire Photo 33: Disturbance of a mire after the pipeline laying in runoff was disturbed by a highway. Photo by A SIRIN. central European Russia. Photo by M. KRUCHIN. Photo 34: Special vehicles totally destroyed the mire surface. Photo 35: A drilling rig in the mires of Western Siberia. Photo by Western Siberia. Photo by A. SIRIN. A. SIRIN. 283 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Photo 36: Pollution of tively applied to abandoned lands in order mires after pipeline to trigger natural paludification. break in Western Siberia. Photo by A. SIRIN. However, the systemic and normative base of this work has not yet been devel- oped. Watering is carried out, with varying success, by stakeholder institutions that use their own techniques and do not have any projects. Fire prevention is the greatest stimulus for their work. However, fires can also affect natural mires, due to the high vis- itor load during berry picking and hunting seasons. Peatland fires are a natural phe- nomenon in the boreal zone, including Rus- sia, but the main reason for them in modern conditions is managerial faults. Many mires in Russia remain nearly un- affected by economic activities. Such mires can be observed in Siberia, in the Russian Far East, and even in the European part of the country. Vast areas of mire ecosystems are not used directly. Some of them are pro- tected. Nevertheless, many mires in those regions have be affected by human activity - via air pollution and other indirect influ- ences. to a change in the trophic level of the mire, Mire Conservation in Russia - mineralization of peat, degradation of vege- Does it Meet Demands? tation communities, and a decrease in the In Russia, mires and paludified lands were biological diversity. rarely mentioned as individual objects for Unlike some European countries, Russia conservation before the 1960s. With few ex- does not widely develop and build up mires ceptions (DOKTUROVSKI 1925, KATZ 1928), for national and municipal needs. In Europe the issue of mire conservation was not even this can be explained by the lower consumer raised in mire science literature. At the same value of paludified lands and by the pres- time, authors often cited mire's negative ence of fewer land owners: these lands are functions and advocated the necessity of often owned by the state and are therefore large-scale mire reclamation and transforma- easier to alienate. However, in densely pop- tion (OLENIN & MARKOV 1983). Mires were ulated regions in Russia close to large cities, protected indirectly, either as parts of special- mires are more often build up, and their ter- ly protected areas or within the framework of ritories are converted to damping sites for the general regulation of nature use. solid municipal wastes and wastewater. Incorrect mire use planning can have se- Conservation of Mires rious ecological consequences. Economic within Specially Protected changes have a negative effect as well. In Nature Areas (SPNA) the early 1990s, large areas of partly worked- out and non-recultivated peatlands were Due to the vastness or Russia's territory, abandoned in Russia. Many peatlands re- the landscape approach has always dominat- claimed for agriculture were no longer used. ed nature conservation planning (BORODIN These lands became regular sources of fire 1913), and is reflected in historic conserva- danger. In recent years, methods of second- tion forms such as sacred grounds (groves), ary watering of peat deposits have been ac- hunting reserves (menageries, etc.), as well 284 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Photo 37: In dry years, fires may even affect natural mires, but stop Photo 38: Regeneration of mire vegetation after a peatland fire before inner-mire pools. Kaliningrad Oblast. Photo by V. GUSEV. in Tomsk Oblast in Western Siberia. Photo by A. SIRIN. Photo 39: Flooding mined-out peatlands is an effective way to Photo 40: Volunteer conservation groups dam forest drainage prevent fires and, later, to restore the mire. Meschera National canals, which is not always legal and ecologically sound. Novgorod Park in Vladimir Oblast. Photo by A. SIRIN. Oblast. Photo by A. MISCHENKO. as in current SPNA types, such as strict na- land resources... 1989) were applied, includ- ture reserves (zapovedniks), national parks, ing through prospective planning of the use and nature monuments. Mires and paludi- and restoration of resources within every fied lands were topologically included in sector of economy (KUZMIN 1993), as well as these specially protected areas. Interestingly, by means of spatial planning (MlNAYEVA one third of the Belovezhskaya Pushcha Na- 1996). MASING (1979) regarded mires as ture Reserve, which was established in the habitats of rare species, while ANTIPIN & thirteenth century by Prince Vladimir of TOKAREV (1991) presented the case for es- Volyn, is covered by mires. tablishing specially protected mire areas. Scientific foundations of territorial con- Generally, territorial nature conserva- servation of mire ecosystems began to devel- tion in Russia implies establishing certain op in the 1970s and 1980s. Criteria for iden- SPNA types listed in the Federal Law on tifying mires for conservation were devel- Specially Protected Areas and in regional oped (TANOVITSKY 1980), including those legislative acts that exist in some adminis- based on analyses of threats and positive trative regions of the Russian Federation. functions (BOTCH & MASING 1979). Princi- The Russian SPNA types partly correspond ples of complex resource utilization (Peat- to IUCN classifications: zapovedniks are 285 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Many mires are protected in: Nizh- nesvirsky Zapovednik (41%) in Leningrad Oblast (province); Kerzhensky Zapovednik (36%) in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast; Darvin- sky Zapovednik (23%) in Yaroslavl Oblast; and in Vodlozersky National Park (42%) on the border of Karelia and the Archangelsk Oblast. However, these SPNA's were not ex- clusively established for mire conservation. At the same time, a number of nature re- serves were established primarily for the conservation of mire ecosystems and corre- sponding plant and animal species. To protect one of the largest intact raised bog massifs in northwestern Russia, two neighboring nature reserves were estab- lished in Polisto-Lovat mire system: Polis- tovsky Zapovednik (mires cover 71% of its area) in Pskov Oblast and Rdeysky Za- Photo 41: Peatlands cover more than 75 % equivalent to the IUCN category la; nation- povednik (mires cover 92% of its area) in of National Park "Meschera". More than al parks fall into the IUCN category II; bios- Novgorod Oblast. Yugansky Zapovednik half of them were drained or partly extracted. That is why peat fires are the phere reserves and landscape zakazniks are was established in Khanty-Mansi Au- main problem for NP administration. equivalent to IUCN category V, etc. tonomous Area (mires cover 84.7% of its Photo by A. SIRIN. territory) to protect the famous Yuganskiye In Russia, the number of SPN A and the Mires in Western Siberia, which, moreover, total territory they protect grown steadily in are inhabited by the indigenous people of recent years, and now cover over 3% of the Khanty. The proportion of peatlands in country's total area. Mire ecosystems have Bolonsky Zapovednik in Khabarovsk Krai been protected within their boundaries, as (province) also exceeds 80%. have other landscape types (MlNAYEVA & Photo 42: Mire ecosystems monitoring is the key activity within Nature Reserves and SlRlN 2000). In European Russia alone, za- A similar situation can be observed at National Parks working programs. The povedniks and national parks include ap- sites having international protection status. permanent research staff is funded from proximately 700.000 ha of mires, while fed- the Federal budget. Central Forest Of the 35 Ramsar sites designated in Russia, eral SPNA in Siberia comprise as much as Biosphere Reserve, Tver Oblast. none were established for the protection of 3,500.000 ha of mires. Photo by N. ZARETSKAYA. mire ecosystems only (Wetlands in Russia ... 1999). Although, considering the spe- cial importance of these ecosystems for Rus- sia, a shadow list of important peatlands was compiled (Wetlands in Russia ... 2000a). The list was coordinated on the re- gional administration level, which demon- strates the special position mires have in conservation planning in Russia's adminis- trative regions. The fact that, although there are no Ramsar sites that were estab- lished exclusively for mire protection, over 9% of the existing wetlands of internation- al importance (or 950.000 ha) are covered with mires and waterlogged lands (Wet- lands in Russia ... 1999), offers evidence of mires' great importance. The large portion of peatlands presents in the Ramsar "Shad- ow List" of Russian Federation (Wetlands in Russia ...2000b). 286 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at A certain portion of mires and water- Photo 43: The natural logged lands is protected within SPNA's of mires are usual habitat for numerous Orchids. local importance: nature parks, zakazniks, Platanthera bifolia and and nature monuments. Many mires in var- Dactylorhiza fuchsii in ious administrative regions of the Russian mesotrophic mire in the Federation have nature monument status. Central Forest Biosphere Nature Reserve, Tver There is no special SPNA category for mire Oblast. Photo by A. protection at the federal level, but in the DOBRIDENEV. 1980s, the administrations of some regions in European Russia introduced the "protect- ed natural mire" SPNA type in order to im- plement sectoral resource conservation pro- grams. The protected natural mires re- mained open for land use, but were exclud- ed from timber felling and peat extraction for certain periods, according to business or- ders issued by the enterprises. However, this category did not receive further legal sup- port. Many mires and waterlogged lands are located within game reserves (zakazniks). Their borders may be changed depending on the reproduction needs of the local game fauna. Game reserves regimes imply habitat conservation and therefore positively affect the status of the mires. According to Russian legislation, lands within the aforementioned SPNA types of federal or regional importance and areas of limited land use (green belts of cities, etc.) are categorized within the Land Code as pean Russia, Cisuralia, and Western Siberia; "nature conservation lands". Fig. 10 shows and the upland and mountainous regions of Photo 44: Spotted eagle (Aquila danga) - fractions of mires belonging to nature pro- the Caucasus. extremely rare species all over Europe - tection lands in different administrative re- found place for its nest in forested swamp, There is a certain subjectivism in the se- gions of the country". Taldom SPNA, Moscow Oblast. lection of mire ecosystems for conservation Photo by V. KONTORSCHIKOV. Mires are actively protected in adminis- tration regions where they cover large areas, play major roles in the social and economic life, and are often important research sub- jects. The latter promotes a further growth of (already relatively high) awareness of the local population, authorities, and other stakeholders regarding peatland manage- ment and conservation. These regions are northwestern European Russia (BOTCH & SMAGIN 1993), Western Siberia, and the Russian Far East. At the same time, proportions of pro- tected mires are modest in regions where mires naturally cover only small areas and have further contracted due to human im- pacts. This applies to central European Rus- sia, including Moscow Oblast; most steppe and forest steppe regions of southern Euro- 287 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at The possible way to overcome those contra- dictions is to integrate mire conservation concept into a perspective spatial land use planning process (MINAYEVA 2004). Mire Conservation through Land Use Regulation Foundations tor regulating mire use were established in Russian practice from times immemorial. The protection of certain mire types was facilitated through traditionally quite strict nature management regulations that existed in pre-revolutionary Russia and Fig. 10: Fractions of mires (%) belonging in the Soviet Union, and which exist now. to nature protection lands in Russia's Back in the eleventh century, Yaroslav the administrative regions (data from purposes. Traditionally, the greatest selec- Wise, the Grand Prince of Kiev, enacted the 1.01.2001, source: Peatlands of Russia ... tion preference has been given to watershed protection of forests and habitats of game 2001). raised bogs; spatial analyses of the inclusion animals, which are often associated with of various mire types in SPN A's, which were mires. PETER I issued royal enactments to es- carried out in European Russia offer evi- tablish water protection zones along rivers dence of this (MINAYEVA 1996, PREO- and floodplain conservation (REIMERS & BRAZHENSKY 2001). This can be attributed SHTILMARK 1978, GRAVE 1993). primarily to the long-standing delusion - and not only in Russia - about the especial- As it did in previous periods of history, ly important hydrological role of raised bogs, national legislation is improving control as riverheads etc. Scientific research has al- over mire use, as well as providing for their ready proven the falseness of this selective conservation of mires within specially pro- assessment, but it remains deeply seated in tected areas. Priorities in the field of mire the public consciousness. At the same time, conservation are gradually changing for the fens (including floodplain mires) are still better, although perhaps too slowly. The le- considered wastelands, regardless of their gal base regarding mires has gradually been environmental role in regulating river dis- brought to rights. It previously had a lot of charge and protecting it from pollution, as contradictions and discrepancies which re- well as of their importance in supporting flo- flected the traditional sectoral approach to ral and faunal biodiversity. mires and their resources (Peatlands of Rus- sia ... 2001). According to current legisla- The "inequality" of different mire types tion, mires are water bodies with resultant in terms of their conservation can also be consequences, such as the establishment of explained by their being belonging to differ- protective shoreline bands and water pro- ent categories and having different statuses. tection zones. Forests that grow on mires are The overwhelming majoriry of raised bogs regulated by the forest legislation, while are located on state-owned forest lands, peat extraction is regulated by legislation on which can be alienated or transferred to dif- the earth's interior. Furthermore, many fed- ferent land categories (e.g. those that allow eral legal acts on land, nature conservation, more intensive use) only after numerous conditions, including ecological ones, are etc. also directly affect mires. met. On the other hand, many fens, includ- In the Soviet period, legal discrepancies ing floodplain mires, belong to agricultural concerning mires were partially leveled by lands that can be used or built upon with the dominating state ownership of natural re- much fewer limitations. As a result, the very sources and lands. Nowadays, such legal dis- few floodplain mires remaining in natural crepancies impede the regulation of econom- condition have decreased and continue to ic relations on some mires, including their decrease due to the construction of private protection, and generate variant readings and homes and maintaining and other buildings. errors in legal practice. For example, because 288 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at of varying interpretations of water legisla- ning mire conservation and wise use. An tion, certain types of mires are not regarded important step towards in this direction was as water bodies. In some areas of Western made through the adoption of the inter-sec- Siberia, all watershed mires are considered toral framework document, "Action Plan for water bodies, while "sogra" mires (forest fens Peatland Conservation and Wise Use in having high species diversity and unques- Russia." This document was developed as tionable importance for water protection and part of the implementation of decisions of regulation) are not. "Sogra" mires, therefore, the Ramsar Convention at the national lev- lack the economic regulations provided by el regarding the wise use of peatlands (Reso- the water legislation. There is hope, howev- lution VIII.17). To fulfill some of the major er, that these discrepancies and errors will be activity directions, which were adopted, a gradually eliminated. long-term project on peatland conservation was launched within the framework of the Despite the traditional presence in Rus- Wetlands International - Russia Pro- sia of different sectoral views on mires, all of gramme. This project includes issues of na- them accepted, to one extent or another, tional policy and legislation; international took into account the necessity of using cooperation; methodic and informational mires wisely, including mire conservation. support of mire conservation and wise use; Since the 1960s, the intensive utiliza- information exchange; awareness raising; tion of natural resources associated with model field projects based on innovative mire ecosystems and the general national and methodic studies; resolving 'burning' is- support of the wise use ideology have pro- sues, etc. (http://www.peatlands.ru). moted work to provide for the restoration of mire resources (PYAVCHENKO 1985b, Peat- land resources ... 1989) as well as the im- Acknowledgements portance of conservation of mire ecosystem The overview was carried out with par- diversity (NlTSENKO 1962, BOTCH &. NlT- tial financial support of UNEP-GEF Funded SENKO1971). Project on Integrated Management of Peat- Since the 1970s, all legal acts and pro- lands for Biodiversity and Climate Change grams on mire improvement have examined and A. SlRIN would also like to acknowledge approaches for the wise use of peatland re- partial financial support provided by the sources. The Torfgeologia Industrial Geologi- Scientific Programme "Biodiversity" of the cal Association, which is in charge of explo- Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sci- ration for peat resources, assessed the con- ences. servation importance of peat deposits in Eu- ropean Russia (KUZMIN 1993). Botanical studies were carried out by the mire science section of the Botanical Society and by the Telma Group. The Telma Group was headed by Viktor MASING and Marina BOTCH, whose authority helped many regional ad- ministrators, land users, and resource users change their attitudes. By identifying mires for protection, the State Forest Service pur- sued a pragmatic purpose: to exclude low productive plantations from the total felling area. However, it is precisely these planta- tions that comprise the foundation of the modern network of protected mires. With its traditional sectoral economic and scientific attitudes regarding mires, Rus- sia needs an integrated approach to, and broad inter-sectoral collaboration in, plan- 289 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at References KATZ S.V. (1928): Kau C.B. flBa 3aiieHaTejibHba feuiOTa Ha ceBepe MOCXOBCXOÜ ry6. MOODBCXHÜ Kpaesefl, 1928. ANTIPIN V.K. & P.N. TOKAREV (1991): AHTWIHH B.K., No. 4: 35-46. (Two remarkable mires in the ToxapeB fl.H. Oxpansieubie oo/iora Kaperan, fleTpo- north of Moscow oblast. — In: Moscow local aasOACK, 1991. 46 c. (The protected mires of lore 4: 35-46. In Russian). Karelia. — Petrozavodsk: 1-46. In Russian). KHOROSHEV P.I. & V.N. KRESHTAPOVA (1976): XopouieB BORODIN I.P. (1913): EopoflnH M.n. Peib aeneraTa or n.M., KpeurranoBa B.H. Top^xwue pecypcy POCCHH Ha EepHcxoü KompepemjMi 1913 r. MvipoBaa eBponeücxoü nacm CCCP. M.: reoirrop(ppa38eAKa. oxpaHa npitpoAu, No. 2. neiporpaA 1915: 94-96. 1976. 244 c. (Peat resources of the European (The speech of Russian delegate to the Bern part of the USSR. — Geoltorfrazvedka, Conference 1913. — In: The World nature Moscow: 1-244. In Russian). conservation, N 2, Petrograd, 1915: 94-96. In KONSTANTINOV V.K. (Ed.) (1999): Me/wopaTMBHafl Russian). SKuxxnoneAMSi. Bun.2 rnfiponecoue^nopaui«. Cn6.: BOTCH M.S. & A.A. NITSENKO (1971): BOH M.C., HmjeHKO CnoHMMJIX. 1999, 329 c. (Enciclopaedia of Me- A.A. 06 oxpaHe OOJIOT B CCCP // Bonpocu oxpaHbi lioration. 2: Forest hydromelioration. — St- Petersburg Research Institute of Forest Econ- 6oTaHHMeacMX ofiteKTOB. Jl., 1971: 36-42. (On the omy, St-Petersburg: 1-329. In Russian). mire conservation in the USSR. — In: Botani- cal objects conservation affairs, Leningrad: KUZMIN G.F. (1993): Ky3bMHH I\ 290 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at (The observation on the changes of vegeta- SOKOLOV B.N. (Ed.) (1988): CoxoJiOB B.H. (Pefl.) Topcp B tion cover after drainage. — Botanical Jour- HapoflHOM xo3swcTBe. M.: HeApa, 1988. 268 c. (Peat nal 36/4: 349-355. In Russian). in national economy. — Nedra, Moscow: 1- 268. In Russian). NrrsENKO A.A. (1962): HmjeHKO A.A. 06 oxpaHe npupoflu wa CeBepo-3anafle CCCP. Hayw. AOKJI. BUCUJ. UIK. SOKOLOV N.P. (1798): COKOJIOB H.fl. MccneflOBaHne ropipa Buon.Hayiot, 1962, No. 2: 23-27. (Nature Conser- B nepoBCKOü pome. Tpyflu BojibHOro 3KOHOMHHeocoro vation in the north-west of the USSR. — Sci- oömecTBa. 1798. T. 52. H. III. 79 c. (Studies of entific Report of High School Biological Sci- peat in Perovskaya wood. — Proceedings of ences 2: 23-27. In Russian). Free Economical Society 52/3: 1-79. In Russ- ian). OLENIN A.S. & P.I. KHOROSHEV (1983): O/ieHMH A. C, XopomeB n. H. riosicHMTejibHaJi 3an«oca K KapTe TANOVTTSKY I.G. (1980): TaHOBMLgotS MX. PaijHOHaiibHoe TOfKjNHblX MeCT0pO)«eHHÜ HeHepH03eMH0Vi 30HU Hcnonb3OBaHMe Toptpsmwx MecropoKAeHnü M oxpaHa PCOCP. M.: nro "Topcpreoronm", 1983. 31 c. (The OKpyxaiomeS cpeflbi. MHHCK, 1980., 39 c. (Wise use explanation note to the peat deposits map of of peatlands and environment protection. — Non-Chernozem Zone of Russian Soviet Fed- Minsk, 1980: 1-39. In Russian). eral Socialistic Republic (RSFSR). — Torfgeolo- gia, Moscow: 1-31. In Russian). The role of peatlands ... (1980): 3HaieHMe OOJIOT B önoapepe. CHApojiornnecKue acneicrbi. nofl pefl. OLENIN A.S. & V.D. MARKOV (1983): Knafl comqa. M.: H.M.nbüB^eHKO. M.:HayKa, 1980, 176 c. (The role MbOb, 1983, 111 c. (A treasure of the Sun. — of peatlands in biosphere. Hydrological as- Mysl, Moscow: 1-111. In Russian). pects. PYAVCHENKO N.I. (Ed). — Nauka, Peat fund of ... (1957): TopipaHoü <}X)HA PC 291 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Importance. Wetlands International AEME Publications 52, Moscow, 1999: 1-256. Wetlands in Russia (2000a): Volume 2. Important peatlands. — In: BOTCH M.S. (Ed.), Wetlands International Global Series 2, Moscow, 2000: 1-91. Wetlands in Russia (2000b): Volume 3. Wetlands on the Ramsar Shadow List. — In: KRIVENKO V.G. (Ed.), Wetlands International Global Se- ries 6, Moscow, 2000: 1-409. Address of the authors: Tatiana MlNAYEVA Wetlands International Russia Programme Nikoloyamskaya str., 19, bld.3, Moscow, Russia, 109240. E-Mail: [email protected] Andrey SlRTN Laboratory of peatland forestry and hydrology Institute of Forest Science Rusian Academy of Sciences, Uspenskoye, Moscow Region, Russia, 143030 E-Mail: [email protected] 292 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at The Great Vasyugan Mire Abstract: The Vasyugan Mire is the largest mire system in the Northern Hemisphere and it has a long history of investigation. The article presents available information on the mire system's natural fea- tures, the history of its use, and current status. The overview of geological history and mire develop- ment in Holocene demonstrate the unique conditions. The mire system's location within two biogeo- graphic zones and its vast size are the reason for its high biological diversity. The rich natural resources of the bog are attractive for people. The oil and gas industry, and drainage from forestry and agriculture have significantly affected the mire over the last twenty years. A wise use approach should be applied for land use planning. There is still not adequate information to fully understand natural processes in the mire and to avoid mistakes in decision making. Key words: Russia, Western Siberia, Vasyugan Mire, history of investigation, mire landscape, mire veg- etation, peat deposits, wise use. History of Investigations His report repeated an old legend about and an Overview the Vasyuganskoye Sea; in fact, many earli- of the Vasyugan Mire er publications had depicted the Vasyugan Mire as a magnificent paludified lake/sea. One such example is the Draft Map of L. INISHEVA, O. LISS Siberia by S.U. REMEZOV, which included Fig. 11: Location of the & N. SEMENOVA Great Vasyugan Mire. over 20 maps that were designed and print- The Vasyugan Mire, which, with a total ed in Tobolsk upon the of Peter 1 in area of over 5,000.000 ha is the world's largest mire, is situated in the watershed of the Ob and Irtysh Rivers (55°40' - 58°60' N, 75°30" - 83-30- E). It stretches for 573 km from west to east and for about 320 km from north to south (Fig. 11). History of Investigations The first fragmented data on the nature of the Vasyugan Mire appeared in the late nineteenth century, despite the fact that Russian naturalists had been to the mire much earlier (SHOSTAKOVICH 1877, GRIG- OROVSKY 1882, 1884, PLOTNIKOV 1901). Natural scientist V.P. SHOSTAKOVICH, who traveled along the Vasyugan and Chizhapka Rivers in 1876, was one of the first to visit | | Russia the area. His expedition was organized to \ I West Siberia explore probable reserves of gold and coal. ^^H Vasyugan Mire 293 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at legends about the existence of a great lake, which had even been quoted in scientific publications, as well as legends about fear- less seafarers braving the Vasyuganskoye Sea, indigenous people crossing the mire on wooden bridges, and bears dragging heavy tree trunks to trample down fenny sites (1915, p. 22). A Siberian expedition of the National Meadow Institute, which was led by A.YA. BRONZOV, conducted very important inves- tigations of the mires in the Ob-Irtysh wa- tershed. The results of these long-term (1925-1930) studies were published in BRONZOV (1930). The Siberian Immigration Agency assigned ILYIN (1930) to carry out mire studies in 1928. During the period 1951-1956, Giprotor- frazvedka peat-exploring expeditions inves- Photo 45: The Great Vasyugan Mire 1678-1701. This document presented the tigated mires in central Western Siberia to attracts researchers not only from Western Vasyugan Mire as a large lake from which Siberia, but also from all of Russia and find peat deposits. The Vasyugan Mire was tributaries of the Ob (KRYLOV & SALATOVA abroad. Installations for gas flux explored and studied during that period. measurements. Photo by A. SIRIN. 1969) flowed. The results of the expeditions were present- In 1869, the Western Siberian Depart- ed in subsequent publications (LOGINOV ment of the Russian Geographic Society 1957, Lvov 1959, 1966, YASNOPOLSKAYA delegated N.P. GRIGOROVSKY to study the 1965, ORLOV 1968, Natural conditions ... colonization of Siberia over the preceding 1969, LYUBIMOVA 1972, ZEMTSOV 1976, Liss 25 years. In 1908, the Immigration Agency & BEREZINA 1976, 1981, Natural conditions of the Tomsk Region sent two parties to the ... 1977, YEVSEYEVA 1990, ORLOVA 1990, Narym area. One of these parties, in which Great Vasyugan Mire ... 2002, The Vasyu- GTRYGANIEV & SBOROVSKY (1910) partici- gan Mire ... 2000, 2003). pated, followed an instrumental transect across the western portion of the Vasyugan Geology, Geomorphology, Mire and along the Vasyugan River. Results of these works were summarized by PRAZD- Genesis and Development NIKOV & SBOROVSKY (1910). Almost all of the Vasyugan Mire is lo- cated on the Vasyugan tilted accumulative Later, the Narym area attracted the at- plain, which has a heterogeneous tectonic tention of participants in soil and biological structure with positive and negative ele- expeditions led by soil scientist D.A. DRAN- ments. Absolute elevations range between ITSYN and botanist N.I. KUZNETSOV. These 116 and 146 m, with the maximum eleva- expeditions studied areas of Asiatic Russia tion being located at the headstreams of the that could be colonized. They made impor- Bakchar River. The topography is coaise, up tant descriptions of the topography and geo- to 0.6 km/knr, with dissection depths below logical structure of soil and mires. DRANIT- 10 m. SYN (1915) and KuZNETSOV (1915) con- cluded that the paludification of the area re- A comparative study of a map of the sulted from the expansion of mires over the most recent tectonic movements and of the land, which had been promoted by favor- distribution of Western Siberian mires able climatic and orographic conditions and shows that the mires are distributed regard- not from the overgrowth of hypothetical su- less of tectonic phenomena. Thus, the ma- perlakes. These investigations fundamental- jority of the Vasyugan Mire is located in a ly contributed to the scientific research of tectonic uplift area. It seems paradoxical the Vasyugan area. They cast aside familiar that brown moss-sedge fens are located at 294 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at the watershed's highest point, at an altitude Fig. 12: The Great Tundra Vasyugan Mire is of 146 m. The fens may have originated at a I 1 Forest tundra located in Western lower surface, which was later raised by Siberia and between I 1 Northern taiga modern tectonic movement to a point natural bioclimatic above areas that are now occupied by raised US Middle taiga zones. bogs. However, it seems more probable that ^^| Southern taiga the mires emerged on a poorly drained up- ^^K Small leaved land with many saucer-like depressions, ^^^ forest zone which became paludification nidi. As for Forest stepp« the future, descending portions of the Steppe Vasyugan Mire will be paludified more ac- Mountans tively than the ascending ones. The rate of peat accumulation in the Vasyugan Mire during the Holocene Epoch has varied in different mire landscapes de- pending on the stratigraphic structure of the peat deposit. According to LlSS et al. (1975), the accumulation rate equaled 0.5 mm/year in the early Holocene Epoch, 0.4-0.7 mm/year in the middle Holocene Epoch, and 0.88 mm/year in the late Holocene Epoch. KHOTINSKY et al. (1970) determined a near-bottom sample of a 4-me- ter-deep peat deposit in the eastern Vasyu- gan region to be 5.76O±13O years old (non- calibrated 14C dates), i.e. the mean annual increment equaled 0.7 mm. A peat deposit at the depth of 3.85 m was dated at Great Vasyugan Mire 3.380±120 years, with the annual increment within the Holocene Epoch being 1.1 mm. 2002, POLOGOVA & LAPSHINA 2002). The A peat deposit at the depth of 1.75 m age of a fen peat deposit 2.8 meters deep (4.57O±17O years old) has had an increment proved to be 4.750±lO0, with a mean incre- of 0.6 mm/year. According to LAPSHINA et ment of 0.59 mm/year. al. (2001), the age of lowest layers in the Simple mire systems merged at different oldest peat deposits comprises 9.5OO-1O.OOO stages of their development. However, the years. The ratio between the absolute age complex systems of the Vasyugan Mire were and the depth of the deposit is nearly a lin- primarily formed during earlier stages of de- ear function in some of the large raised mas- velopment. Hollows in the relief were filled sifs in the southern part of the Vasyugan with sedge-tree and Sphagnum-Eriophonim Mire, which are the northernmost counter- peat no more than 1.0-2.5 m deep. The rest parts of forest-steppe ryam mires, and which of the deposit (7-8 m) is a homogeneous are formed by raised sphagnum peat almost Sphagnum-peat, which proves that the mire all the way through the deposit. The long- system long developed as a single whole. term peat accumulation rate in these massifs According to KATS (1977), the Vasyugan reached a mean of 1.15 mm/year, but Mire system graduated into the oligotrophic changed considerably with time. The linear development stage as early as during the Bo- peat increment did not exceed 0.6 mm/year real period of the Holocene Epoch, long be- in the first half of the Atlantic Period fore peatlands in European Russia did. It is (6.000 to 8.000 years ago), but was as high possible that all topographic asperities were as 2.6 mm/year on the edge of the late At- filled with peat even before the onset of the lantic and Subboreal periods. At the same Boreal period. time, the peat accumulation rate in exten- sive fens surrounding the raised bogs was Thereafter, some differentiation of peat- two times lower (LAPSHINA & MULDIYAROV land development is observed, with the 295 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Fig. 13: The stratigraphic structure of the peat deposit profile located in the main watershed of the eastern part of the Vasyugan Mire IS (by L.I. INISHEVA). 12 / -low mire sedge peat, 2 - low mire wood-sedge peal. i — low e^iuisetu^n pest 4- mesotjophic wood sphagnum pest, i-mesotrophlc wood-grass peat 6-sphagnum fuscum peat. 7-mageHanicumpeat, S-eomplex high bog peat, 9 • sphagnum peat of bog hollows, 10 -pine cotton-ores» peat stratigraphic profile of the peat deposit hav- sedge-brown moss mires and paludified ing the following pattern (Fig. 12). A more forests are typical for the small-leaved birch intensive peat accumulation takes place in and aspen forest zone, i.e. the subtaiga. Olig- the genetic centers of the mire system, while otrophic Sphagnum mires are widespread in the periphery shows simultaneous lateral the southern taiga zone (KATZ 1971, Ro- growth and an expansion of the mire area. MANOVA 1976, Liss & BEREZINA 1981). The This irregular and lopsided development of low lixiviation of underlying layers, espe- the mire results in it assuming a domed cially in the southern and southeastern por- shape. Thus, the central portion of raised tions of the Vasyugan lowland (YASNOPOL- bogs within the mire system is elevated by 4 SKAYA 1965), is important, as often is the di- to 7.5-10 m above its edges or the surround- rect inflow of mineral-rich groundwater in- ing fens. to the water and mineral nutrition of the mires is also important. As a result of the initial paludification of the Vasyugan Mire, it covered an area of The primary watershed between the Ob 4,500.000 ha, including 19 sites (3,600.000 and Irtysh coincides with the border of two ha) with peat deposits over 0.7 meters deep. adjacent botanical-geographic zones and di- The remaining 900.000 ha are shallow sites vides the Great Vasyugan Mire into two with peat deposits less than 0.7 m deep. parts: the northern part (northern spurs and Presently, it is an integral mire massif, over the northern slope) and the southern part a quarter of which was only relatively re- (mainly the southeastern portion) that dif- cently covered with peat. fer considerably in their landscape structure and vegetation cover (LAPSMNA et al. 2000a, LAPSHINA & VASILIEV 2001). The Spatial Structure of the Vegetation Cover in The northern part of the Vasyugan Mire the Vasyugan Mire system is completely dominated by raised (oligotrophic) mire landscapes (Fig. 14). Flat-topped OT (less often) slightly domed E. LAPSHINA oligotrophic mire massifs, with a complex The Vasyugan Mire system is a unique structure that resulted from the initial example of a diverse landscape of peatlands growth and later mergence of individual and paludified areas because of its vast size raised bogs, are typical for the center of the and location at the border of two botanical- northern spurs of the Vasyugan Mire. These geographic zones (Fig. 13). Various flat are bogs of the so-called Narym type, which 296 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Fig. 14: A supervised classification of the Great Vasyugan Mire (eastern part - Iksa key area) prepared by Ananda BUESINK and Anne HOLLANDER with contribution from Elena LAPSHINA and Vladimir BLEUTEN (2002). are typical for the Middle Ob area (BRON- fuscum and their tree layer is 0.5-4.5 m in zov 1930, KHRAMOV & VALUTSKI 1977, height. Tall ryams have a higher (6-12 m) LAPSHINA et al. 2000a). tree layer of forest-like appearance and Sphagnum angustifolium, S. mageüanicum The most domed and relatively well dominate the ground cover. drained stretches of the raised bog massifs are occupied by ryam mires, which is a Tall ryam mires form a broken strip 50 Siberian term for pine-dwarf shrub-Sphag- to 150 m wide at the border of typical ryam num bogs with stunted pines. A well-pro- mires and forest mires at the periphery of nounced tree layer of Pinus sylvescris is a par- peatland massifs. They cover a relatively ticularity of ryam mires. Ryams are distin- small area. They are mostly after-fire guished by the height of their tree layer, as restoration stages in place of typical ryam well as the composition and structure of mires. The tall ryam has a flattened dome their ground cover. Typical (low-growing) surface and its vegetation cover has a homo- ryams are comprised primarily of Sphagnum geneous structure. The tree layer is formed 297 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Photo 47: At the massif's periphery, where conditions among the Photo 46: Pine-dwarf shrub-sphagnum bog - a typical "ryam" "ryams" are more prosperous, individual cedar trees Pinus sibirica Photo by E. LAPSHINA. may be encountered. Photo by A. SIRIN. Photo 48: An inner-mire island with a tall "ryam" in the middle of Photo 49: A hollow-ridge complex in the Great Vasyugan Mire. minerotrophic sedge-brown moss fens. Photo by E. LAPSHINA. Photo by E. LAPSHINA. Photo 50: A ridge-hollow-sphagnum lawns-pool complex in the middle of the flat surface of a well developed oligotrophic bog massif. Photo by E. LAPSHINA. Photo 51: A ridge-hollow-pool complex. Photo by A. SIRIN. 298 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at by a tall-growing pine Pinus sylvestris f. ulig- oligotrophic peatlands, which are at mature inosa with an insignificant admixture of Pi- stages of their development. Waterlogged nus sibirica and Betuia pubescens. The dwarf Sphagnum hollows (lawns) develop in broad shrub layer is formed by Ledum palustre and shallow depressions at confluence borders of Chamaedaphne calyculata with Vaccinium vi- elementary raised massifs. Intramire water- dS'idaea, V. myrtittus, V. uUginosum. Forty to courses shaped like chains of small pools are sixty percent of the ground layer consists of often found there. The surface ratio of posi- Carex globularis. The moss cover is closed, tive elements (ridges and ryams) and nega- with a predominance of Sphagnum angusti- tive elements (hollows and lawns) can differ folium and S. mageUanicum. Other mosses, significantly. The vegetation cover of raised such as S. fuscum on elevations, S. capitiifoli- elements is represented by low-growing um, S. russowii, and Pleurozium schreberi, are ryam communities; young secondary ridges only sparsely present. still without a tree layer are occupied by Typical ryam mires are considerably dwarf shrub-Sphagnum communities (An- more widespread. They form an almost con- dromeda polifolia, Rubus chamaemorus, Sphag- tinuous band up to several hundred meters num fuscum). wide across the lower slopes of watershed raised massifs on the northern spurs of the The vegetation cover of diverse water- Vasyugan Mire. The only occasionally occur logged Sphagnum lawns and hollows is in separate patches in the central part of formed by various Eriophorum-Sphagnum, raised mire massifs. Sphagnum fuscum domi- Carex-Sheuchzeria-Sphagnum, and Rhyn- nates the ground cover and forms a dense chospora-Carex-Sphagnum communities moss peat. Other species are scarce, yet al- (Scheuchzeria palustris, Carex Umosa, Rhyn- ways present: Sphagnum angustifolium, S. chospora alba, Eriophorum vaginatum, E. magellanicum, Mylia anomala, and Pleurozi' russeolum). They are predominated by olig- urn schreberi. The tree layer is diversely aged otrophic Sphagnum species typical for hol- and consists of several paludal forms of pine lows (Sphagnum balneum, S. papillosum, S. (Pinus sylvestris /. titwinowii, f. willkomii). jenseni, Sphagnum lindbergii, S. majus) and The shrub layer is dominated by Ledum liverworts (Cladopodiella fluitans, Calypogeia palustre, Chamaedaphne calyculata, and An- sphagnicola etc.). Liverwort-Rhynchospora dromeda polifolia. Bilberries disappear, giving communities, which have a close stand of way to Oxycoccus microcarpa and, to a lesser Rhynchospora alba (40-60%) that is 5 to 10 extent, O. palustris. Rubus chamaemorus, cm tall, and which are dominated by Eriophorum vaginatum, and Drosera rotundi- Cladopodiella fluitansan d thin sphagna moss- folia are frequent. Synusias of bushy soil- es, are notable. Patches of bare peat mud oc- covering lichens are characteristic. cur in areas where marsh gases have recent- ly been released. Narrow fringes of Carex On the northern slope of the axial part Umosa with C. rostrata and Menyanthes trifo- of the Vasyugan Mire, ryam mires develop as liata develop around numerous pools and mostly large (from several ten to several along watercourses. hundred meters across) drained patches within extensive raised massifs with com- In the landscape structure of large raised plex structures. There, they alternate with massifs (from 8 to 10-15 km across), diverse ridge-and-hollow complexes and Sphagnum waterlogged oligotrophic mire complexes lawns, thus forming the surface's distinct mostly resemble branched bands from sever- mosaic landscape pattern. al ten to several hundred meters wide, In the northern part of the Great Vasyu- which descend from the central parts of the gan Mire system, the general landscape ap- massifs towards their periphery. They are pearance of raised bog massifs is determined initial links in the natural drainage network, by various ridge-and-hollow, ridge-and-pool, which provide a runoff of water surplus from and ridge-and-pool-and-fen complexes and the surface of raised bog massifs. The central extensive Sphagnum lawns with occasional parts of the bog massifs in the northern por- ridges and pools. Covering the greatest area, tion of the Vasyugan Mire are 3 to 4 m high- they occupy gentle slopes and flat tops of er than on their periphery. 299 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Photo 53: A sedge-sphagnum through-flow fen ("galya") with Photo 52: A bog lake in the ridge-hollow-pool complex. Photo by Betula nana, Carex rostrata, Sphagnum angustifolium, 5. fallax, 5. W. BLEUTEN. obtusum, S. majus. Photo by E. LAPSHINA. Photo 54: "Galya". Photo by A. SIRIN. Photo 55: Minerotrophic sedge-brown moss complex with ridges - "veretya-complex". Photo by E. LAPSHINA. Another essential element of the land- scape structure of large raised bog massifs and their systems in the northern part of the Vasyugan region are extensive poor transi- tional (mesooligotrophic) through-flow fen quagmires known as 'galya' in Siberia (ILYIN 1930). They transport water from mires to the river network. They are very- conspicuous on satellite images due to their wedge-like shape. They abut the head- streams of rivulets and brooks, which flow from raised watershed bogs. The vegetation cover is relatively productive and represent- ed by mesooligotrophic sedge-Sptagnum communities based on Carex rosnata, C. Photo 56: Minerotrophic sedge-brown moss complex with ridges - limosa, Menyanthes trifolkua. Sphagnum fal- "veretya-complex". Photo by E. LAPSHINA. lax, S. majus. The communities often in- clude species that have greater mineral nu- trition demands: Equisetum fluiwnle. Carex 300 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at lasiocarpa, Sphagnum obtusum. As for dwarf velop against treeless, waterlogged sedge- shrubs, Betuia nana and Chamaedaphne caly- brown moss fens and occasional rounded culata are common; they form an open 'islets' of ryam and tall ryam vegetation. (5-1596) layer. Ridges 1-2 (3) m wide stretch across the mire slope for tens of meters. They rise only In the southern part of the Vasyugan 10-25 cm above the fen surface, but are Mire, the predominance of fens and transi- prominent due to their tree layer of birch tional mires is characteristic of the land- and pine. Besides trees, the dwarf shrub lay- scape structure. The southern and south- er is always present on the ridges. It varies eastern portion are dominated by extensive from an open cover of Betuia nana, AnaVom- sedge fens, sedge- brown moss fens and eda polifolia to well-developed cover domi- singular veretya-fen complexes with narrow nated by Chamaedaphne calyculata, Betuia ridges (veretya) perpendicular to the direc- nana, and Ledum palustre. The moss cover tion of the surface runoff or forming a typi- (40-80%) has a patchy structure. Sphagnum cal reticular pattern on flat or slightly hol- wamstorfii dominates in earlier stages of low stretches where the surface runoff is im- moss ridges development, with participation peded. The presence of typical veretya-fen by Aulacomnium palustre, Tomentypnum complexes with a reticular/polygonal struc- nitens, Sphagnum centrak. At later stages, ture has long been described as a particular- ridges are occupied by Sphagnum angusafoli- ity of the Vasyugan Mire (BRONZOV 1936, urn, S. mageüanicum and, finally, S. fuscum. YASNOPOLSKAYA 1965, LAPSHINA et al. Fens between the ridges are usually 50-200 2000a). m wide. The vegetation cover of the brown moss Large, flat Sphagnum wamstorfii hum- fens is formed by sedge-brown moss commu- mocks that are 20-25 cm tall, and rounded nities with a predominance of Carex lasio- or elongated in shape are characteristic of carpa, C. omskiana, and C. chordorrhyza. the vegetation cover offen complexes. They Less abundant, yet very often evident are emerge directly in waterlogged fens or abut Carex limosa, Drosera angUca, Utricularia in-existing ridges. The the hummocks' vegeta- termedia, Oxycoccus palustris, Scheuchzeria tion is formed by sedge-Sphagnum communi- palustris and Rhynchospora alba are less often ties of Sphagnum wamstorfii and Carex dioica. evident. The moss cover primarily consists An open, dwarf shrub layer consists of Betu- of Scorpidium scorpioides and sometimes ia nana and Andromeda polifoUa; other char- Wamstorfia exannulata, Meesia triquetra, acteristic species include Carex chordorrhiza, CampyUum stellatum, C. polygamwn, Aneura Drosera rotundifolia, and Comarum palustre. pinguis, Riccardia hamaedrifolia, Bryum neo- Fen complexes and Sphagnum lawns damense, and PseudocaUiergon trifariwn are cover extensive areas in the axial part of the present in small numbers. Great Vasyugan Mire, descending in Floating patches can form above water 'tongues' 2-3 to 20 km wide down its gentle horizons buried in the peat deposit. They southern slope. In the western part of the are large, round- or oval-shaped patches up Vasyugan Mire, they alternate with large to 30-50 m wide, which can be easily recog- massifs of flat-topped, raised bogs and large nized by their vegetation cover. It is repre- domed ryam mires, in total covering about sented by sedge-brown moss communities of 30% of the mire system area (LAPSHINA et Carex limosa, C. chordorrhyza, Menyanthes al. 2000a). The landscape role of fen com- trifoliate with fractional, yet persistent ad- plexes and Sphagnum lawns grows noticeably mixtures of Carex diandra, C. heleonastes, eastwards and especially southeastwards. }uncus stygius, Andromeda polifolia, OxycoC' There, they cover most of the area, alternat- cus palustris, Utricularia intermedia, and I), ing with occasional large and small domed minor. The moss cover is formed by the same ryam mires that are surrounded by 'tongues' species as that in sedge-brown moss fens, of transitional mires channeling downward with a total cover of 80-90%. according to the direction of urface runoff. The veretya-fen complexes are formed Of great interest are rounded 'islets' of by long and narrow ridges (veretya) that de- tall ryam mires ('shelomki', or 'helmets', in 301 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Photo 57: A forest-like BRONZOV 1936) from 15(20) to 50(70) m minerotrophic tussock across that form on tight, tree-dwarf shrub sedge-herbaceous swamp ("sogra") on the peat. They are actually remnants of frost northwest periphery of mounds (palsa) that thawed and sank into the Vasyugan Mire. the fen surface. They differ from the tall Photo by E. LAPSHINA. ryam mire in their more vigorous tree layer, which has abundant undergrowth that shades the Sphagnum cover and causes its partial degradation, a luxuriance of Ledum palustre, and the proliferation of green forest mosses. Patches of oligotrophic vegetation usually cover less than 1-2% of the area of the fen Sphagnum lawnss and veretya-fen complexes. Larger raised bog massifs in the southern part of the Vasyugan Mire occur, as a rule, as domed ryam mires up to 3 km across or as groups of round or, more often, drop-shaped ryam mires that rise 7-8 (10) m above the surrounding waterlogged fens. Their vegeta- tion is exactly the same as in the ryam mires in the northern Vasyugan Mire. Transition (oligotrophic and minerotro- phic) fens in the southern part of the Vasyu- gan Mire are unusual and peculiar. Having a mosaic and complex structure, they are Photo 58: A rather formed in place of extensive fens and in fens typical "sogra" near a with groundwater percolation that are sur- small stream draining the rounded by raised oligotrophic bogs. The di- Great Vasyugan Mire system. Photo by A. SIRIN. versity of vegetation communities on transi- tion mires is relatively high and depends on the proportions of mire waters of different composition, which participate in the water- mineral nutrition of the mires. Typical among transition mires with poor mineral nutrition are peripheral ryam fringes and mesooligotrophic flow-through fens. The ryam fringes form around domed raised mas- sifs at their junction with minerotrophic sedge-brown moss fens from several tens to 100-200 (500) m wide. The mesoolig- otrophic flow-through quagmires develop on the southern sides of large elementary mas- sifs of domed raised bogs where acidic olig- otrophic waters flow down their slopes. They are visible in satellite images, appearing as whitish "weather stains" with faint length- wise striping and a blurred lower edge. The vegetation cover of these mires is dominated by sedge-EnophorumSphagnum and dwarf shmb-Enof>/iorum-Sf>hagnuTn communities with Betula nana, Chamaedaphne calycukua, Enophorum vagmatum, and Carex rosvraxa. 302 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Forested mesotrophic dwarf shrub- paludal forbs-Sphagnum fens called locally "yemiks" and birch-pine dwarf stands de- velop relatively wide bands in contact zones between sedge-brown moss fens and domed raised bog massifs. They are also widespread in the lower portion of the southern slope of the Vasyugan Mire, where they form a broad broken band (up to 2-3 km wide). The yerniks and underwoods succeed sedge- brown moss fens and veretya-fen complexes located above them on the slope. They tend to develop at sources of elementary mire catchments and, judging by their position in the landscape structure, are similar to the above-described through-flow fen quagmires ('galya'), which are characteristic of the northern slope of the mire system. The veg- etation cover is relatively homogeneous and consists of diverse forbs-Sphagnum commu- for the oligotrophisation offene ar me cur- Photo 59: Large cedars are not rare in nities of dwarf birch ("yernik"). A sparse rent stage. sogra. Photo by A. SIRIN. tree layer (up to 5-10% of coverage) is formed by stunted pines and birches 3-4 m The contour of the Vasyugan Mire sys- tall. The field and moss strata are formed by tem is fringed by an almost continuous band Equisetum fluviatile, Comarum palustre, of forested swamps ('sogra'), from several Menyanthes vrifoliata, Sphagnum wamstorfii, hundred meters to 1-5 km wide. In Western S. angustifolium; S. centrale, with a partici- Siberia as a whole, these swamps are mainly pation of Carex lasiocarpa, C. chordorrhiza, widespread on the floodplains of large and C. magellanica, and NaumburgLa thyrsiflora.small rivers. On terraces and watershed The moss layer always contains Lophocolea plateaus, they tend to occupy the periphery heterophyüa, Hebdium blandowii, and CalUer- of large mire massifs. gon cordifoUum. The participation of Chamaedaphne calyculata, Sphagnum magel- Mineral-rich ground waters are the main lanicum, S. obtusum becomes more notice- source of water and mineral nutrition in the able in 'yerniks' under conditions of poorer area. Surface runoff and poor mire waters mineral nutrition. can also be of noticeable importance at a lo- cal scale. A phytocenotic diversity of forest- The prevailing eutrophic sedge-brown ed mires is determined by paludification moss stage that has continued until now in mechanisms, which, in their turn, depend on the southern Vasyugan area is associated physical-chemical features of the ground and with edaphic factors. Currently, a process of the inclines of adjacent slopes (LAPSHINA et oligotrophisation can be observed on exten- al. 2000b). At points of contact with the low sive fens of the Vasyugan Mire: young, ac- mineral shore, mire waters run over the sur- tively growing ryam fragments form in the face, which leads to a eutrophic paludifica- fen Sphagnum lawns. They are one to sever- tion of the forest and the development of al (tens) meters across and rise 0.5 to 1 m rich paludal forbs-sedge tussock 'sogra' mires. above the water level. As the peat deposit Elevated shore stretches are often flooded grows, its structure becomes less influenced with acidic oligotrophic mire waters, which by the bedrock; the ash content of peat de- leads to the formation of raised bogs and the creases; and favorable conditions for the development of tall ryam communities, re- sedge-brown moss phytocenoses are trans- gardless of the initial tree species and soils of formed into more oligotrophic structures. the forests being paludified. The regular development of frozen ground patches that do not melt in the summer, but At the northern edge of the Vasyugan persist over several years, is also important Mire, the paludification process involves 303 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at wood provide favorable conditions for small mosses and liverworts. In accordance with the microrelief structure, the ground cover of 'sogra' com- munities is conspicuously patchy. Hum- mocks are occupied by mesophilous forest species: trees and shrubs (Sorbus sibirica, Ribes spp., Lonicera spp., Frangula alnus, ]u- niperus commurüs), dwarf shrubs (Vacriniun vitis-idaea, V. uliginosum, Ledum palusvre), taiga forbs (Maianthemum bifolium, Trientalis europaea, Rubus arcticus, Circaea alpina), for- est forbs and forest mosses of different eco- logical groups. Hollows between hummocks are overgrown by hydrophilous paludal plants Menyanthes trifoliate, Thelipteris palus- fris, Equisetum fluviatile, Comarum palustre, Naumburgia thyrsifkrra, Cicuta virosa, small and tussock-forming sedge species Carex lo- Photo 60: Pinus sibirica indicates rather primarily zonal southern taiga forests, which liacea, C. disperma, C. elongata, C. cespitosa, high nutrition, which is supported by then turn into dark coniferous paludal forbs- C. appropinquata etc. Paludal mosses are rep- periodic fires in tall "ryam" sites along the resented by genera Cattiergon, Mnium, boundaries of the Vasyugan Mire. sedge tussock 'sogra' mires. Sedge tussock Photo by A. SIRIN. and paludal forbs-sedge tussock birch-pine Drepanocladus, Calliergonella, Sphagnum (S. 'sogra' mires form in place of birch and wamstorfii, S. centrale, S. squarrosum) and birch-aspen grass forests located on less many others. leached and richer mineral soils. According The above sketch is a humble attempt to the tree layer composition, the mires are to provide a general idea of the vegetation distinguished by their dark coniferous, poly- communities in the Vasyugan Mire. There dominant, and birch-pine 'sogra' mires; less are very few publications about the Vasyu- common are birch 'sogra' mires, which usu- gan Mire that present a complete descrip- ally represent various pyrogenic forest mires Photo 61: Tall "ryam" is usually formed tion of the vegetation cover, although a few (MULDIAROV & LAPSHINA 2000). A pro- after the fire restoration stage. sources are recommended (BRONZOV 1930, Photo by A. SIRIN. nounced microrelief and abundant dead- 1936, YASNOPOLSKAYA 1965, KHRAMOV & VALUTSKY 1977, LAPSHINA et al. 2000, LAP- SHINA & MULDIYAROV 2002, LAPSHINA 2003). More extensive and detailed studies, which could probably be facilitated using new remote sensing techniques, are neces- sary. Land use and Conservation of the Great Vasyugan Mire N.M. SEMENOVA Covering a vast area between the Ob and Irtysh Rivers, the Vasyugan Mire system affects human lives at various levels, from :he local to the global one. It holds numer- ous natural treasures, such as peat, biological resources, and freshwater reserves. Its effects on processes responsible for water and gas balances in the atmosphere and on the for- 304 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at mation of weather conditions cannot be ex- Fig. 15: Annual Wctar« range of forest aggerated. The Vasyugan Mire holds over drainage in the 5,100.000 tons of carbon, which comprises Vasyugan Mire 12% of all carbon sequestrated in peat de- posits in Western Siberia (or 4-4% for Rus- sia on the whole). 3000 The Vasyugan Mire is situated in the 2000 Novosibirsk, Omsk, Tyumen, and Tomsk ad- ministrative regions of Russia. With a maxi- 1000 2 mum population density of 1 person/km , it 0 1970 1980 1985 19» is the least populated area of Western Siberia. Until recently, this area, which is Common commercial animals are elk, located far from industrial centers and pop- Siberian sable, squirrel, European mink, ulous regions, was a de facto nature reserve, beaver, black grouse, hazel grouse, and wil- and nothing threatened its preservation. low grouse (VALUTSKY et al. 2000). Regular- The indigenous peoples of Siberia seldom ly licensed hunting is insignificant, and no used mires in their traditional nature man- serious conflicts between man and the na- agement. They practiced hunting and gath- ture have been recorded. Unfortunately, ering only in the small peripheral parts of there have been incidents of illegal hunting bogs that are adjacent to river valleys. As using caterpillar vehicles and helicopters. many Russians moved to Siberia in the These incidents are associated with the ex- 1920s—1930s, a number of small villages de- ploration of the area, when parties are sent veloped on the periphery of the Vasyugan to remote, difficult-to-reach areas of the Mire. The inhabitants were mainly peas- mire to prospect for mineral resources. ants. Their subsistence occupations were and still remain gathering, hunting, fishing, and, less often, timber harvest. Forest drainage The situation changed cardinally during Forest reclamation was rather popular in the last three or four decades. The Vasyugan 1970s and 1980s in highly paludified regions Mire area was exposed to considerable hu- of Western Siberia. It involved large areas or man impacts. It is now of economic interest, extensive watershed mire systems, including not just as a peat deposit, but primarily as an north-eastern spurs of the Vasyugan Mire in area rich in mineral and biological re- the Tomsk administrative region, where for- sources. The threat to the pristine natural est improvement was started in the late landscapes of the Vasyugan Mire system 1960s. 128 ha were reclaimed by 1969, and makes it necessary to develop integral meas- efforts grew rapidly in the following years ures to organize sustainable nature manage- (Fig. 15). After 1978 the worb were slowed ment in the area. down and completely stopped in the early 1990s. The total reclaimed area measured about 50.000 ha. Hunting The reclamation efforts did not provide The Vasyugan Mire system is a wide mi- any noticeable economic benefits for gration corridor of biota and supports di- forestry, but increased a danger of forest verse habitats of typical and regionally rare fires. Large forest fires took place there every animal species. The mire system is a year and sometimes affected over 300 ha. stopover site for waterbirds and shorebirds Virtually no reparation of the drainage net- during passage and other seasonal activities. work has been undertaken since 1990, Ungulates migrate across this area. The forests and mires of the Vasyugan region which resulted in the secondary paludifica- provide important habitat for rare and en- tion of the forest. dangered animal species, such as reindeer, golden eagle, white-tailed eagle, peregrine, osprey, great grey shrike, eagle owl etc. 305 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Photo 62: A forest Land Improvement for drainage collecting canal. Photo by W. BOOREN. Agriculture The location of the Vasyugan Mire falls in the precarious fanning zone, but the south-eastern right bank of the Ob River in the Tomsk administrative region is favorable for farming. Therefore, land reclamation for agriculture was carried out in the 1960s- 1980s at the eastern periphery of the mire. Currently, the reclaimed area covers about 11.000 ha, with 60% of the land occupied by hayfields, 34% by cultivation fields, and 6% by pastures. Most of the lands are still in use. Principal mire conservation objectives are: to prevent mire pollution with surface runoff from agricultural fields and to stabi- lize the groundwater table, which keeps the lands fire-safe and highly productive. Peat Resources The area of the Vasyugan Mire on terri- tories of the Tomsk, Omsk, and Novosibirsk administrative regions is 5,269.400 ha, if measured along the zero depth of the peat deposit, or 4,863.400 ha, if measured along Photo 63: After forest the minimal commercial depth of the peat drainage, a birch tree deposit (The Vasyugan Mire ... 2000). In an stand superseded former estimation of natural resources of Western pine-dwarf shrubs- Siberia, paludified area of the northern sphagnum ("ryam") vegetation. Photo by W. stretch between the Ob and Irtysh rivers BOOREN. ;ind part of the Tyumen Region were also in- cluded in the area of the Vasyugan Mire, which then comprised 7,300.000 ha. Peat resources are estimated at approximately 18.800 million tons (The geological struc- ture ... 1998), which makes 15-20% of the total West Siberian resources. The peat re- ources have only been studied in detail in the area of 1,560.000 ha with a total re- source of 4.815 million tons. Less than 1% of the explored peat resources are prepared tor exploitation. Over a half of the resources 06.4%) are fen peat; 25.9% are bog peat, and the rest belong to transitional and mixed types. Immense reserves and a diversity of raw- peat types in the Vasvugan Mire waken san- guine hopes for its economic use. However, the peat reserves are dispersed over an ex- tensive and sparsely populated area. Fur- thermore, deposits of low depths and high ash contents predominate in the mire sys- 306 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at tern. This markedly restricts possibilities of Photo 64: Oil pollution of oligotrophic ridge-hollow bog an industrial development of the peat de- vegetation near the bog lake. posits. Photo by E. LAPSHINA. Utilization of peat in highly paludified areas of Western Siberia has never been a priority. The peat was mainly used for agri- culture. Currently, peat exploitation in the Vasyugan Mire area is insignificant. A uti- lization of peat resources, in particular those of the Vasyugan Mire, is a possible develop- ment trend for some regions of Western southern Vasyugan group were developed in Siberia. However, it is necessary to intro- 1992, where the Chertalinsky Beaver Re- duce modern technologies, both in peat ex- serve ('zakaznik') that had existed for 20 traction and processing. Moreover, the ex- years on 180.000 ha of the mire. The za- traction planning can only be carried out af- kaznik's closure eliminated the possibility of ter a detailed estimation of the biosphere establishing a strict nature reserve ('za- role of this vast mire system and an investi- povednik') on the territory. A strict nature gation of functional roles of its structural reserve had been proposed for creation there parts in the regional natural and economic in the 1950s (LAVRENKO et al. 1958) while a system. An industrial peat extraction in the long-range plan to develop the geographic most (ecologically) vulnerable stretches of network of specially protected areas in Rus- the mire may lead to irretrievable conse- sia was being compiled. Prospecting work quences. has started under a spur of the Vasyugan Mire to estimate the reserves of the Exploration for and Extraction Bakcharsky iron ore basin. of Mineral Resources Conservation of the Vasyugan The Vasyugan Mire conceals immense Mire: Status and Prospects mineral resources. Exploitation of them is associated with structural development, the Currently, there are three zakazniks on construction of industrial facilities, the pol- the territory of the Vasyugan Mire. A botan- lution of the surface with industrial waste, ical zakaznik of potential cedar forests, the destruction of the ground cover by which covers about 65.000 ha of insular for- caterpillar vehicles, and the permanent est plantations predominated by Siberian presence of people and other impacts. The cedar, is located in the Omsk Region. Two greatest danger is unawareness about how zoological zakazniks, Maizassky Zakaznik important mire ecosystems are. One could (85.000 ha) and Severny Zakaznik (106.400 speak about resource utilization and the si- ha), were established for the conservation multaneous conservation of mire ecosys- and reproduction of beavers, minks, otters, tems' natural functions only as a result of and sables. They are situated in the Novosi- awareness-raising activities and improved birsk Region. attitudes toward the mires. Legal measures should also play an important role in this In the late 1970s, two sites within the process. Vasyugan Mire (in the watersheds between the Bakchar and Iksa Rivers and the Iksa By now, the western part of the mire sys- and Shegarka Rivers, both in the Tomsk Re- tem up to approximately 81°E has been con- gion) were proposed for designation as na- siderably transformed as a result of the de- ture monuments of regional importance, but velopment and exploitation of oil and gas no decision has been made so far. At the fields. Resource exploitation is already per- same time, these sites do not reflect all the mitted or applied for in the entire western landscape and biological diversity of the part of the mire. Dozens of oil, oil and gas complex mire system. Projects of water pro- condensate, and gas deposits have been ex- tection zones have been developed for most plored and developed there. Oil fields in the oil and gas deposits in the Vasyugan Mire 307 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Photo 65: A warning Should a specially protected area be estab- about the danger of peat lished there within the framework of Russ- fires. Photo by A. SIRIN. ian legislation, an application may for sub- mitted for this status. With financial support from the Global Peatland Initiative (GPI), work to establish a landscape zakaznik in the Great Vasyugan Mire was carried out in 2002 and 2003. Spe- cial working groups, which included repre- sentatives of scientific communities and ad- ministrative structures, were formed upon the order of the governors of the Tomsk and Novosibirsk Regions. TOf>4>(!Htik! Currently, three sites, covering 716.000 pa3BoawTe ha in total, have been approved for the es- tablishment of a zakaznik on the Vasyugan Mire (SEMENOVA et al. 2002). It is an inte- gral and representative fragment of the mire, which reflects characteristic features of the mire structure and the diversity of lo- cal landscapes, as well as their typical and unique objects/complexes (Fig. 16). In addi- tion, its ecological and topographic situa- tions are favorable, which would provide for the autonomy of the future zakaznik and for the preservation of its environmental func- tions. The sites selected for the zakaznik and and in adjacent areas. They are established its buffer zone have been excluded from along rivers and brooks, as well as around prospective prospecting, extraction, and ex- mire stretches at headstreams and water- ploitation of mineral resources. There are logged lotic mire landscapes. neither prospected nor potential oil and gas In 1998, the Vasyugan Mire was includ- deposits on territory of the planned zakaznik ed on the Shadow List of Wetlands of Inter- and its buffer zone. The establishment of the national Importance protected by the Ram- proposed specially protected area in no way sar Convention (Wetlands in Russia... encroaches upon the interests of the local population as far as traditional nature man- 2000a, 2000b). According to assessments by agement is concerned. All materials con- Russian and western experts, the mire meets cerning the creation of the zakaznik were criteria as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Fig. 16: The distribution of a planned specially protected nature area (zakaznik) in the eastern part of the Vasyugan Mire, in the Tomsk and Novosibirsk Regions. 308 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at submitted to the administrations of Tomsk HapuMCKoro Kpaa. Tpyflbi nepecenemecKoro and Novosibirsk Regions. The initiating ynpaBJiemm. fleTporpafl. 1915. c. 10-21. (Materials on the soils and geology of the western por- group continues work to establish specially tion of the Narym Region. — Proceedings of protected areas and looks for optimal ways the Emigration Management Department: to so, such as establishing a landscape za- 10-21. In Russian). kaznik of regional importance (SEMENOVA EUSEYEVA V.M. (1963): EjinceeBa B.M. 0 nyrax 6k OGURTSOV 2003). For now, the conserva- cenbcxoxosmcTBeHHoro ocBoemw HH3HHHUX (XHIOT tion of the natural complex of the Vasyugan TOMCXOÜ oonacro. TOMCK. M3fl. TOMCKOTO ymiBepctiTeTa. 1963. 97 c. (Means of agricultural develop- Mire is possible only through the strict ob- ment of fens in the Tomsk Region. — Tomsk: servance of existing legislation in the field 1-97. In Russian). of nature management. GLEBOV F.Z. (1969): rhe6oB (D.3. Eojioia M 3a6ojiOMeHHue iieca 30HU EmiceücKoro jieBOoepexbsi. MocuBa: HayKa. 1969. 131 c. (Mires and paludified forest Conclusion zones of the left bank of the Yenissey River. — Nauka, Moscow: 1-131. In Russian). The attitude of people toward the Great Vasyugan Mire ... (2002): Eonbwoe Vasyugan Mire is determined by the fact BacioraHCKoe OO/IOTO. CoBpeueHHoe cocTOüHue H that it is a unique natural phenomenon. We npouecai pa3Bnrosi: C6. Poc. AH. Cw6. OTfl-Hne. MH-T cannot stop the economic development. At orrr. MoHMTopnHra. Hji.-Kop. PAH KaßaHOB M.B. (o6m. the' same time, we should improve our pea.). TOMCK: M3fl-B0 MH-Ta onroKn aTMoapepbi, 2002, 229 c. (Great Vasyugan Mire: current status knowledge of nature, ecosystem functions, and development processes. — In: KABANOV and the possible consequences of altering M.V. (Ed.), Inst. Aero-optics SB RAS, Tomsk: 1- them. Our knowledge of the Vasyugan Mire 229. In Russian). is obviously insufficient for sound, long- GRIGOROVSKY N.P. (1884): fpnropOBCKHH H.fi. Onnca™e range nature management planning on its BacioraHCKoS TyHflpbi. 3annCKM 3an.-Cn6. OTflena territory. It is necessary to balance different PyccKoro reorpacpMMecKoro oömecrea. 1884. KH. 6. c. 106-146. (A description of the Vasyugan tun- forms of wise use. Possibilities of resource dra. — Transactions of the Western Siberian utilization depend on the abundance, avail- Division of the Russian Geographic Society 6: ability, and quality of the resources, as well 106-146. In Russian). as on public demands. On the other hand, GRIGOROVSKY N.P. (1884): rpuropoBCKViii H.fl. OnepKH impacts on such a vast integral system may HapbiMCKoro Kpaa. 3anncK« 3an.-Cn6. Orne/ia lead to local and global changes with unpre- PyccKoro reorp. OömecTBa. 1882. KH. 4. c. 57-68. (Sketches of the Narym Region. — Transac- dictable consequences. Therefore, decisions tions of the Western Siberian Division of the regarding the conservation and use of the Russian Geographic Society 4: 57-68. In Russ- Vasyugan Mire should be well balanced and ian). based on scientifically proven facts. ILYIN R.S. (1930): M/ibHH P.C. flpnpoaa HapbiMCKoro Kpaa (pejibecp, reo/ioi™, naHAiuacpTbi, noMBbi). MaTepnajibi no M3yHeHKK) Cn6npn. T. 2. TOMCK. 1930. 344 c. (The References nature of the Narym Region (Topography, Ge- ology, Landscapes, Soils). — Materials on the BLEUTEN W. & E.D. LAPSHINA (Eds.) (2001): Carbon exploration of Siberia 2: 1-344. In Russian). storage and atmospheric exchange by West- KATZ N.YA. (1977): Kay H.fl. fonoueH CCCP. MocKBa. ern Siberian peatlands. — FGUU Scientific Re- HayKa. 1977. 220 c. (Holocene in the USSR. — ports 2001-1, Utrecht, Netherlands: 1-170. Nauka, Moscow: 1-220. In Russian). BRONZOV A.YA. (1930): BpoH3OB A.fl. BepxOBbie KHOTINSKY N.A., DEVIRTS A.L. & N.G. MARKOVA (1970): HapbiMCKoro Kpaa (6accem p. BacraraH). Tpysu XOTMHCKHÜ H.A., fleBnpq A.J1., MapKOBa HJ. Bo3pacT HayMHo-McoieAOBaTe/ibCKoro Topo>iHoro nHCTmyra. H MCTOpufl (pOpMHDOBaHHÜ 6onOT BOCTOMHOil OKpaHHbl 1930. Bbin. 3. 100 c. (Raised bogs of the Narym BaaoraHba. BKUUI. MOMfl OT«. BnoTOrviH. 1970. No. Region (the Vasyugan River Catchment). — 5. c. 82-92 (The age and formation history of Proceedings of the Peat Research Institute 3: mires at the eastern periphery of Vasyuganye. 1-100. In Russian). — Bulletin of the Moscow Society of Natural BRONZOV A.YA. (1936): BpoH3OB A.H. fnriHOBbie 6oiiOTa Ha Scientists. Biol. Sei. 5: 82-92. In Russian). KKKHoit OKpauHe 3anaflHO-Cn6«pcKOÄ paBHKHHoü Taüm. KHRAMOV A.A. & V.l. VALUTSKY (1973): XpaMOB A.A., noHBOBeflemie. 1936. No. 2. c. 224-245 (Hypnum BanyijKKU B.M. PacroTe/ibHOCTb SacceitHa p. 4an. B KH.: mires at the southern periphery of the West- flpnpofla Tau™ 3anaAHoii Cnonpn. HoBocnfjnpcx. ern Siberian lowland taiga. — Soil Science 2: Hayxa. 1973. c. 87-103 (Vegetation of the 224-245. In Russian). Chaya River Basin. — In: Nature of the West- DRANITSYN D.A. (1915): flpaHM|HH fl.A. MaTepnanu no ern Siberian taiga. Nauka, Novosibirsk: 87- n reo/iormi 3anaaH0H Macro 103. In Russian). 309 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at KHRAMOV A.A.& V.l. VALUTSKY (1977): XpaMOB A.A., KnpnxOB C.B., the Narym Region in Tomsk Province. — Mire Liss O.L., BEREZINA N.A. & G.G. KUUKOVA (1975): JIMCC Science 1, Minsk: 1-25. In Russian). 0.J1., Bepe3MHa H.A., KyjWKOBa T.f. B03pacT 6OJIOT LAPSHINA E.D. (2003): JlanwMHa E.fl. (Dnopa 6OJIOT raro- ueHTpanbHoü Hacnt 3anaflHO-Cn6npcKofi HM3MeHH0CTM. BOCTOKa 3anaflH0Ü Cn6npn. TOMCK: M3A-B0 TOMCKOTO flpnpoflHbie ye/loans 3anaflH0ü Cn6«pn. MPY. 1975. B. yHHBepcnTeTa. 296 c. (The flora of mires of the 6. C. 69-86 (The age of mires in the central southeastern part of Western Siberia. — Tom- part of the Western Siberian lowland. — In: sk University Press, Tomsk: 1-296. In Russian). Natural conditions of Western Siberia. Moscow State University 6: 69-86. In Russian). LAPSHINA E.D. S E.YA. MULDIYAROV (2003): JlaraijnHa E.fl., My/ibflMsipoB E.fl. OcHOBHbie STanbi pa3BMTwa LOGINOV P.E. (1957): JlornHOB fl.E. O paöOTax 3anaflHo- Eo/ibiuoro BaooraHCKoro 6oTOTa. B KH.: Eo/ibiuoe C«6npcK0« TopcpopasBeAOMHOü 3Kcneflnunn. C6. aaTeü BaaoraHCKoe 6OJIOTO. CoBpeMeHHoe cocTOHHne n no n3yHemiK) ToptpnHoro cpOHfla. HiaBHoe ynpaemHiie npoueccbi pa3BMTMfl. TOMCK. MOA CO PAH. 2002. c. Top<})!iHoro $0Hfla np« CoBeTe MHHHCTDOB PC(DCP. 36-45 (Major stages in the development of MocKBa. 1957. c. 15-31. (Work of the Western the Bolshoye Vasyugan Mire. — In: KABANOV Siberian peat-exploring expedition. A collec- M.V. (Ed.), Great Vasyugan Mire: current sta- tion of articles on the exploration of peat re- tus and development processes. Inst. Aero- sources. — Headquarters of the Peat Fund of optics SB RAS, Tomsk: 36-45. In Russian). the RSFSR Council of Ministers, Moscow: 15- 31. In Russian). LAPSHINA E.D., KOROLYK A.YU., BLEUTEN W., MOULDIYAROV E.Ya. & V.l. VALUTSKI (2000a): LOPATIN V.D. (1954): «rhaflKoe» 6O/IOTO (TOpcpflHaa CTpyxTypa pacrnTe/ibHoro noKpoBa 3anaflHoü Mac™ 3ane>Kb H 6ojiOTHue (tiaqnn). YneHbie 3amicKH /leHHHrp. Gonbujoro BaaoraHCKOro 6onora (Ha npKMepe YH-Ta cep. reorp. 1954. No. 9. c. 95-181 (A KfiKweBOro yMaCTKa "V3ac") (Structure of the veg- 'smooth' mire: peat depth and mire facies. — etation cover of the western part of the Great Transactions of Leningrad University, Geo- Vasyugan Mire (on the example of the key graphic Sei. 9: 95-181. In Russian). area "Uzas"). — Siberian Ecological Journal Lvov Yu.A. (1959): JlbBOB IO.A. K xapaKTepticTttKe 7/5: 563-576. In Russian). MKCMHCKoro BOflopa3flanbHoro oonoTa. M3B. TOUCK. LAPSHINA E.D, POLOGOVA N.N. & E.Ya. MOULDIYAROV OT«. BBO. T. 5. M3fl. TTV. C. 59-62. (Toward a de- (2000b): Bo/iOTa BOflopa3fle/ibHbix paBHUH Kira necHoü scription of the Iksinskoye Watershed Mire. 30Hbi 3anaflHoü Cnonpn (Watershed plain mires in — Transactions of the Tomsk Branch of the the southern forest zone of Western Siberia. Russian Mire Society 5: 59-62. In Russian). — Siberian Botanical Journal 2(1), Krylovia: LVOV Yu.A. (1966): JlbBOB KD.A. PaCTHTeJIbHOCTb 38-43. In Russian). BacwraHCKoro paSoHa. B KH.: flpupoAa n 3K0H0MHKa LAPSSOIA E.D. & S.V. VAEUEV (2001): Land unit maps. npnBaaaranbs. TOMCK. 1966. c 190-201. (Vegeta- In: Carbon storage and atmospheric exchange tion of the Vasyugan Region. — In: Nature by Western Siberian peatlands. — In: BLEUTEN and economics of the Vasyugan Region, Tom- W. & E.D. LAPSHINA (Eds), Carbon storage and sk: 190-201. In Russian). atmospheric exchange by Western Siberian LYUBIMOVA E.L (1972): /hofiiiuoBa EJl. PacnfrejibHOCTb peatlands. FGUU Scientific Reports 2001-1, OoVMpTbfflicKoro MejKAypefbH. B KH.: flpuposHbie Utrecht, Netherlands, Appendix A: 1-18. ycnoBHH ocBoeHJm ue)KAype>CjS! O6b-MpTbm. Moasa. LAVRENKO E.M., GEPTNER V.G., KIRIKOV S.V. & A.N. FOR- M3fl. AH CCCP. 1972. c. 302-321. (Vegetation of MOZOV (1958): JlaBpeHKO E.M., retrmep B.f, the Ob-lrtysh Irrterfluve. — In: Natural condi- 310 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at tions of exploration of the Ob-lrtysh Inter- search conducted during 1908-1909 on the fluve. Academy of Sciences Publishing, left-bank of the Ob River in the Narym Re- Moscow: 302-321. In Russian). gion. — 1-197. In Russian). MULOIAROV E.Ya. & E.D.LAPSHINA (2000): My/ibflustpOB ROMANOVA E.A. (1967): PotiaxoBa E.A. HexoTopue E.fl., JlanuiviHa E.fl. K xapaKiepwrrwce oorp necHOä Mopcpcmonweacf.e xapaiaepHCTHKn oiwoTpotpHba 30HU 3anaAH0ü Cn6npn. B: ripofinewu iwyMeHKü pacTme/ibHoro noxposa Cn6«pn. TOM». 2000. C.89- CTH Kax ocHOBa MX rononorKH H pauoHnpoBaHi«. B KH.: 91. (On the characteristics of the "sogry" of flpnpofla 60/10T H MeTOfly m nccnenoawm. the forest zone of Western Siberia. — In: The /leHUHrpaa. Hayra. 1967. c. 63-67 (Some mor- problems of vegetation studies in Western phological features of oligotrophic mire land- Siberia. Tomsk: 89-91. In Russian). scapes in the Western Siberian lowland as a base for their typology and districting. — In: Natural Conditions ... (1968): flpiipoflHbie ycnoBus it Nature of mires and methods of mire re- xosmcTBeHHoro ocBoemin search. Nauka, Leningrad: 63-67. In Russian). paüOHOB 3anaAH0ü Cnonpti. Mocxsa. Hayita. 342 c. (The natural conditions and particularities of ROMANOVA E.A. (1976): PoiuaHOBa E.A. O6mas the economic exploration of northern West- xapaKTepncTOKa 6onoiHbix naHflmaifcTOB. ern Siberia. — Nauka, Moscow: 1-342. In Russ- 3anaflxoi< CuCmpu, HX crrpoeHxe H ian). pe»nM. /1.: rMApoMeTeoM3flaT, 1976, 19-39. (The general characteristics of mire landscapes: Natural conditions ... (1977): ripnpoflHbie ycnoBMa mires of Western Siberia, their structure, and uempafibHoü nacm 3anaflHO-Cn6npa 311 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at The Vasyugan Mire ... (2003): BaaoraHCxoe femoio: fipxpofl. ycnoBiw, crpyioypa M (pyHxmtOHvipOBaHne. flofl o6iu. pea. MHMUieBOH D.M. TOUCH: UHTM. - 2003. - 190 c. (The Vasyugan Mire. Natural condi- tions, structure, and functioning. — In: INISHE- VA LI. (Ed.), Central Scientific Technical Pub- lishing House, Tomsk: 1-190. In Russian). VAIUTSKY V.l., SEMENOVA N.M., KUSKOVSKI VS., SAVKIN V.M., ZEMTSOV A.A., GUREEV S.P. & A.E. BEREZIN (2000): Ba/iyuxnH B.M., Ceuemsa H.M., KycKOBCKKii B.C., CaaoiH B.M., 3euuoB B.A., TypeeB C.fl., Bepe3MH A.E. O Heo6xoflMMoc™ oxpa™ Bojibuioro BaaoraHCKoro öojiOTa na O6b-Mp™uiaoiu BOAopaa/tejie // reorpaipra M npxpoAxue pecypcu, 2000. No. 3. C. 32 - 38. (On the necessity of protecting the Great Vasyugan Mire in the Ob-lrtysh Watershed. — Geography and nat- ural resources, 2000, 3: 32-38. In Russian). Wetlands in Russia (2000a): Volume 2. Important peatlands. — In: BOTCH M.S. (Ed.), Wetlands International Global Series No 2, Moscow, 2000: 1-91. Wetlands in Russia (2000b): Volume 3. Wetlands on the Ramsar Shadow List. — In: KRIVENKO V.G. (Ed.), Wetlands International Global Se- ries No 6, Moscow, 2000: 1-409. YASNOPOLSKAYA G.G. (1965): flCHOnoJibcxaa rx. K xapaKTepwrraKe pacTMTe/ibHocm TopipüHOii 3afle>KM BaaoraxcKoro 6o;iOTa. yneHbie 3anncKM TOMCKOTO yHHBepcmeTa. Enonornsi n noHBOBeAeHne. 1965. No. 51. c. 49-53. (On the vegetation characteristics of the peat deposit of the Vasyugan Mire. — Transactions of the Tomsk University, Biology and Soil Science 51: 49-53. In Russian). YEVSEYEVA N.S. & A.A. ZEMTSOV (1990): EBceesa H.C., 3euuoB A.A. PeflbecpooüpaaoBaHue B neco-6ofioTH0ü 30He 3anaano-Cn6«pcKDS paBHMHu. TOMCX. M3A. TOMCKOTO yHHBepcmeTa. 1990. 240 c. (Relief for- mation in the forest-mire zone of the West- ern Siberian lowland. — Tomsk University Publishing, Tomsk: 1-240. In Russian). Address of the authors: ZEMTSOV A.A. (1976): 3euuOB A.A. Lydia INISHEVA 3anaAHO-Cn6npcxoü paBHUHbi (ceBepHan M Siberian Peat Institute, MeHTpanbHas! nacni). TOMCK. M3fl. Toucxoro Tomsk-50, P.Box 787, Russian Federation yHMBepcttTeTa. 1976. 342 c. (Geomorphology of the northern and central part of the Western 634050. Siberian lowland. — Tomsk University Pub- E-Mail: [email protected] lishing, Tomsk: 1-342. In Russian). Elene LAPSHINA Yugra State University (Khanty-Mansiysk), Tomsk State University (Tomsk), Tchechova street, 16, Khanty-Mansiysk, Russian Federation 628012. E-Mail: [email protected], [email protected] OlgaLlSS Lomonosov Moscow State University Natalya SEMENOVA Tomsk State University, prosp. Lenina, 36, Tomsk, Russian Federation 634050. E-Maib n [email protected] 312 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Inside Mires: The Nature and Current Status of Mineral Inner-mire Islands in Rdeysky Nature Reserve in Western Russia D. MAYKOV Abstract: Specific features of mineral inner-mire islands are described on the example of Rdeysky Na- ture Reserve, which covers the northern part of one of the largest Polisto-Lovat mire systems in west- ern Russia. Mineral inner-mire islands are upland patches inside mires, which have overcome the accu- mulation of the peat deposit due to their elevated topographic position. Forest communities on miner- al islands reflect the zonal features of the vegetation and, at the same time, are affected by the dynam- ics of the mire ecosystem. The inaccessibility of inner-mire islands protects their ecosystems from eco- nomic impacts and thus preserves them as examples of natural landscapes that were long ago modified outside the mire. However, during some historical periods, the islands' inaccessibility made them very attractive to people and gave a special touch to their interactions. Key words: mire, bog, peatland, mineral inner-mire island, Polisto-Lovat mire system, forest, land-use, Russia Introduction people and gave a special touch to their in- teractions. Mineral inner-mire islands are upland patches inside mires, which have overcome Mineral islands are inherent elements of the accumulation of peat deposit due to the mire system that reflect its status and dy- their elevated topographic position. Not ex- namics. Vladimir SUKATCHEV, an outstand- actly being mire ecotopes, they are unique ing Russian biologist and mire scientist and objects both in the ecological and econom- a patriarch of biogeocenology, emphasized ic sense, as they reflect the interaction of the importance of inner-mire islands for re- the local landscape structure and the mire search on paludification processes. Many system on the one hand, and that of man populations of animals inhabit mineral is- and the mire as a complex natural-econom- lands, which determines their conservation ic system, on the other hand. Forest com- value. munities on mineral islands reflect the zon- al features of the vegetation and, at the The Mire System same time, are affected by paludification processes that characterize the development The Polisto-Lovat mire system, which dynamics of the mire ecosystem. The inac- covers 90.000 ha, is a large massif of near- cessibility of inner-mire islands for man pro- natural raised bogs and paludal lakes. In tects their ecosystems from economic im- 1994, two state nature reserves (zapovedniks) pacts and thus preserves them as examples - Rdeysky and Polistovsky - were estab- of natural landscapes that were long ago lished within its borders in order to facilitate modified outside the mire. However, during the conservation and research of this unique some historical periods, the inaccessibility massif of sphagna mires in the southern of the islands made them very attractive for taiga of European Russia. Furthermore, 313 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Photo 66: A small mineral island in the southern part of the Photo 67: A buzzard nest on a mineral island. reserve. Photo by author. Photo by M. MYSLIVETS. there are two additional specially protected ly mild, prolonged winters. The mean annu- nature areas within the mire massif: Rdeysky al air temperature is +4.9°C (Project... Nature Reserve (zakaznik) and the Lake 1994). Abundant rivulets, streams, and Polisto Reserve (zakaznik) designated as a lakes that form a very characteristic and im- nature monument (Fig. 17). portant part of the landscape are typical for the mire system. The mire system feeds nu- The mire system is located on territory merous rivers and streams, all of which be- affected by the „Valday" (or Wurm) Glacia- long to the Baltic Sea Basin. There are as tion. The glacier flattened the surface, abat- many as 20 large lakes; three of them are lo- ing ledges and filling bays with foreign mat- cated singly and the rest are clustered in ter. After the glacier melted and the glacial groups. lake receded, peat formation began in some depressions. Finally, individual mire massifs The peat deposit in the mire system is merged and created the present appearance very deep, sometimes reaching 7 m in depth. of the Polisto-Lovat mire system. The area's Over most of the area, the bog peat is un- current climate is temperate continental, derlain by a deposit of fen peat, which is bordering on maritime, with a surplus of 2-2.5 m deep, often with a thin bottom lay- precipitation, cool summers, and moderate- er of sapropel or sometimes with a layer of • Pskov *--. ! Polisto-Lovat1 / Polistovsky bog system reserve VILLAGES O uninhabited • inhibited ßyelarus ) 200 A •Smolenik Fig. 17: Geographical position of the Polisto-Lovat mire system. 314 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Photo 68: The shore of a secondary .OMT. ..n,ch is located severa Photo 69: Headwaters of a stream, one of many that begin in the kilometers away from the mire massif border. Photo by A. SIRIN. mire massif. Photo by N. ZAVYALOV. Photo 70: The ridge and hollow complex Phragmites peat. The fen peat and transi- is the most tional peat seldom occur on the surface of widespread the massif (TYUREMNOV 1976). microlandscape within the mire Being large in size, the mire massif pro- system. Photo by I. motes a diversity of vegetation communi- TARANETS. ties. Most of the area is occupied by ridge and hollow complexes that vary greatly in the size of their ridges and hollows, their surface ratio, and their vegetation cover. Two groups of ridge and hollow complexes can be distinguished within the mire massif; the first one is dominated by Sphagnum mageUanicum and the second one is domi- nated by Sph. fuscum. The second group is Photo 71: A top view of the ridge and hollow complex; a much more common. The tree vegetation mineral island is visible in the on ridges is represented by the ecological distance. Photo by M. form of pine Pinus sylvestris f. Utwinowii. MYSUVETS. The vegetation cover in hollows is more di- verse, often with cotton-grass and Scheuchz- eria palustris (BOGDANOVSKAYA-GuiENEUF 1969). Equally widespread is the pool-denuda- tion complex that occurs in central parts of the mire massif or that penetrates into oth- er complexes in narrow strips. It covers only the combined Sph. fuscum - Scheuchzeria type of peat deposits. The upper layer of this deposit is transfused with veins of slowly flowing water that are the densest in the Scheuchzeria layer. The pool-denudation complex has a ridging microrelief, often with pools grouped into strips. Pines Pinus sylvestris f. Wiükomii reaching up to 1 meter in height and Pint« sylvestris f. pumila 20-30 cm in height sometimes occur on the ridges. 315 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Photo 72: The Pine- The mire massif's well-drained elevations Cottongrass-Sphagnum are occupied by top pine-sphagnum biogeo- biogeocoenosis is widespread on drained cenotic complexes. The appearance of the patches of the mire complex is primarily determined by a wide system. distribution of the pine /. ütwinowii, ericoid Photo by A. SIRIN. dwarf shrubs, and sphagna mosses Sph. fus~ cum and Sph. magelkmicum. Large portions of the mire massif are occupied by sphagnum transitional (Menyanthes trifoliata, Scheuchze- ria palustris, Eriophorum vaginatum) mires. Characteristic features of this type of mire are an extremely even surface and virtually no trees (BOGDANOVSKAYA-GUIENEUF 1969). Although they cover relatively small ar- eas, pine-cottongrass-sphagnum biogeo- cenoses often occur within the mire system. They are associated with well-drained patch- es of small peat depth (with depths less than 2 to 3 m). The pine is represented with two paludal forms: Litunnowii and Willkommii. The pine-cottongrass-sphagnum biogeo- cenoses may develop as a result of the grow- ing inundation and gradual deterioration of the pine forest by a sphagnum understory (BOGDANOVSKAYA-GUIENEUF 1969). Because of the ridge degradation, aboriginal Some 200 vertebrate species inhabit the associations have been replaced by those mire system, including fish (9 species), am- with Cladonia lichens. Vegetation in hol- phibians (3), reptiles (3), mammals (36), lows is usually formed by Sph. cuspidatum and birds (over 150). Eleven wader species and later replaced by liverworts. Pools are nest in the mire, which supports the largest round in shape, 5-8 m across, sometimes known breeding population in Europe of the elongated, 15-20 m long, and 8-10 m wide. Photo 73: Inner-mire islands are often Curlew. A number of bird species listed in They vary in depth from 1 to 3.5 m (BoG- flanked by impassable, waterlogged reed the Red Data Book of the Russian Federa- and sedge marshes. Photo by A. SIRIN. DANOVSKAYA-GUIENEUF 1969). tion breed in the area, such as the Black- throated Diver, Black Stork, Golden Eagle, Spotted Eagle and Lesser Spotted Eagle, Ptarmigan, Golden Plover, Grey Shrike, and Eagle Owl. The European Mink is a rare mammal species inhabiting the mire system (PROJECT... 1994). The Polisto-Lovat mire system has al- ways attracted close attention from scien- tists. The first investigations were conduct- ed during the period 1909-1914 in the east- ern Pskov mire region. They were led by Vladimir SUKATCHEV and performed by his school: R.I. ABOLIN, A.R. KAKS, and S.M. FILATOV. Their observations of the Pohsto- vo mires have retained their theoretical im- portance to the present day. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, inves- tigations oi the Polisto-Lovat mire system 316 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at were continued with funding from the species requiring soil fertility. Forest planta- Leningrad affiliate of the Peat Research In- tions of birch and aspen develop there after stitute. Dmitri GERASIMOV and Sergey human disturbance. TYUREMNOV worked there at that time. Pri- On smaller islands, where the mire may mary work on the investigation of the mire promote a special microclimate, forest system was led by Ivonna BOGDANOVSKAYA- stands are often composed of broad-leaf GuiENEUF. In 1969, she published a copious species, such as oak and linden. The planta- study on the formation of sphagna raised tions may consist of either oak or linden, or bogs exemplified in the Polisto-Lovat mire a mix of the two. Birch and aspen may also system; this study presented a summary of all be present in the tree stand. Generally, previous research of the system. growing conditions are far from optimal for broad-leafed species, therefore they are Genesis of the Islands somewhat suppressed; many oak are dry- topped, with numerous frost cracks on their An overwhelming majority of the min- trunks. Because of regular felling, many trees eral islands located within Rdeysky Nature originate from coppice shoots. Reserve (zapovednik) was formed by a sub- glacial moraine. They are shaped like single As drainage conditions of loamy soils hills or are joined into ridges. In the north- worsen, the nemoral spruce forest gives way western part of the reserve, the mire massif to a less productive spruce forest with a sim- is skirted by a ridge that consists of more or ple structure. It has a very dense stand, a less oblong mounds that are divided by crown canopy, and simple understories peaty channels. A few smaller ridges of the (ORLOV et al. 1974). Such forests occur on same orientation are located inside the mire some flatter patches of the mineral islands. massif. Islands formed by lake-glacial land- Sandy islands, of which there are few in forms include oses that stretch, similarly to the reserve, usually develop two types of for- the ridges, from southwest to northeast. est plantations: oxalis-bilberry pine forests Mound-like sandy islands formed of non- and bilberry spruce forests. The pine forests sorted sand with small boulders are not un- form under favorable humidity and soil aer- ation conditions. They restore naturally very well, but are challenged by birch at Native Vegetation felling sites and fire-sites. There, the birch of the Mineral Islands appears earlier than the pine, suppresses the latter, and forms very productive stands Loamy sediments of the subglacial (ORLOV et al. 1974). The development of moraine are the most common in the com- bilberry spruce forests on sand can be ex- position of mineral islands in Rdeysky Na- plained by the high water content of the ture Reserve. They are rich in nutrients that soil, which provides more or less favorable provide for the great productivity of the or- conditions for their growth (BEREZIN et al. ganic mass; if soil formation proceeds under 1969). a favorable combination of other soil fac- tors, they also provide for aeration and soil humidity (ORLOV et al. 1974). Biogeo- Human Impacts cenoses on loamy soils are dominated by the on Mineral Islands common spruce or, in very favorable condi- During the last few centuries, a well-de- tions, by the English oak. veloped network of villages existed around Even a slight incline of the surface pro- the mire system (Fig. 18) and inner-mire vides for good drainage and, consequently, mineral islands were regularly deforested for for the formation of rich nemoral spruce arable farming and hay harvesting. As late forests. This forest type is very well repre- as the 1940s, inhabitants of Nivki and sented on sloping mineral islands. The un- neighboring villages are known to have col- derstory and sometimes also the tree stand lected firewood on the nearest mineral is- are typically composed of broad-leaf species, lands. In fact, they crossed the frozen mire while the herbaceous vegetation includes to reach Yelovik Island. The coppice origin 317 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Fig. 18: Location of ber fellings were carried out in adjacent ar- villages and farms eas. The mire massif was used for hunting, around the mire massif on a map fishing, and berry picking. Cranberries have dating from 1905. been collected industrially and their sale still remains a major source of income for the local population. Lone islands that overlook the sur- rounding mire have prompted legends about treasure that was buried there. Holes dug by treasure hunters can be found on many of the islands. This activity was especially pop- ular during the 1980s and 1990s. Before the reserve was established, the islands were a popular place for hunting. The remnants of hunting huts can still be found on some of the islands. On nearly all the islands, there are traces of tourist camps and fireplaces, which are in varying stages of being over- grown. In dry years, tourists can cause forest fires. ot oak and linden in forest stands is proof of The magnificent ruins of the Cathedral earlier intensive felling. According to elder- of the Assumption can still be seen on an ly local residents, treeless parts of the min- extensive mineral island next to the large eral islands were used for hay harvesting and inner-mire, Lake Rdeyskoye. The Rdeyskaya for personal needs as recently as through the hermitage was established in the second half 1960s or 1970s. of the seventeenth century by hermits who had settled there and established a quiet, se- The largest mineral islands were once cluded community, which was mentioned in inhabited. House foundations can still be chronicles from the year 1666. By 1723, the found on Mezhnik Island, where a village of hermitage possessed 301 serfs. The island 18 homes was located before World War II. was connected to the mire's shores by a log- This small, remote community was likely to road that could carry carts and wagons. have been built by peasants who had fled Catherine II closed the hermitage in 1764 the so-called military settlements estab- and converted it into a common parish. It lished in the early nineteenth century by was not until 1887 that the hermitage was Count A.A. ARAKCHEYEV, an influential restored as a convent thanks to the generous Russian statesman of the time. The inhabi- donations of a rich merchant, A.N. Ma- tants of the mineral islands farmed and montov. At the beginning of the twentieth raised cattle. In particular, they supplied century, a new cathedral that accommodat- butter to the royal court before the 1917 ed 750 people was built. It was decorated revolution. with stained-glass panels, wrought iron, and For two years during World War II, the expensive materials. Especially rich and or- territory around the mire massif was occu- nate was an iconostasis of imported Italian pied by German-Estonian troops. Remnants marble. of dugout shelters that had used by refugees Many people called this region "a prom- who had fled from villages destroyed in mil- ised land" because the harvests gathered on itary actions can still be seen on many of the the numerous mire islands were unusually reserve's islands. rich. This can probably be explained by the In recent decades, urbanization and the special microclimate induced by the nearby depopulation of villages around the mire mire. Local residents recall that in the 1960s system has led to a decrease in economic im- an agrotechnologist from a nearby state farm pact on the mire. However, these activities grew grapes on a mire island that used to be- have not ceased altogether. Industrial tim- long to the convent. Locals still pass down 318 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at legends about very large cucumbers crops Photo 74: The Cathedral that were harvested by nuns who had used of the Assumption, which belonged to the fish fertilizer made of small lacustrine fish former hermitage that abundant in Lake Rdeyskoye. was located on an inner- mire mineral island. Local people believe that the old Cathe- Photo by N. TKACHUK. dral of the Assumption has healing quali- ties. They claim that it exorcises demons from the obsessed and heals infertile women; thus, the convent island is very at- tractive to tourists. The restored Rdeysky convent will likely become a center of pil- grimage and ecological tourism. The Current Status of Island Ecosystems Currently, most mineral islands in Rdeysky Nature Reserve are overgrown with relatively young, even-aged forests. The most widespread are birch and aspen forests, as well as secondary spruce and broad-leat (dominated by oak and linden) forests. A degree of human disturbance of the mineral island's mineral forest ecosystems is determined by two major factors: the re- moteness of the island from the mire edge; and the character of mineral shores that de- The paludification processes that take termines the island's accessibility. Fig. 3 shows the northern portion of the reserve, place on mineral islands and around the with an elevated mire shore and numerous Polisto-Lovat mire system were first studied villages, both former and contemporary. In by researchers of the eastern mire region of this situation, the safety of forest communi- Pskov Province in the early twentieth cen- Photo 75: A view of the mineral island and ties depends merely on the distance between tury (KISLYAKOV 1905, FILATOV 1911). They the hermitage from across the inner-mire the island and the mire shore. The adjacent believed that the reasons for paludification lake. Photo by N. TKACHUK. mineral shores of the mire massif are also waterlogged and barely accessible. There- fore, there is no clear dependence between the degree of human impact on the islands' forest ecosystems and the distance to the mire shore. However, disturbance by man is not the only disturbance that inner-mire islands face. The mire itself lays claim to the islands and, unwilling to leave them to either forests or to humans, it invades them slowly, but surely. Virtually all of the mineral is- lands are now paludified to a great degree; they vary from a slight suppression of the tree stand to its complete deterioration and a formation of a mire coenose in place of the forest one. The degree of disturbance de- pends largely on the topography and linear dimensions of the island. 319 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at •^J Fig. 19: The disturbance of tree stands on mineral islands versus distance to the mire shore. were as follows: the construction of a water- loclc in the eighteenth century on the Polist' River, which impeded runoff from the sur- rounding mires; construction of gristmills that increased the level of water in the riv- er; and, finally, the silting of the river. How- ever, BOGDANOVSKAYA-GUIENEUF (1969) showed that the main reason for the paludi- fication is the mire system's natural develop- Distance from Mineral island and ment. mire boundary level of vegetation Villages disturbance Rivers and - 4 (max) streams — -3 Mire boundary Photo 76: Beaver activity is one of the factors that supports the Photo 77: Pines died as a result of paludification near the inner- paludification process. Photo by N. ZAVYALOV. mire island shore. Another island is visible in the distance. Photo by author. Photo 78: A transitional tree stand of black alder and birch with reeds that have emerged on an inner-mire island as a result of Photo 79: An oak forest on a mineral island that died as a result paludification of its shore zone. Photo by author. of paludification. Photo by author. 320 © Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at Acknowledgements I am grateful to Andrey SlRJN for his guidance and support in preparing the paper and I would like to acknowledge partial fi- nancial support provided by the Scientific Programme "Biodiversity", of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences. References BEREZIN A.M., VAVILOV E.I. & A.A. GRIGORIEV (1969): Bepe3MH A.M., BaBM/iOB E.M., fpxropbeB A.A. pojib necnoii pacmrenbHOcni npn nosB x MeTBepTMMHux omoxEnm. Hayxa, 128 c. (An indicator role of forest vege- tation in decipherment of soils and Quater- nary sediments. — 1-128. In Russian). BOGDANOVSKAYA-GUIHENEUF I.D. (1959): BorflaHO- BCKaa-TweHacp H.fl. 3aK0H0MepH0cm cpopMnpoBamifl oparHOBbix 60J10T Bepxoeoro Tvina Ha npnuepe noiiMCTOBO-JloBaTCKoro MacwBa. JleHHHrpafl: HayKa, JleHHHrp. OTfl., 1969. 186 c. (Development pat- terns of sphagnum raised bogs based on the example of the Polysto-Lovatsky mire massif. — Nauka Leningrad Branch, Leningrad, 1969: 1-186. In Russian). FILATOV S.M. (1911): (DHTOTOB CM. L|eBem>CKoe ÖOJIOTO. MaTepnanbi no M3yHeHwo BOCTOHHOTO ßonoTHoro pa- MOHa fiCKOBCKoü ryöepHHM. PICKOB: M3AaH«e FlcKOBCKoro ryßepHCKoro 3eMCTBa, 46 c. (The Tsevelskoye mire. Research materials on the Eastern mire re- gion of the Pskov province. — The Pskov zem- stvo publishing, Pskov: 1-46. In Russian). KISIYAKOV N.M. (1905): KKCUHKOB H.M. BOCTOMHUS öojioTHtjü paüoH FlcKOBCKOü ryöepHMH. ®M3MKO-reorpa- 0uHecxMü H cTaTMCTOHecKMü onepK. IICKOB: H3flaHMe (icKOBCKoro ryöepHcxoro 36MCTBa, 139 c. c npmio- >KeHMüMH. (The eastern mire region of the Pskov province. A physical-geographic and statistical sketch. — The Pskov zemstvo pub- lishing, Pskov: 1-139 with appendices. In Russ- ian). ORLOV A.Ya., KOSHEL'KOV S.P., OSIPOV V.V. & A.A. SOKOLOV (1974): OpnoB A.51., KomenbKOB C.fl., OcxnoB B.B., CoKonOB A.A. Txnbi necHbix 6noueH030B KBKH0Ü räum. MoCKBa: Hayra, 230 c. (Types of for- est biocoenosis of the southern taiga. — Nau- ka, Moscow: 1-230. In Russian). PROJECT... (1994): flpoexT opramoamin rocyaapcrBeHHoro npnpoflHoro sanoBeflHMKa «PfleScKnu». MocKBa. 1994. Address of the author: Pynonncb. (A project on the establishment of Dmitry MAYKOV the Rdeysky State Nature Reserve (zapoved- nik). — Unpublished, Moscow. In Russian). Laboratory of Peatland Forestry TYUREMNOV S.N. (1940): TiopeMHOB C.H. ToptfWHbie Me- and Hydrology, CTopffiKfleHMS!. MocKBa: rocTonTexn3flaT. 371c. (Peat Institute of Forest Science, Russian deposits. — Gostoptekhizdat, Moscow: 1-371. Academy of Sciences, Uspenskoye, In Russian). Moscow Oblast, 143030 Rdeysky State Nature Reserve, Ulitsa Chelpanova 27, Kholm, Novgorod Oblast, 175270. E-Mail: [email protected] 321