1 Introduction 2 Football, 'Race' and the Forging of British Identity
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Notes 1 Introduction 1. For an opposing view of the changing composition of crowds, see Malcolm, Jones and Waddington (2000). 2. The interviews were either semi-structured or unstructured and conducted by one or both of the authors. Some survey work, of fanzine editors and of football club safety officers undertaken in the period 1995–96 also informs this work. The authors would like to acknowledge with thanks the work of Mark Carver, who participated in the formative part of this research. 3. From an interview conducted for this book, May 1998. 4. Excerpt from an interview conducted for this volume, January 1998. 5. Interview undertaken for this book, November 1997. 6. From an interview for this work, August 1997. 7. Conservative leader William Hague, in a speech to the Centre for Policy Studies in 1999 spoke of an ‘emerging English consciousness’ that was a ‘ticking time bomb’ under the constitution of the United Kingdom. Interestingly, he viewed the manifestation of the widespread painting of the St George Cross on the faces of England football supporters as evidence of this new nationalism (Shrimsley, 1999). 2 Football, ‘Race’ and the Forging of British Identity 8. Collins, who had the ‘affectionate’ nickname of ‘Darkie’, took Rochdale to the League Cup Final in 1962, losing 4–0 on aggregate to Norwich City. 9. Interview with Jeff Simons, November 1997. 10. Interview with Brendon Batson, February 1998. 11. Interview with Cyrille Regis, February 1998. 12. Ibid. 13. The Guardian, 26 January 1979. 14. Dave Bennett of Manchester City and Garth Crooks and Chris Houghton of Tottenham. 15. Interview with Tom Matthews, October 1997. 16. The Observer, 28 September 1997, Sport: 4. 17. Interview with Brendon Batson, February 1998. 18. The Guardian (1979) ‘Orient Cry Foul over Anti-Nazi Movement’, 13 February: 3. 196 Notes 197 3 Standing Together? Charting the Development of Football’s Anti-Racism 19. Interview conducted with CRE Campaigns Unit, December 1994. 20. Organisations supporting the CRE/PFA-led campaign included the Scottish FA and Scottish Football League and the Association of Chief Police Officers (Scotland). 21. A total of 14 bodies. 22. Funding bodies for KIO include the FA Premier League, the CRE, the Football Trust, PFA and the FA. 23. In January 1999 Norwich City banned two supporters from attending Carrow Road for five years after they were found guilty of racist chanting. 24. From an interview with Councillor Jaspal, a Labour representative, conducted by the authors. 25. In 1998 Leeds United and Sheffield Wednesday were also criticised for allowing Bernard Manning to perform at functions inside their stadia (Kempson, 1998). 26. Noteworthy examples include the antiracist work undertaken at Millwall, Wycombe Wanderers, Exeter City, Preston North End and Everton. 27. Interview conducted with CRE Campaigns Unit, December 1994. 28. The only context where it was decided that the equal-opportunities policy did not apply was in the purchasing of players, where it was deemed impractical. 29. Northampton Town are known as the ‘Cobblers’, an acknowledgment of the local prominence of the shoe industry. 30. Space restrictions mean it is impossible to do justice to the remarkable story of Walter Tull. See Vasili (1996) for a full account of a footballer described as ‘Britain’s first multicultural icon’ (Guardian, 1998). 31. The memorial was officially unveiled at a ceremony in July 1999. 32. Interview conducted by the authors with Brian Lomax, Director, Northampton Town FC. 33. Interview with a former manager of a club based in a multi-ethnic Midlands city, conducted by the authors. 34. Interview with secretary of a club based in a multi-ethnic Midlands city, conducted by the authors. 35. Interview conducted by the authors with the secretary of a London-based Premier League club. 36. From an interview conducted with Arts and Leisure Department, London Borough of Waltham Forest, 3 March 1995. 37. Ibid. 38. ‘The Boys . .’ contains the lyric ‘Oh son I see in memory to far off days when being just a lad like you I joined the IRA’. 39. Millwall Football Club has also been active in combating antiracism through the work of an Anti-Racism Committee formed in 1994 (AGARI, 1996). 40. These agencies included the police, Kick It Out, local authorities, support- ers’ groups and the Martin Shaw King Trust. 41. Kick It Out has worked with a number of fan initiatives, including those at Fulham, Exeter, Rotherham and Southampton. 198 Notes 42. Other football fan groups to originate from Anti-Fascist Action include Celtic Anti-Fascists and Man. United Anti-Fascists (Anti-Fascist Action, 1994). 43. Other fanzines produced by antiracist fan groups include You Wot! (Gulls Against Racism – Torquay United), Red Attitude (Man Utd Anti-Fascists – Manchester United) and Doon by Gorgie (SCARF – Hearts). Filbo Fever is now called When You’re Smiling. 44. Space limitations mean that the significant impact of fanzines cannot be fully discussed here. For a more in-depth discussion of the role of fanzines see, for example, Jary, Horne and Bucke (1991). 45. From an interview conducted with Football in the Community Officer, Leyton Orient, January 1995. 4 Policing Racism in Football 46. Combat 18 are an avowedly violent neo-nazi group formed by BNP supporters who became disaffected with the party’s public commitment to democratic politics. The groups name is taken from the alphabetical posi- tion of Adolf Hitler’s initials, A = 1 and H = 8. In practice, it has been suggested, the distance between the BNP and C18 is much closer than the former publicly acknowledge (Dispatches, 1994), although the future of C18 is open to speculation following the life imprisonment of leader Charlie Seargent (The Observer, 1998a). 47. Williams et al. (1989: 150). 48. Cited in Searchlight, July 1985: vii. 49. A newspaper report in April 1998 claimed that senior C18 leaders were utilised as informants by the British security services in order to glean information about the activities of loyalist extremists. The report alleged that links with MI5 meant that C18 enjoyed a degree of immunity from the police in respect of some of its other activities (The Observer, 1998b). 50. See Sunday Times, 19 February 1995: 7. 51. ‘No Surrender to the IRA’ is also chanted by supporters of English club teams on occasion. One of the authors of this study witnessed this slogan directed by supporters of Oxford United against Swansea City in season 1994/95, presumably those involved associated the Welsh fans with a Celtic identity shared with the Irish. 52. The Guardian, 17 February 1995: 2. 53. For example, Home Office (1993). 54. See Beck and Willis (1995). 55. Interview with authors, October 1995. 56. See, for example, South (1988); Johnstone (1992); George and Button (1996); Murray (1996). 57. Home Office (1993). 58. For example, Dispatches (1994). 59. Ibid. 60. Some indication of the number of people playing football is found in the FA Premier Fan League Survey 1996–97 which suggested that 79.6 per cent of men who attend matches had played (or did play) junior 11-a-side foot- Notes 199 ball and that 62.8 per cent had played (or did play) 11-a-side football when aged over 15 years. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the figures were much lower for women, at 7.8 per cent and 5.6 per cent respectively. 61. Although Malcolm, Jones and Waddington (2000) suggest that the extent of this transformation in the demographic make-up of football crowds is seriously exaggerated. 5 A Design for Life: Deconstructing the Game’s National Identities 62. In Scotland, 74.3 per cent of the electorate voted for devolution, and in Wales, 50.3 per cent (1998a, b). 63. Lipton (1999) notes that at the end of the 1998/99 season there were 172 overseas players attached to Premiership clubs, an increase of 111 from the figure in 1995. Of these, the largest contributing nations were Norway (22 players), France (21), Holland (16) and Italy (14). 64. The edition on 7 June 1999 featured teams comprised solely of players or commentators synonymous with the 1966 World Cup win. 65. Cited in the Guardian, 31 December 1993. 66. Interview conducted with Arsenal fan, October 1997. 67. Havelange defeated Englishman Stanley Rous, the incumbent FIFA presi- dent, in the 1974 election. 68. The head of the PFA, Gordon Taylor, invoked the ‘national interest’ as an argument against the relaxation of rules for non-EEA players (Parkes, 1999). 69. These include: proving that every avenue had been explored in trying to find a suitable EEA player first; that the proposed signing had played in at least 75 per cent of competitive games for his country in the last two years; demonstrating the player’s worth by paying him a suitable salary. 70. Roberts conducted the Rangers crowd in the singing of sectarian songs, whilst Gascoigne mimed playing the flute, something linked to loyalism and Orange parades. 71. For example, Cardiff reached the semi-final of the European Cup Winners’ Cup in 1967/68 (losing to Hamburg), and the quarter-finals twice (1964/65 and 1970/71), while Newport County reached the quarter-finals of the same competition in 1980/81. 72. The Sun (27 May 1999) noted of Manchester United’s support at the 1999 European Cup Final in Barcelona that there were banners from ‘. Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malta, Holland, Norway, Sweden and Hawaii. There were groups from Glasgow, Leighton Buzzard, Hastings, Swansea, Northampton, Bury and Salford – not to mention the Hesketh Arms, Southport’. 73. Peter Kenyon, Manchester United’s deputy-chief executive, described his club as ‘the football brand on everyone’s lips’ (Guardian, 19 June 1999: 23: emphasis added by authors).