THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF MALTESE PREHISTORIC ART

Andrew Townsend

Art is stylized communication. equally important are buildings, (Devereux 1971) pottery/stone containers, altars and objects used for personal ornamentation. Introduction From the outset, the subject of this paper Art and context provokes a number of challenging Before attempting to define the social questions: What exactly is a social context of art, it must first be context? What is the social context of art? acknowledged that prehistoric cultural And, to what extent does prehistoric art remains, whatever their nature, are a constitute a window through which we in manifestation (materialization) of socio­ the present can observe or 'read' the past economic activities taking place in a given (Hodder 1991)? It has to be said that the social environment (Townsend 1997a answers to these and many related 1997b). A social environment is one i~ questions have been approached by way of which humans live and interact with each a varied and somewhat turbulent other. The particular way those humans trajectory of theoretical discourse in live and how they interact within their archaeology over the past four decades, social environment is commonly referred and it has only been with the emergence to as "social organisation". Social of post-processual and cognitive organisation is generally categorised into approaches of the 1980s and 1990s that units such as chiefdoms (Earle [ed.] 1991; progressive insights have been attained. Kirch 1989), corporate groups (Hayden & In anthropology, the situation has Cannon 1982) or others (Service 1962). generally been different and here the art With prehistoric societies (i.e., without of 'primitive societies' (Forge [ed.] 1973; written texts) archaeologists use evidence Fraser 1962; Jopling [ed.] 1971) has been from settlement patterns, trade, at the forefront of investigations (Layton subsistence activities and the presence of 1991). ceremonial structures, on which to build inferences for the type of social It is proposed in the present paper that organisation they might be dealing with. the art created on the Maltese islands This is also a theme which is of great during the Temple Period (c. 4100-2500 concern to archaeology and anthropology BC) constitutes a body of data which as it is inextricably linked to the nature facilitates, at very least, a preliminary and quantity of art produced by a given analysis of its social context. However, society. For example, hunter-gatherer "art" alone, as an individual body of data societies who rely on seasonally-factored or as a concept, cannot sustain an mobility for group survival (Henry 1989) argument; it must be evaluated in terms have little or no desire to produce large, of the social environment or cultural heavy or cumbersome objects-which milieu (Townsend 1997a, 1997b) in which includes art objects (Muentserberger it was produced, used and in which it 1971: 8). Rather, mobile groups produce functioned (Talalay 1993: 38)-a whole and use highly portable personal constellation of different factors have to be ornaments, or resort to body decorations taken into account. These include the in order to communicate social (non­ geographical status and physical verbal) information (Goldschmidt 1981: morphology of the islands and the 97). Sedentary farming communities, availability of space and resources, for however, are able to produce and make these are all factors which affect the way use of much larger objects such as statues, human social groups develop and interact. for if required, those objects can remain in It is also not just objects such as figurines one specific locale throughout the course or statues that should be considered when of their functional life-in permanent speaking of Maltese prehistoric art; settlements or ritual/ceremonial centres. Facets of Maltese Prehistory

In the case of Temple-Building and elsewhere on the Maltese islands, Gozo, society produced and used an array Stoddart et al. (1993) have suggested an of art objects which varied not only in island-insularity scenario. In essence, terms of form, but also, physical scale,l during the Zebbug phase (c. 4100-3800 and by implication, transportability BC) there was inter-community rivalry (Townsend 1997a, 1997b). taking place on the islands which operated through the exchange of exotica What evidence is available for the nature such as obsidian and other materials. of social organisation of the Maltese This was at a time when the islands were islands during the Temple-Building an active component of the central Period? Colin Renfrew (1973), by using Mediterranean exchange system. If the the distribution (clustering) of temples on model suggested is correct, there followed the Maltese islands, developed a most a period of socio-economic insularity useful chiefdom-based model for social whereby the Maltese islands became a organisation during the Temple-Building 'closed society' (Evans 1977: 21)­ Period. In comparing the Maltese case commencing in the Ggantija phase (c. with Easter Island in the Pacific, he 3600-3300/3000 BC). It is during the suggested that the islands comprised a latter that the first temples are social matrix of six territories and using constructed and hails the beginning of art data from semi-arid south Iran, suggested production on a grand scale. Stoddart et that the total human population would al. (1993) suggest that the earlier rivalry have been in the order of 11,000 via exchange, witnessed during the individuals. Furthermore, it was possible Zebbug phase was now focused on the for chiefs in each territory to mobilize construction of temples. labour in order to build ceremonial centres such as the temples in which Both models noted above are extremely 'priests' are thought to have officiated. useful for envisualising the socio-economic Based on the nature and quantity of state-of-play during the Temple-Building evidence currently available, is Renfrew's Period, but it is clear that far more data is model realistic (Townsend 1997 a)? As needed in order to make higher level noted earlier, a given social environment interpretations. Perhaps more comprises all aspects of human existence problematic is the sudden change that and activities which include ceremonial, takes place at the end of the mortuary and domestic components, and Temple phase, when the islands appear to collectively, can be considered to be social have experienced a radical change in 'whole' (Hodder 1992: 24). One component cultural practices-as denoted by the of the Maltese whole which is missing at Tarxien Cemetery Period (c. 2500-1500 present is firm evidence for settlements. BC). During this phase, temple Thus, a model for social organisation construction is non-existent and, along which is temple-specific in terms of its with new cultural practices and forms construct is taking into account only part (-urn burials, figurines, pottery of the story. The problem is further types) there is the appearance of metal perpetuated by absent data from the objects (copper axes) for the first time. temples themselves, resulting from Attempting to understand the Tarxien nineteenth century excavation activities­ Temple-Tarxien Cemetery interface a time when excavations were not (Dixon 1998; Evans 1956; Pace 1995; scientifically controlled as they are today. Trump 1976) and subsequent Other strands of evidence apart from developments has to be one of the main ceremonial structures are available for tasks of Maltese archaeological research inferring socio-economic processes that in the future. At this stage, it is might have taken place during the important to note the apparent dichotomy Temple-Building Period. Using data which can be observed between the recently obtained from the mortuary site 'exaggerated' (Evans 1973: 519) forms of of the Brochtorff Circle in Gozo (Bonanno the Temple-Building Period and the much et al. 1990; Malone et al. 1993, 1995a; humbler manifestations of the Tarxien Stoddart et al. 1993; Trump 1995) and Cemetery Period.

1 Some of which are very large. With little settlement evidence to go by

118 The Social Context of Maltese Prehistoric Art and loss of contextual information which are possibly indicative of the resulting from nineteenth-century practice of animal husbandry in terms of a excavations of the temples, it would seem social context (rather than solely for that a fairly bleak picture exists in terms subsistence) (Keswani 1994). of making headway with new models for social developments and changes on the At c. 4100 BC-the beginning of the islands during prehistory. Zebbug Phase (c. 4100-3800 BC)-there is Notwithstanding this, what can we glean a radical shift in cultural practices but from the art productions of the Temple­ this cannot, and should not, be assumed Building Period? to be indicative of the arrival of a new population on the islands (Evans 1984: Anthropologists have, for a long time now, 493). The first evidence for mortuary valued art in terms of what it is able to practices in the form of rock-cut tombs tell us about society and there is a rich used for collective burials appears, body of data at the disposal of examples of which are know at Ta' Trapna archaeologists to do the same-providing (Zebbug) on Malta (Baldacchino & Evans the limits of the data are given due 1954) and at the Brochtorff Circle on Gozo respect. Even when no art is found on a (Malone et al. 1995a). Associated with the particular site then this may be tombs is anthropomorphic imagery of two considered negative evidence (Stone basic types. One type is the so-called 1981). It has to be admitted that in some 'statue-', one example from the cases, for instance, when a site has tombs at Ta' Trapna (Zebbug) undergone little excavation, any art (Baldacchino & Evans 1954: plate 3; objects recovered may be of only slight Evans 1971: fig. 57, plates 61.7 & 61.8) information value. However, with the and a further, albeit smaller, example Maltese islands, there is a rich and varied from the Brochtorff Circle [Figure 1] repertoire of objects available for analysis. (Malone et al. 1995a: fig. 17). A series of anthropomorphic pendants were also Maltese prehistoric art found in the rock-cut tomb at the While the production of the most Brochtorff Circle (Malone et al. 1995a: fig. elaborate Maltese prehistoric art is 25; Stoddart et al. 1993: fig. 5), and to associated with the Temple-Building date, appear to be unique to this site. It Period, lesser-scale production did take has also been suggested that a number of place during the earlier phases of the pottery designs found on Zebbug phase islands' cultural trajectory. pottery vessels from the Brochtorff Circle Notwithstanding the value of pottery may be anthropomorphic images (Malone containers as art objects in their own et al. 1995a: 314). However, while the right (Trump 1996), the first known Zebbug phase heralds the appearance of figurative work to be produced on the new cultural forms, it is not until later in islands takes the form of two zoomorphic the Temple-Building Period that a pot lugs (Evans 1971: plates 32.7-9) florescence of art production takes place. dating to the Ghar Dalam phase (c. 5000- It is during the Ggantija phase (c. 3600- 4500 BC). But the evidence for art during 3300/3000 BC) that most of the temples the earliest phases is extremely scarce were first constructed. A number and it is not until the Red Skorba phase subsequently underwent elaboration and (c. 4400-4100 BC) that the first evidence enlargement during the Saflieni (c. 3300- for the production of anthropomorphic 3000 BC) and Tarxien (c. 3300/3000-2500 figures on a quantitative basis is known. BC) phases (Trump 1966: table 2). At Skorba, David Trump (1961a, 1961b, 1961c, 1966) found fragments of In view of its provocative and anthropomorphic figurines (Evans 1971: extraordinary nature, Maltese prehistoric plate 34.2; Trump 1966: fig. 30, plates art has attracted a considerable amount of XXVI & XXVII) in a building which he scholarly attention (Battaglia 1927; interpreted as a 'shrine' (Trump 1966: 11). Biaggi 1986, 1989; Evans 1971, 1976-77; Trump's ritualistic interpretation is based Pace 1994; Pace [ed.] 1996; Malone & not just on the presence of figurines, but Stoddart 1995; Malone et al. 1995b; also, the skeletal remains of animals Stoddart et al. 1993; Townsend 1997a, 1997b; Trump 1963; Zammit & Singer

119 Facets of Maltese Prehistory

1924). Anthropomorphic imagery includes at different sites on the islands helps to figurines, statuettes and statues confirm this hypothesis. (Townsend 1997b). Zoomorphic imagery includes figurines (Evans 1971: plates Common characteristics can be observed 33.13, 37.5, 37.6 & 37.8) and relief amongst objects from different sites which carvings (Evans 1971: plates 17.5-6 & vary not only in terms of their 18.3-4) and there are also representations configuration, but also, physical scale. of fish (Evans 1971: plates 37.2-4). There Thus, the so-called "Tarxien Skirt" device is also more "abstract" imagery such as appears on small objects such as the the spiral decoration found on carved Brochtorff twin-figure statuette [Figure stone slabs (Evans 1971: plates 22.4 & 3] and objects comprising the Shaman's 22.5) and painted on the ceiling of the Hal Bundle (Figure 4], in addition to much Saflieni Hypogeum (Evans 1971: Plans larger objects such as two statues from 14C & 14D). The rather enigmatic phallic the Tarxien Temples complex (Evans objects (Evans 1971: plates 50.9-11 & 1971: plates 19.5 & 49.11-13). The bulbous 51.1) also deserve mention here. legs observable on the Brochtorff twin­ figure statuette [Figure 3] can also be Recent excavations at the Brochtorff observed on the large anthropomorphic Circle have produced an array of art statue at the Tarxien Temples complex objects which, in cases, are not dissimilar (Evans 1971: plate 19.5). In addition to to objects found elsewhere on the islands, the actual temples themselves, there are and as such, can be considered as part of also representations of temples in the the same material culture repertoire form of models (Evans 1971: plates 47.7-9; ('system of visual communication' [Forge Von Freeden 1993: Abb. 102 & 103; see 1971: 292]). Highly portable also Renfrew 1994: 6; Trump 1990: 28), anthropomorphic figurines [Figure 2] engravings on slabs (Von Freeden 1993: were found placed in a 'module' (Stoddart Abb. 101) and even the representation of a et al. 1993: 10) containing vast quantities temple found on an amulet (Evans 1971: of human skeletal material. In yet plate 51.6). Motifs such as the spiral are another module on the site, provisionally also employed, in this case engraved on interpreted as a 'shrine' (Stoddart et al. the Brochtorff twin-figure statuette 1993: 10) was found an anthropomorphic [Figure 3] and also painted on the ceiling statuette carved from limestone [Figure of the Hal Saflieni Hypogeum (Evans 3] and items of cult paraphernalia 1971: Plans 14C & 14D). Even from this forming a 'bundle' (Stoddart et al. 1993: most brief of surveys, it is clear that there 11) [Figure 4]. The latter module also is an interrelationship at play between contained a "megalithic" stone bowl not objects from the same, and different, sites dissimilar from that found by Zammit at which is dependent on variability of form the Tarxien Temples complex (Von and physical scale and surface application Freeden 1993: Abb. 55). The remains of a (Townsend 1997a, 1997b). limestone statue [Figure 5], originally c. The social context of Maltese 1.00 m in height, were found scattered prehistoric art about the burial area of the site. Last but What then is the social context of Maltese not least are the large quantities of prehistoric art? As noted earlier, the pottery, personal ornaments and red ochre particular social environment (Townsend (Marshack 1981; Wreschner 1980) that 1997a) in which art functions and is used were found on the site. comprises manifestations of material culture (buildings and objects)-and As noted earlier, the Brochtorff finds bear people. The landscape itself is also a a strong resemblance to many other major component of that environment objects found at sites elsewhere on the (Tilley 1994). Even if archaeologists are Maltese islands. It would appear that a unable to define exactly the nature of distinct Maltese artistic style ( Conkey & social organisation they are dealing with Hastorf [eds] 1990) prevailed (Townsend (i.e., chiefdom society) it is still possible to 1997b) and as such, could be used in the define a social context for art by creation and maintenance of visual (i.e., considering the data at hand under five non-verbal) rhetoric (Malone et al. 1995b: basic categories of analysis [Table 1]. 11). Comparison of specific objects found

120 The Social Context of Maltese Prehistoric Art

Level

...... ,,,_, ______,,,,,. 1 At the broadest level of contextual analysis, objects are used and function within (and in cases between) their geographical context (unit)-an , ...... ·+·;······················ .... + ~§!~!:l:4.~..K'::

L ...... -' !of caches. .::,...... ,

Table 1: Categories of object-context analysis (After Townsend 1997b)

What evidence is there from the Maltese islands, but only from elevated locales islands for such a contextual analysis to (Trump 1990: llO). This relatively close proceed? proximity and inter-visibility with Sicily, raises the question as to what level of insularity the Maltese islands experienced Levell: Geographical Context: during prehistory (Eriksen 1993; Gosden & Pavlides 1994). As noted earlier, the In the case of the Maltese islands, model proposed by Stoddart et al. (1993) geographical context is comprised of a suggests that the islands did enter a comparatively small group of islands phase of cultural insularity during the located in the central Mediterranean. Temple-Building Period. Here, the When compared to other Mediterranean problem lies in deciding whether such islands such as Sicily (25,805 km2), isolation was deliberate or the product of Sardinia (24,180 km2), Cyprus (9,280 km2) geographical factors-or a combination of and Crete (7,800 km2), the Maltese both. Certainly, the cultural traits of the islands are small (Branigan & J arrett Temple-Building Period are consistent 1969). The largest of the group, Malta, is with what one might expect from a 'closed 247 km2 in area, followed by Gozo (68 society' and also observable with other km2) and Comino (2.6 km2). Two rocky geographic-isolates such as Easter Island islets-Cominotto and Filfla-complete in the Pacific (Bahn 1997; Bahn & Flenley the group. It is in the context of this 1992; Renfrew 1984; Sahlins 1955). There small, biogeographically constrained is little to compare with contemporary island environment (Keegan & Diamond cultural traits on Sicily and the Maltese 1987; Schiile 1993) that archaeologists case appears to be a unique and must conduct their enquiries. indigenous phenomenon.

The nearest major landfall to the islands Level2: Inter-community context: is Sicily, the southern coast of which is some 96 km to the north. In clear As noted earlier, the lack of settlement weather conditions, the summit of Sicily's evidence for Malta and Gozo poses an Mount Etna can be seen from the Maltese enormous problem for researchers. To

121 Facets of Maltese Prehistory date, only scant remains for what might degradation created by land-use for be "domestic" structures have been agriculture and animal husbandry in encountered. David Trump (1966: 14-16) addition to the procurement of natural found remains of Zebbug, Mgarr, and resources such as timber (Keegan & Ggantija structures at Skorba. More Diamond 1987; Schiile 1993). Although recently, structural remains, which may the islands may have still been only also have had a domestic function, have sparsely populated, it could well be that been found at Ghajnsielem Road (Malone village communities, albeit part of a et al. 1988) and Tac-Cawla (Calvert 1995) larger 'whole', were beginning to become on Gozo. Notwithstanding other forms of conscious of their biogeographical material culture evidence, this basically predicament, which itself, triggered inter­ leaves us with the temples and hypogea in and intra-settlement social tensions. order to make inferences concerning Combined with other factors, it could be possible inter-community relations. those tensions which triggered a social response resulting in ritual and It could well be, as Colin Renfrew ceremonial activities (Shils 1966). The suggests, that the temples are indicative relatively confined and isolated of territorial socio-economic strategies on environment of the islands would the islands. If so, then inter-community undoubtedly have been a deciding factor rivalry and/or cooperation may have been in this respect. Unlike mainland played out via the existence of such situations where large interaction spheres territories. Furthermore, the social (Bar-Yosef & Belfer-Cohen 1989) offer boundaries (Cohen 1969) created by this response flexibility in the face of socio-economic demarcation may have perturbations and environmental been advertised and legitimated by degradation, small island environments manifestations of material culture (Wobst have little to offer (Townsend 1997b). In 1977), with the temples acting as the case of the Maltese islands, it is ritual/ceremonial centres. possible to envisage a small-island­ factored social environment in which An alternative suggestion (Townsend social tensions prevailed at both the inter­ 1997b) is that the temples were part of and intra-community levels, and that such one, all-encompassing socio-economic tensions were ever-increasing as time island-factored 'whole'. In this instance, went on, reaching their apogee during the the most elaborately embellished of the Tarxien Temple phase. temples-the Tarxien Temples complex­ may have served as the main centre for ritual and ceremonial activities. From Level 3: Inter-unit context: Tarxien, and the nearby Hal Saflieni hypogeum, rhetoric could have been While acknowledging that settlements disseminated via the use and function of and smaller residential units such as art objects (including pottery) to other hamlets probably existed on the islands, ritual centres. This involved large static at present, only two categories of social objects such as limestone statues to small, unit are available for analysis at Level 3: highly portable, stone/ceramic figurines temples and subterranean mortuary (Malone et al. 1995b: Figure 2). complexes (hypogea). But saying this, the evidence is still somewhat fragmentary. But if the social context of prehistoric While some twenty-three classified temple Maltese art is to be understood, long-term structures are known (Trump 1990: 27), and immediate historical contexts need to only two hypogea have been reported to be considered. As noted earlier, the first date: the Hal Saflieni hypogeum on Malta evidence for ritual and ceremonial and the Brochtorff Circle on Gozo. In activities, coupled with the use of art essence, this leaves us with only two objects, was found by Trump at Skorba hypogeum-temple clusters to consider; (Red Skorba phase). By this time, the present evidence suggests that the Hal Maltese islands had been populated by Saflieni hypogeum (Tarxien Cluster) and humans for over 500 years and it is the Brochtorff Circle (Ggantija Cluster) possible that the local ecosystem was each relate to a nearby cluster of temples beginning to experience a degree of (Bonanno et al. 1990: figs. 2 & 3; Trump

122 The Social Context of Maltese Prehistoric Art

1981: fig. 11) and it is this relationship discovered at the Brochtorff Circle which is important in terms of (Stoddart et al. 1993: fig. 4) finds a understanding the types of art being used parallel in that employed in Room 6 at and functioning at these clusters. The Ggantija (Evans 1971: plate 26.5). discovery of further hypogea in the future, which are believed to exist, 1 will no doubt Thus, the inter-unit context of the Tarxien help to clarify the cluster model being and Ggantija clusters is evidenced not discussed here. only by the close proximity of sites at each, but also, by the similarities that can In considering the known art from the be observed between manifestations Tarxien and Ggantija clusters it can be (materializations) of material culture. observed that, as with other levels of analysis which comprise this paper, similar artistic devices were employed Level 4: Intra-unit context: between units in each of those clusters (Tarxien Hal-Saflieni I Ggantija­ In order to consider the possible intra­ Brochtorff). In essence, an intra-unit module context of Maltese prehistoric art interrelationship was maintained via the it is again necessary to refer to the known interplay of artistic devices employed temples and hypogea of the islands, but within and between each centre. more specifically, the Tarxien Temples complex. The Tarxien Skirt found on two statues from Tarxien (Evans 1971: plates 19.5 & The Tarxien complex is undoubtedly the 49.11-13) is repeated on the so-called most elaborately embellished of all the "sleeping Lady" figure found. at Hal known Maltese temples and thanks to the Saflieni (Evans 1971: plates 36.6-9). The methods employed by its excavator, Sir spiral motif found on engraved panels , important from Tarxien (Evans 1971: plates 22.4 & contextual information was saved at the 22.5) can be found painted on the ceiling time of its excavation (Gouder 1996). In of the hypogeum (Evans 1971: Plans 14C essence, the analyst is presented with a & 14D, plates 5.1 & 5.2). There are also whole suite of different art forms, which architectural forms found at Tarxien at the time of their use and function, were which are mimicked below ground at Hal interrelated and as such, constituted a Saflieni (Evans 1971: plates 5.3-5) (or system of visual communication within vice-versa). the temple complex. Amongst other manifestations of material culture, that It has to be said that the surviving works system was comprised of figurative work of art from the Ggantija Temples complex (figurines and statues), engraved stone are not as abundant as those found at the slabs (zoomorphic and abstract forms), Brochtorff Circle, but as with Tarxien and pottery containers, stone containers, Hal Saflieni, it is still possible to observe "architectural" models, personal similarities in form employed at each site. ornaments, and items of cult Two stone heads (Evans 1971: plates 62.1- paraphernalia. The most notable example 6) are not dissimilar in configuration and is the 'fixed' statue (Malone et al. 1995b: style to those of the twin-figure statuette fig. 2) standing in Apse 2 of the South found at the Brochtorff Circie [Figure 3]. Temple (Evans 1971: plate 15.2). It is Spiral-carved slabs found at Ggantija can hardly a coincidence that this happens to be related to the spiral decoration also be one of the first images that one observable on the top elevation of the encounters when entering the temple, and Brochtorff twin-seated figure [Figure 3]. indeed, one of the last when leaving. In Again, there is also a similarity in form its complete state, it would have been in which can be observed in the use of the order of 2.75 metres in height (Trump architectural components at each site. 1990: 70) and would have presented an For instance, the 'shrine' architecture' awesome spectacle to the extent of creating an element of shock, surprise and emotion for any person or persons 1 Trump (1990: 67) suggests that there could be as encountering it-a lasting psychological many as 14 further hypogea awaiting discovery. impact on the observer would have been

123 Facets of Maltese Prehistory

created. Other images within the temple interrelationship that exists between would have achieved a similar effect­ objects can, however, be a problematic if albeit on a lesser scale perhaps. Notable not impossible task, especially if there are amongst these are the large stone slabs only a small number of objects on which to engraved with spiral designs (Townsend base an argument. In rare cases, caches 1997b) such as those in Rooms 15 and 16 of prehistoric art objects have been found of the Central Temple (Evans 1971: plates more-or-less intact, notably recent 21.4, 22.4 & 22.5). One can only speculate discoveries at 'Ain Ghazal in Jordan on what the atmosphere inside the (Schmandt-Besserat 1998; Rollefson 1984; temples must have been at the time of Tubb & Grissom 1995), Kissonerga their use, but it can be postulated that Mosphilia in Cyprus (Peltenburg 1988; imagery in the form of anthropomorphic Peltenburg & Project Members 1991) and cult statues and spiral-engraved slabs important for this study, the Shaman's were strategically placed in order to Bundle discovered at the Brochtorff circle attain a maximum visual impact on in 1991. Perhaps the most important observers (Evans 1996). aspect of caches2 is that there is a collective relationship which can be Attempting to make sense of all the art observed. It could be that the cache in contained within the Tarxien Complex is a question was hurriedly placed in an daunting if not impossible task. The indiscriminate fashion, perhaps as an act entire interrelationship which once of concealment; alternatively, it could existed between art forms in the temple have been placed in a specific order, (which would have included objects and perhaps in the form of creating a materials that are now long perished) narrative or scene (Drennan 1976: fig. (Heider 1967) simply no longer exists. 11.10). Equally, it could have been Those examples just noted-the giant cult deposited as a ritual toolkit with no statue and the spiral-engraved stone specific order intended-but there are slabs-are however observable remnants many other possibilities which could be of this interrelationship. But the noted. Whatever the case may be, it still argument can be elaborated still further remains that the objects concerned, in the to include the art from other sites on the majority of cases, mean something as a islands. Those art forms include a whole group, and therefore, the interrelationship repertoire of artistic devices-"skirts", of those objects, at least to a degree, has bulbous legs, spirals-which collectively survived. can be interpreted as a Maltese 'way of doing' (Hodder 1990: 45) or style The Shaman's Bundle discovered at the (Townsend 1997b). It is this aspect of the Brochtorff Circle in 1991 offers much material culture assemblage which is scope for theories pertaining to the inter­ pivotal in the sense that it constitutes a relationship of art objects. The cache testimony for the way in which art was [Figure 4] consists of six limestone functioning in society. anthropomorphic staff figures, two further limestone anthropomorphic figures, a limestone zoomorphic figure and a small Level 5: Inter-Object Context: ceramic pot bearing traces of red ochre. As noted earlier, the find was made in an Objects found at any given archaeological area of the site interpreted as a 'shrine'. site or region, in the majority of cases, One intriguing aspect of the staff figures bear some form of resemblance to one is the different stages of manufacture another whether this be in terms of which can be observed (Stoddart et al. conformity to the prevailing (artistic) 1993: 11). At one level, a single piece of style, or the use of artistic devices globigerina limestone has been carved to (including symbolic devices) employed. form a 'roughout'. From this, further This general aspect of material culture stages of manufacture can be observed was touched upon earlier when it was culminating in the finished object. An noted how artistic devices such as the depiction of bulbous legs and the Tarxien Skirt could be observed in the Maltese 2 Schiffer (1987: 78-80) discusses the difference repertoire of art-objects. Ascertaining the between 'banking caches' and 'ritual caches'.

124 The Social Context of Maltese Prehistoric Art important question must be asked here: of art should be defined. What was a group of completed and partly completed objects being used for in a Evaluating the social context for shrine on a mortuary site? This question Maltese prehistoric art may be partly answered by taking into There is a palimpsest of socio-cultural­ account the inter-object relationship. As and psychological-functional variables with some of the objects discussed earlier, (Devereux 1971: 193) inextricably a number of commonly used artistic involved when attempting to define the devices have been employed in the social context of art produced by any Shaman's Bundle, and in doing so, render society, and these are linked to short- and them part of the Maltese stylistically long-term processes taking place. factored repertoire of art. The old Archaeology, as a discipline, relies on site­ favourite-Tarxien Skirt-appears on two contextual information obtained from of the figures. While no limbs are settlements, mortuary complexes and/or depicted, the heads of the cemeteries, amongst many other types of anthropomorphic figures, with their site, in order to make statements about hairstyles and quiescent gaze, are not social life in the past. Thus, high­ dissimilar to figures found at other sites resolution statements concerning Maltese elsewhere on the islands. It is reasonable society as a 'whole' during the Temple­ to suggest that all the anthropomorphic Building Period will only be possible when figures forming part of the bundle conform far more data than that currently to the prevailing Maltese style of art and available comes to light. But to say that therefore, not only relate to each other, no statement whatsoever is possible at but also to other figures being used and this stage would be falling into the trap of functioning at other locales. minimalist or descriptivist thought (Dark Notwithstanding their incomplete state, 1995: 62). A significant quantity of art even the roughout and other partly objects are known from the temple sites finished objects conform to the prevailing and Hal Saflieni hypogeum and provide a style and, as such, could be identified by basis for at least preliminary analyses. observers at ritual and ceremonial Although many of these objects lack activities. It would seem that in order for properly recorded site-contextual the Shaman's Bundle to have efficacy as a information, the repertoire as a whole has ritual kit it was important that each been greatly complemented by those object, whether completed or partly discovered more recently at the Brochtorff completed, could be readily identified as Circle. If art is capable of telling us forming part of that kit, and ultimately, something about the type of society that be identified as part of the much wider produced it (Berndt 1971: 100) then how arena of Temple-Building Period art does this work in terms of Temple Period production. In essence, the inter-object art? relationship observable in the Shaman's Bundle rendered efficacy to both roughout A key factor in the argument must be the and other partly completed objects. conditions which 'switched on' (Wiessner Comparison of the Shaman's Bundle with 1990: 109) the need for the production of similar caches that might happen to come art and construction of temples on such a to light in the future would add an grand scale during the Temple-Building exciting dimension to the argument being Period. It is commonly and incorrectly advanced here. assumed that when a florescence of art ensues in a given society that this is a It seems clear that defining the social sign of increased wealth and affluence. context of prehistoric art entails taking But as Paul Tac;:on (1983; also Odess 1998) into account a host of variables relating to reminds us, just the opposite can be true; the prevailing social 'whole'. In the case troubled societies may produce elaborate of the Maltese islands that 'whole' art in large quantities in response to comprised a highly complex package of social tension(s), stress, and the practice interrelated socio-economic variables of ritual and ceremonial activities may which was heavily dependent on the also increase under such conditions (Shils islands' biogeographical status, and it is 1966). By the beginning of the Temple- from this perspective that a social context

125 Facets of Maltese Prehistory

Building Period (c. 4,100 BC), the Maltese although could have been moved with islands had experienced nearly one considerable effort. As an individual thousand years of human activities and it concept, ease of portability of art objects is possible that the resulting pressures tells us little about social context, but placed on what was a small, when those objects interrelate via biogeographically constrained, environ­ commonality of style and the use of ment were well in place by now (Keegan & symbols and motifs, a new dimension is Diamond 1987; Schiile 1993). The added. Whatever the precise nature of elaborate temples and art created during Tarxien Temple society and whatever the Ggantija and Tarxien Temple phases events were taking place on the islands at could well have been society's way of the time, it is apparent that art and coping with perceived danger-a harmless ceremonial buildings were playing a key safety valve (Devereux 1971: 203). Unlike role in ongoing developments. Large mainland situations where community statues were referents to statuettes and fissioning is possible in the face of figurines which could have been used in environmental perturbations or social the same temple, or perhaps other stress, on small islands there is often buildings located elsewhere on the 'nowhere else to go' (Townsend 1997b). islands. Symbols such as the spiral The events which took place at c. 2,500 device, were also used in various ways BC when the Tarxien Temple Culture (i.e., wall decoration, carved slabs, incised vanishes from the archaeological record on figures) and were intended to be remain a puzzle. At this stage it is, observed at different locales on the perhaps, incorrect to assume that the islands. A whole host of other devices Tarxien Temple society simply "collapsed" were also used including containers overnight, and other models for explaining (stone, ceramic) of various sizes and what might have happened should be representations of temples (Townsend sought (i.e., a gradual socio-economic 1997a, 1997b). realignment). What is certain is that c. 2,500 BC heralded the advent of the Prehistoric societies were without written Tarxien Cemetery Culture/Maltese texts as we know them3 and it was art when new forms of cultural which was employed as a means of expressiou appear in the archaeological expressing and circumventing social record. Whether it was· a short- or long­ tensions and stress, and as an active term process which was involved in the component of ritual and ceremonial transition, the new social environment of activities. It is suggested here that the the Tarxien Cemetery period commanded temples and art objects of Temple­ the use of a new types of art. Building Malta and Gozo are a profound testimony to what must have been intense Even this metanarrative-style account of ritual and ceremonial activities being events provides much fuel for evaluating practised at the time, and such activities the social context of Maltese Temple possibly reflect a society in a predicament Period art. One of the most noticeable resulting from a resource-exhausted characteristics of Tarxien Temple figures physical environment, and perhaps, an is the level of transportability (via human over-populated physical and social agency) found with each (Malone et al. environment (Stoddart et al. 1993: 17). It 1995b; Townsend 1997a, 1997b). Thus, is the way in which the art objects of small highly portable figurines [Figure 2] Temple-Building Malta and Gozo were could have been readily transported from used and functioned within the prevailing one locale to another with little effort social environment which is that art's involved. Statuettes [Figure 3] could social context. easily have been transported, but in view of their size and perhaps level of Conclusion workmanship involved in their Making tangible statements about the production, would have generally prehistoric past is one of Archaeology's remained in one specific locale and greatest challenges and prehistoric art, perhaps only moved on rare occasions. Large statues [Figure 5] are likely to have remained in one specific locale 3 But see Tilley (1991, 1999).

126 The Social Context of Maltese Prehistoric Art perhaps more than any other type of data, 126. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., Inc. *Originally poses enormous difficulties. Ian Hodder published in 1958 in Oceania 29 (1): 26-43. (1999: 15) reminds us that "objects only Biaggi, C. 1986. The Significance of the Nudity, exist within traditions of inquiry" and Obesity and Sexuality of the Maltese Goddess therefore it must be accepted that the Figures. In Bonanno, A. (ed.) 1986. Archaeology interpretations we make today concerning and Fertility Cult in the Ancient Mediterranean. Papers Presented at the First International prehistoric art objects are but provisional Conference on Archaeology of the Ancient while at the same time remaining valid Mediterranean. The University of Malta 2-5 statements within the present. The September 1985, pp.131-140. Amsterdam: B.R. ancient remains of the Maltese islands Griiner Publishing Co. lend themselves well to single and Biaggi, C. 1989. The Priestess Figure of Malta. In multiple interpretations-a position Hodder, I. (ed.) 1989: The Meanings of Things: which can only be enhanced in the light of Material Culture and Symbolic Expression, pp.103- new data. During the Temple-Building 121. London: Unwin Hyman Ltd. Period, the social environment of the Bonanno, A. Gouder, T., Malone, C. and Stoddart, S., Maltese islands (Townsend 1997a) was 1990. Monuments in an Island Society: The Maltese 'materialized' by the indigenous Context. World Archaeology 22 (2): 190-205. population through the construction of Braningan, J.J. and Jarrett, H.R. 1969. The buildings and creation of art. It is by Mediterranean Lands. London: MacDonald & Evans taking into account the variability in form Ltd. and scale (Townsend 1997b) in relation to site-context which can be observed within Calvert, J. 1995. British Team Discovers Remains of Prehistoric Dwelling in Gozo. The Times of Malta, that materialization which today provides Thursday April13, pp.6-7. for just one interpretation. Cohen, Y.A. 1969. Social Boundary Systems. Acknowledgements Current Anthropology 10 (1): 103-126. I wish to thank Drs Caroline Malone and Conkey, M.W. and Hastorf, C.A. (eds.) 1990. The Simon Stoddart for providing the Uses of Style in Archaeology. Cambridge: illustrations of the Brochtorff Circle finds Cambridge University Press. (drawn by Mr Steven Ashley) and for Dark, K.R. 1995. Theoretical Archaeology. London: introducing me to Maltese prehistory in Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. the first instance. Thanks also go to Ms Anne Dimond for reading and Devereux, G. 1971. Art and Mythology: A General commenting on earlier drafts of this Theory.* In Jopling, C.F. (ed.) 1971. Art and Aesthetics in Primitive Societies: A Critical paper. Anthology, pp.193-224. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., Inc. * Originally published in Kaplan, B. (ed.) References 1961. Studying Personality Cross-Culturally, pp. Bahn, P.G. 1997. The Easter Island Enigma. 361-403. Evanston, Illinois: Row Peterson. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Dixon, C.A. 1998. The End of Malta's Temple­ Bahn, P.G. and Flenley, J. 1992. Easter Island - building Culture. Journal of Prehistoric Religion 11- Earth Island. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. 12: 37-59.

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130 The Social Context of Maltese Prehistoric Art

0 5 !Ocm

Figure 1: 'Statue-' (Zebbug phase) discovered at the Brochtorff Circle (Gozo).

131 Facets of Maltese Prehistory

0 Se m

Figure 2: Ceramic anthropomorphic figurines discovered at the Brochtorff Circle (Gozo).

132 The Social Context of Maltese Prehistoric Art

Figure 3: Limestone anthropomorphic statuette discoverd at the Brochtorff Circle (Gozo). Dimensions: 9 x 14 x 10 cm.

133 h,l ,,, \. l':! ·I\' ii'J!i I, ', ~~irr ·~~ :~ '; ·. .-d( ~,·;& . . J'!\\\;\-·\JJj i!/it . 1,11!l•l , ~,~I . ~.. -)1, _,_ -lh~ I! Ll ~ lj,l·l 2 I ·i &j (j \[:'11 .s;, \ij 1-' ~ Cl:! 1ij' ~ "' 0 1 2 3 4 5 om "" • ~ ""~ "'er <:!

I'1'!1 ,\·· 0 5 lOcm L . ("'flj 6 \ - ··"=-'J --

Figure 4: Limestone figures forming part of the 'Shaman's Bundle' discovered at the Brochtorff Circle (Gozo). Nos 1 to 3 show different stages of manufacture from roughout to completed object. The Social Context of Maltese Prehistoric Art

' I '

Figure 5: Reconstruction of anthropomorphic statue based on fragments discovered at the Brochtorff Circle (Gozo).

135