This page intentionally left blank The news interview has become a major vehicle for presenting broad- cast news and political commentary, and a primary interface between the institutions of journalism and government. This much needed text examines the place of the news interview in Anglo-American society, and considers its historical development in the United States and Britain. The main body of the bookdiscusses the fundamental norms and con- ventions that shape conduct in the modern interview; it explores the particular recurrent practices through which journalists balance com- peting professional norms that encourage both objective and adver- sarial treatment of public figures. It also explores how, in the face of aggressive questioning, politicians and other public figures struggle to stay “on message” and pursue their own agendas. Through analyses of well-known interviews, the book illuminates the simultaneously symbi- otic and conflictual nature of the relationship between journalists and public figures, and reveals the tensions lying beneath the surface of the nightly news. This comprehensive and wide-ranging bookwill be es- sential reading for students and researchers in sociolinguistics, media, and communication studies. steven clayman is Associate Professor of Sociology and is affili- ated with the Communication Studies Program at the University of California, Los Angeles. His research lies at the intersection of talk, interaction, and mass communication. Much of his workconcerns var- ious forms of broadcast journalism, with an emphasis on news inter- views and presidential press conferences. His articles have appeared in American Sociological Review; American Journal of Sociology; Jour- nal of Communication; Media, Culture, and Society; and Research on Language and Social Interaction. john heritage is Professor of Sociology at the University of California, Los Angeles. He works in the field of communication and interaction with particular reference to health care and political com- munication. In the latter field, he has researched extensively on news interviews, political rhetoric, and its relationship to audience reactions and presidential press conferences. His publications include Garfinkel and Ethnomethodology (1984); Structures of Social Action, co-edited with Max Atkinson (Cambridge, 1984); and Talk at Work, co-edited with Paul Drew (Cambridge, 1992). Studies in Interactional Sociolinguistics editors Paul Drew, Marjorie Harness Goodwin, John J. Gumperz, Deborah Schiffrin Discourse strategies John J. Gumperz Language and social identity edited by John J. Gumperz The social construction of literacy edited by Jenny Cook-Gumperz Politeness: some universals in language usage Penelope Brown and Stephen C. Levinson Discourse markers Deborah Schiffrin Talking voices Deborah Tannen Conducting interaction Adam Kendon Talk at work edited by Paul Drew and John Heritage Grammar in interaction Cecilia E. Ford Crosstalk and culture in Sino-American communication Linda W. L. Young Aids counselling: institutional interaction and clinical practice Anssi Perakyl¨ a¨ Prosody in conversation edited by Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen and Margaret Selting Interaction and grammar edited by Elinor Ochs, Emanuel A. Schegloff and Sandra M. Thompson Interaction and the development of mind A. J. Wootton The news interview Steven Clayman and John Heritage The News Interview Journalists and Public Figures on the Air STEVEN CLAYMAN and JOHN HERITAGE University of California, Los Angeles The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org © Steven Clayman, John Heritage 2004 First published in printed format 2002 ISBN 0-511-03007-X eBook (Adobe Reader) ISBN 0-521-81259-3 hardback ISBN 0-521-01191-4 paperback Contents Acknowledgmentsix 1Introduction1 2 The news interview in context: institutional backgroundandhistoricaldevelopment26 3Openingsandclosings57 4 Basic ground rules: taking turns and “doing” news interviewtalk 95 5 Defensible questioning: neutralism, credibility, legitimacy150 6 Adversarial questioning: setting agendas and exerting pressure188 7Answersandevasions238 8 The panel interview: discussion and debate among interviewees299 9Conclusion337 Appendix:transcriptsymbols347 References354 Subjectindex366 Indexofnames369 vii Acknowledgments This project turned out to be a more ambitious and time-consuming undertaking than we anticipated when we began. Many colleagues and associates provided crucial advice and inspiration along the way. First and foremost out thanks go to David Greatbatch, whose own pioneering research helped open up the news interview to sys- tematic study and set an agenda for the workthat would follow. We had hoped that he would be able to workon this bookwith us, but unfortunately his busy schedule did not permit this. His workhas nourished our own in innumerable ways, and his many contributions to this bookare beyond straightforward inventory or acknowledgment either here or in the notes to the text. We are most indebted to him for his support over very many years. Without him, this bookwould not have been written. David Olsher and Andy Roth both did important workon news interview materials while this bookwas in progress. Their research enlightened our own and their insights have substantially enriched the book. Emanuel Schegloff and Michael Schudson read parts of the manuscript and contributed both constructive feedbackand moral support. Paul Drew generously read the entire manuscript at a crit- ical juncture in its development. His comments helped give final shape to this bookand made it a much better one. Lisa McConnell edited the manuscript, formatted and stream- lined the transcript excerpts, and constructed the index. These were daunting tasks, and we are deeply indebted to her meticulous work. We are also grateful to Andrew Winnard, Jacqueline French, and everyone at Cambridge University Press whose professionalism made the production of this booksuch a pleasant experience. ix x Acknowledgments At various stages in their academic careers, Elizabeth Boyd, Liana Manukyan, Olga Solomon, Tanya Stivers, and Jennifer Strand pro- vided us with the kind of research assistance that every researcher dreams of. Finally, we are grateful to Nancy and Margaret for their steadfast support and encouragement. Their presence in our lives helped make the project that much more meaningful. 1 Introduction If you sit down in front of your television to catch up on the news, or if you turn on the radio for the same purpose, you will very likely be treated to a series of stories narrated by an anchorperson or correspondent. However, at least some of what you hear is apt to appear in a different form altogether – not a narrated story, but an interactional encounter between a journalist and one or more newsworthy public figures. The news interview has come to occupy a prominent place in the landscape of broadcast journalism and political communication. Interviewing has long been a basic journalistic tool – perhaps the most important tool1 – for gathering information, the raw material that will later be worked up into finished news stories. What is new is its increasing use as a finished news product in its own right. Whether live or taped, in studio or via remote satellite links, as one segment of a news program or the overarching format for the program as a whole – the interview is now a common form in which broadcast news is packaged for public consumption, and hence an alterna- tive to the traditional narrative or story form of news presentation. Although the news story remains important, a significant propor- tion of news content now consists of a journalist asking questions of politicians, experts, or others who are “in the news.” Numerous factors have contributed to the growth of the news interview. Technological innovation is part of the mix. The advent of cable has greatly increased the number of channels and news outlets, 1 Both Gans (1979: 138) and Hess (1981: 18, 52) find that reporters get most of their information, not by witnessing events directly or by consulting documents, but by interviewing sources. 1 2 The news interview while satellite feeds and electronic newsgathering equipment now permit live interactions with newsmakers from virtually anywhere in the world. These changes have expanded opportunities for the development of new forms of news and public affairs programming. At the same time, increasing competitive pressures have encour- aged broadcasters to exploit these opportunities. The older commer- cial television networks are now competing with a growing array of cable channels, as well as VCRs and the Internet, with predictable consequences for each content provider’s market share and prof- itability. Meanwhile the US networks have each been taken over by conglomerates that have assumed substantial debt and have been much less willing to allow their news divisions to remain insulated from the pressures of the bottom line (Auletta 1991; Hallin 1997). All of this has had a substantial impact on the ethos of broadcasting, with producers much more concerned about production costs and audience ratings, and hence willing to experiment with new formats for news and public affairs programming. Against this backdrop, formats based