DOCSLIB.ORG

South West Africa

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

« SOUTH WEST AFRICA THE COURT’S JUDGMENT TWO STUDIES PUBLISHED BY THE INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION OF JURISTS Staff Study JUDGMENT OF THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE ON SOUTH WEST AFRICA (1966) Rosalyn Higgins THE INTERNATIONAL COURT AND SOUTH WEST AFRICA: THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE JUDGMENT INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION OF JURISTS - GENEVA PRICE: 3.25 Sw. Ft. S0.75 U.S. £0.5.4 U.K. JUST PUBLISHED THE RULE OF LAW AND HUMAN RIGHTS Principles and Definitions elaborated at the Congresses and Conferences held under the auspices of the International Commission of Jurists, re-arranged according to subject-matter, with cross-references to the principal human rights conventions and well indexed. Price: US $ Sterling Hard back ................................................................... 1.50 £0.10.6 Paper b a c k ...................................................................1.25 £0. 9.0 A list of our other publications will be supplied on demand. Please write to : THE INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION OF JURISTS 2, Quai du Cheval-Blanc, 1211 Geneva 24, Switzerland JUDGMENT OF THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE ON SOUTH WEST AFRICA (1966) STAFF STUDY The Judgment of the International Court of Justice delivered on July 18, 1966 in the case which Ethiopia and Liberia, as original Members of the League of Nations, brought against South Africa in respect of the administration of its Mandate over South West Africa has evoked considerable comment and criticism throughout the world. The Judgment has had the effect of focussing attention on some of the problems relating to the effective application of Inter­ national Law both in its substantive and in its procedural aspects. It has important implications for the standing of the International Court of Justice and for its future role in adjudicating upon disputes between member States of the United Nations. In the last decade the membership of the United Nations has considerably increased and become much more broad-based by reason of the fact that several countries which had long been under colonial rule have now become independent. These newly indepen­ dent countries naturally look to the United Nations and its competent organs for guidance and direction in their relations with other nations. It is therefore vital that a predictable and systematic inter­ national legal order should exist which will not only command the respect of member States but which will also encourage them to have recourse to the International Court of Justice to settle their disputes instead of leaving them to adopt their own devices - some­ times resulting in bloodshed. In those areas of the world where the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is known and respected there is a growing realization that effective machinery for the enforcement of human rights on an international level is essential for the safeguarding of the Rule of Law. The question has been posed by lawyers throughout the world whether the recent Judgment of the International Court of Justice is not an indication of the inadequacy of the existing machinery for the enforcement of such rights. In view of the importance of the Judgment, it is proposed to set out in this article in some detail the history of the case, the STAFF STUDY issues involved and some more important extracts from the Judgment of the Court and from Supporting and Dissenting Opinions. It is hoped to follow up this article with a further article on the Judgment. After Germany was defeated in the First World War, German South West Africa, which had been a German colony, was con­ ferred upon His Britannic Majesty by the principal Allied and Associated Powers under a Mandate to be exercised on His Majesty’s behalf by the Government of the Union of South Africa 1. That Mandate was confirmed by the Council of the League of Nations on December 17, 1920. The “Sacred Trust”, to use the words of the Mandate, laid by the League of Nations on the Union of South Africa imposed upon the mandatory the obligation to promote to the utmost the material and moral well-being and the social pro­ gress of the inhabitants of German South West Africa. Article 2 of the Mandate reads: The Mandatory shall have full power of administration and legislation over the territory subject to the present Mandate as an integral portion of the Union of South Africa, and may apply the laws of the Union of South Africa to the territory, subject to such modifications as local conditions may require. The Mandatory shall promote to the utmost the material and moral well-being and the social progress of the inhabitants of the territory subject to the present Mandate. It is convenient to note here that Mandates created by the League of Nations were of three categories, namely, A, B and C, depending largely upon the general level of advancement of the inhabitants of the territories in question, and the Mandate in respect of German South West Africa was a Mandate of the C category. The Union of South Africa continued to govern South West Africa under the Mandate without interruption and after the Second World War the General Assembly of the United Nations, by a Resolution of December 1949, decided to obtain an Advisory Opinion from the International Court of Justice on the international status of South West Africa. The Resolution was duly transmitted to the Court which on July 11, 1950, gave the following Opinion: that South West Africa is a territory under the international Mandate assumed by the Union of South Africa on December 17, 1920; 1 On May 31, 1961 the Union became the Republic of South Africa. SOUTH WEST AFRICA CASE that the Union of South Africa continues to have the international obligations stated in Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations and in the Mandate for South West Africa as well as the obligation to transmit petitions from the inhabitants of that Territory, the supervisory functions to be exercised by the United Nations, to which the annual reports and the petitions are to be submitted, and the reference to the Permanent Court of International Justice to be replaced by a reference to the International Court of Justice, in accordance with Article 7 of the Mandate and Article 37 of the Statute of the Court; that the provisions of Chapter XII of the Charter are applicable to the Territory of South West Africa in the sense that they provide a means by which the Territory may be brought under the Trusteeship System; that the Union of South Africa acting alone has not the competence to modify the international status of the Territory of South West Africa, and that the competence to determine and modify the international status of the Territory rests with the Union of South Africa acting with the consent of the United Nations. There were two further Advisory Opinions of this Court relating to the Mandate for South West Africa, given on June 7, 1955 and June 1, 1956. On November 4, 1960 the Registrar of the International Court of Justice received two Applications, each instituting proceedings against the Government of the Union of South Africa, relating to “the continued existence of the Mandate for South West Africa and the duties and performance of the Union as Mandatory there­ under”. One of these Applications was submitted on behalf of the Government of Ethiopia, and the other on behalf of the Government of Liberia. To found the jurisdiction of the Court in the proceedings thus instituted, the Applications, having regard to Article 80, paragraph 1 of the Charter of the United Nations, relied on Articles 2 and 7 of the Mandate of December 17, 1920 for German South West Africa, Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations and Article 37 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. Article 80, paragraph 1 of the Charter reads, “Except as may be agreed upon in individual trusteeship agreements, made under Articles 77, 79 and 81, placing each territory under the trusteeship system, and until such agreements have been concluded, nothing in this Chapter shall be construed in or of itself to alter in any manner whatsoever the rights of any states or any peoples or the terms of existing international instruments to which Members of the United Nations may respectively be parties.” The relevant portion of Article 7 of the Mandate reads, (1) “The consent of the Council of the League of Nations is required for any modification of the terms of the present Mandate. STAFF STUDY (2) The Mandatory agrees that, if any dispute whatever should arise between the Mandatory and another Member of the League of Nations relating to the interpretation or the application of the provisions of the Mandate, such dispute, if it cannot be settled by negotiation, shall be submitted to the Permanent Court of Interna­ tional Justice provided for by Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.” The relevant portion of Article 22 of the Covenant reads, “To those colonies and territories which as a consequence of the late war have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the States which formerly governed them and which are inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world, there should be applied the principle that the well-being and development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civilization and that securities for the performance of this trust should be embodied in this Covenant. “The best method of giving practical effect to this principle is that the tutelage of such peoples should be entrusted to advanced nations who by reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical position can best undertake this responsibility, and who are willing to accept it, and that this tutelage should be exer­ cised by them as Mandatories on behalf of the League.” Article 37 of the Statute reads, “Whenever a treaty or con­ vention in force provides for reference of a matter to a tribunal to have been instituted by the League of Nations, or to the Permanent Court of International Justice, the matter shall, as between the parties to the present Statute, be referred to the International Court of Justice.” The Applications of Ethiopia and Liberia asked the Court to adjudge and declare that: A.
Recommended publications
  • The Immediate and Long-Term Effects of Namibia's Colonization Process

    The Immediate and Long-Term Effects of Namibia's Colonization Process

    The Immediate and Long-Term Effects of Namibia’s Colonization Process By: Jonathan Baker Honors Capstone Through Professor Taylor Politics of Sub-Saharan Africa Baker, 2 Table of Contents I. Authors Note II. Introduction III. Pre-Colonization IV. Colonization by Germany V. Colonization by South Africa VI. The Struggle for Independence VII. The Decolonization Process VIII. Political Changes- A Reaction to Colonization IX. Immediate Economic Changes Brought on by Independence X. Long Term Political Effects (of Colonization) XI. Long Term Cultural Effects XII. Long Term Economic Effects XIII. Prospects for the Future XIV. Conclusion XV. Bibliography XVI. Appendices Baker, 3 I. Author’s Note I learned such a great deal from this entire honors capstone project, that all the knowledge I have acquired can hardly be covered by what I wrote in these 50 pages. I learned so much more that I was not able to share both about Namibia and myself. I can now claim that I am knowledgeable about nearly all areas of Namibian history and life. I certainly am no expert, but after all of this research I can certainly consider myself reliable. I have never had such an extensive knowledge before of one academic area as a result of a school project. I also learned a lot about myself through this project. I learned how I can motivate myself to work, and I learned how I perform when I have to organize such a long and complicated paper, just to name a couple of things. The strange inability to be able to include everything I learned from doing this project is the reason for some of the more random appendices at the end, as I have a passion for both numbers and trivia.
  • The German Colonization of Southwest Africa and the Anglo-German Rivalry, 1883-1915

    The German Colonization of Southwest Africa and the Anglo-German Rivalry, 1883-1915

    University of Nebraska at Omaha DigitalCommons@UNO Student Work 7-1-1995 Doors left open then slammed shut: The German colonization of Southwest Africa and the Anglo-German rivalry, 1883-1915 Matthew Erin Plowman University of Nebraska at Omaha Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/studentwork Recommended Citation Plowman, Matthew Erin, "Doors left open then slammed shut: The German colonization of Southwest Africa and the Anglo-German rivalry, 1883-1915" (1995). Student Work. 435. https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/studentwork/435 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@UNO. It has been accepted for inclusion in Student Work by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@UNO. For more information, please contact [email protected]. DOORS LEFT OPEN THEN SLAMMED SHUT: THE GERMAN COLONIZATION OF SOUTHWEST AFRICA AND THE ANGLO-GERMAN RIVALRY, 1883-1915. A Thesis Presented to the Department of History and the Faculty of the Graduate College University of Nebraska In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts University of Nebraska at Omaha by Matthew Erin Plowman July 1995 UMI Number: EP73073 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI Blsaartalibn Publish*rig UMI EP73073 Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
  • Black Internationalism and African and Caribbean

    Black Internationalism and African and Caribbean

    BLACK INTERNATIONALISM AND AFRICAN AND CARIBBEAN INTELLECTUALS IN LONDON, 1919-1950 By MARC MATERA A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-New Brunswick Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in History Written under the direction of Professor Bonnie G. Smith And approved by _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ New Brunswick, New Jersey May 2008 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Black Internationalism and African and Caribbean Intellectuals in London, 1919-1950 By MARC MATERA Dissertation Director: Bonnie G. Smith During the three decades between the end of World War I and 1950, African and West Indian scholars, professionals, university students, artists, and political activists in London forged new conceptions of community, reshaped public debates about the nature and goals of British colonialism, and prepared the way for a revolutionary and self-consciously modern African culture. Black intellectuals formed organizations that became homes away from home and centers of cultural mixture and intellectual debate, and launched publications that served as new means of voicing social commentary and political dissent. These black associations developed within an atmosphere characterized by a variety of internationalisms, including pan-ethnic movements, feminism, communism, and the socialist internationalism ascendant within the British Left after World War I. The intellectual and political context of London and the types of sociability that these groups fostered gave rise to a range of black internationalist activity and new regional imaginaries in the form of a West Indian Federation and a United West Africa that shaped the goals of anticolonialism before 1950.
  • South Africa, International Law and 'Decolonisation'

    South Africa, International Law and 'Decolonisation'

    South Africa, International Law and ‘Decolonisation’ Christopher Gevers ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4975-4335 Abstract Despite the ongoing calls to ‘decolonise’ the University and its curricula, including those of its Law Schools, international law continues to be taught in South Africa with little or no reference to African international legal scholar- ship, or ‘Third World Approaches to International Law’ more generally. That these were absent from law school curriculums during apartheid is hardly surprising, but their continued omission since 1994 demands an explanation, and calls for introspection on the part of South Africa’s international legal academy. This article will argue that, rather than being a simple omission, this silence is ‘co-produced’ by the myth actively propagated by South African international lawyers since 1994 that ‘from 1948 to 1990, South Africa was in conflict with both the international community and international law’ (Dugard 1997: 77). As the first part of the article will demonstrate, the opposition of the so-called ‘international community’ (generally figured to represent ‘the West’) to apartheid was late, partial and contingent (if not reactionary). More importantly, the claim that international law as a whole was opposed to apartheid is simply wrong. At best, the latter relies on the conflation of ‘international law’ with ‘international human rights law’, and even then it requires significant qualification and differentiation. After deconstructing this ‘international law myth’, the second part of the article will sketch out the ‘contributionist’ and ‘critical’ streams of African international legal scholarship that have emerged since the 1960s - focusing on the work of TO Elias and U.
  • Zoogeography of Digenetic Trematodes from West African Marine Fishes1

    Zoogeography of Digenetic Trematodes from West African Marine Fishes1

    192 PROCEEDINGS OF THE HELMINTHOLOGICAL SOCIETY Zoogeography of Digenetic Trematodes from West African Marine Fishes1 JACOB H. FISCHTHAL Department of Biological Sciences, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, New York 13901. ABSTRACT: Of the 107 species of trematodes found in West African (Mauritania to Gabon) marine fishes, 100 are allocated to 64 genera in 24 families while seven are immature didymozoids. Many of these genera are located in most of the world's seas with the exception of the polar seas; only five are en- demic to West Africa. The data for the 41 species known from West Africa and elsewhere, and those morphologically closest to the 55 endemic species, indicate that they are very widely distributed, particularly in the Western and North Atlantic, and Mediterranean. Historical and present- day events concerning physical and biological environmental factors and their effects on actual and po- tential hosts as well as on life cycle stages of the trematodes have resulted in the geographical distribution reported. The distribution of marine fishes has been emphasized to explain in part the trematode distribu- tion. Studies on the geographical distribution of (Gulf of Guinea from 5° S to 15° N) and digenetic trematodes of marine fishes in various warm temperate Mauritania have been pre- seas have been presented by Manter (1955, sented by Ekman (1953), Buchanan (1958), 1963, 1967), Szidat (1961), and Lebedev Longhurst (1962), and Ingham (1970). (1969), but West African waters were not included as sufficient data were not available Zoogeographical Distribution until more recently. The digenetic trematodes Of the 107 species of trematodes found in of West African marine fishes (mainly shore West African fishes, 100 are allocated to 64 and shelf inhabitants) have been reported by genera in 24 families while seven are immature Dollfus (1929, 1937a, b, 1946, 1951, 1960), didymozoids of unknown generic status (Ap- Dollfus and Capron (1958), Thomas (1959, pendix I).
  • DISSENTING OPINION of JUDGE PARRA-ARANGUREN 1. in 1884

    DISSENTING OPINION of JUDGE PARRA-ARANGUREN 1. in 1884

    DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE PARRA-ARANGUREN The Anglo-German Agreement of 1890 - The Parties' dijfering interpreta- tions of the 1890 Treaty - Subsequent practice as a rule of treuty interpreta- tion - Subsequent practice of the Parties in the application of the 1890 Agree- ment - The Mandate for South West Africa (Numibia) - Relevant evidencr suhmitted to the Court - Cuptain H. V. Euson's Report (1912) - Joint Report of 1948 (Trollope-Redmun) und Exchange of Lerters between 1948 and 1951 - Mr. R. R. Renew's Report (1965) - Witnesses called by Namibi~r- Evidence presented by Bots,vana - Maps - Aerial photogruphs and satellite images - Peaceful and public use of KasikililSedudu Island hy Masubia Tribes- men from Eastern Caprivi - Conclusion. 1. In 1884 Germany proclaimed a Protectorate over the Coast south of the Cape Colony's enclave at Walvis Bay and some years later, before 1890, expanded its territorial claims in South West Africa, without systematically establishing an effective administration on the ground. The United Kingdom decided to accept Germany's territorial claims in South West Africa, even though it regarded this territory as lying within Britain's natural sphere of influence. 2. The only area in dispute was Ngamiland, north of British Bechuana- land, a territory assigned to neither power and extending from the 20th to the 24th degree of longitude. Discussions began in 1886 but it was only in 1890 after the resignation of the German Chancellor Otto von Bis- marck that the new Chancellor, General Georg Leo Von Caprivi and his Foreign Minister, Baron Marschall, accelerated diplomatic discussions with Britain over Africa.
  • The Imperial Map Cape Colony and Later Military Maps of the Cape Colony, South Africa

    The Imperial Map Cape Colony and Later Military Maps of the Cape Colony, South Africa

    The Imperial Map Cape Colony and later military maps of the Cape Colony, South Africa. Dr Christopher Board formerly Senior Lecturer in Geography, London School of Economics Abstract Attempts to compile maps for military use in the Cape Colony during the Anglo-Boer War 1899- 1902 left a legacy of incomplete and unstandardised mapping at the scale of 1:250,000 known as the Imperial Map Cape Colony. Aware of the need for good mapping to permit satisfactory administration and defence a congress of interested parties agreed in 1904 to a scheme for topographic mapping South Africa based on geodetic survey. Economic problems put an end to this project, but the War Office considered the NW Cape Colony worthy of a reconnaissance map at 1:250,000 which they would fund. Thus a special section of the War Office’s map of Africa G.S.G.S.1764 was designed and produced in a military version and as sales editions. The paper documents the progress of the survey and compilation of this map using surviving maps and other archival material in the UK. Introduction British military mapping of a large part of the Cape Colony, South Africa was achieved in great haste to meet the requirements of a mobile army in unfamiliar and poorly mapped, mostly open country at the end of the 19th century. The Imperial Map Cape Colony was compiled to meet the need for a map for planning and executing military operations, to deal with guerrilla war in the Colony itself. It was compiled from mapping available in the Surveyor General’s Department, supplemented by local observation and intelligence reports.
  • International Law in the Nigerian Legal System Christian N

    International Law in the Nigerian Legal System Christian N

    Golden Gate University School of Law GGU Law Digital Commons Publications Faculty Scholarship Spring 1997 International Law in the Nigerian Legal System Christian N. Okeke Golden Gate University School of Law, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.law.ggu.edu/pubs Part of the International Law Commons Recommended Citation 27 Cal. W. Int'l. L. J. 311 (1997) This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty Scholarship at GGU Law Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Publications by an authorized administrator of GGU Law Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. INTERNATIONAL LAW IN THE NIGERIAN LEGAL SYSTEM CHRISTIAN N. OKEKE· Table ofContents INTRODUCTION 312 ARGUMENT OF THE PAPER 312 DEFINITIONS 317 I. UNITED NATIONS DECADE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 321 II. HISTORICAL OUTLINE 323 A. Nigeria and Pre-Colonial International Law 323 B. Nigeria and "Colonial" International Law 326 C. The Place ofInternational Law in the Nigerian Constitutional Development 328 III. GENERAL DISPOSITION TOWARD INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE ESTABLISHED RULES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 330 IV. THE PLACE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW IN NIGERIAN MUNICIPAL LAW 335 V. NIGERIA'S TREATY-MAKING PRACTICE , 337 VI. ApPLICABLE LAW IN SELECTED QUESTIONS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 339 A. International Human Rights and Nigerian Law 339 B. The Attitude ofthe Nigerian Courts to the Decrees and Edicts Derogating from Human Rights ............ 341 c. Implementation ofInternational Human Rights Treaties to Which Nigeria is a Party 342 D. Aliens Law .................................. 344 E. Extradition .................................. 348 F. Extradition and Human Rights 350 VII.
  • The Arab-Israeli Conflict from the Perspective of International Law

    The Arab-Israeli Conflict from the Perspective of International Law

    THE ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW Yoram Dinstein* The Washington agreement of September 1993 between Israel and the Palestinians,1 has raised hopes worldwide that the Arab-Israeli conflict which has been raging for many decades (and in fact precedes the birth of the State of Israel) is drawing to a dose. In reality, while the Washington agreement undoubtedly represents a major breakthrough, it is premature to regard the conflict as settled. Many more agreements, not only with the Palestinians, will be required in order to augur a comprehensive peace in the Middle East. In the meantime, numerous issues remain unresolved and there is still much opposition in many circles to the idea of Arab-Israeli reconciliation. The need to study the international legal aspects of the conflict is, therefore, as topical today as it was in earlier days. The following observations on the Arab-Israeli conflict will be based on international law. No attempt will be made to examine “historical rights”. Moreover, no reference will be made here to justice or morality. History, justice and morality are constantly invoked by both parties to every conflict and, as a rule, they are neither helpful nor unequivocal. Being subjective perspectives, they are more conducive to the definition of the problem than to its solution. Unfortunately, the arguments heard on both sides of the Arab-Israeli conflict are frequently grounded on a confusing (not to say confused) combination of law, justice, morality and history. If the conflict is to be probed in a rational and hopefully productive way, it is imperative to identify the level on which the analysis is to be conducted.
  • Board Christopher

    Board Christopher

    International Symposium on “Old Worlds-New Worlds”: The History of Colonial Cartography 1750-1950 Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands, 21 to 23 August 2006 Working Group on the History of Colonial Cartography in the 19th and 20 th centuries International Cartographic Association (ICA-ACI) The British War Office 1:250,000 mapping of Cape Colony 1906-1914 Dr Christopher Board formerly Senior Lecturer, London School of Economics [email protected] Abstract After the second Anglo-Boer War when the two coastal colonies were joined by two new ones previously Boer republics the British were keen to remap the entire territory of South Africa. Despite plans drawn up in 1903 only three projects were begun. There are a few references to similar mapping of the Southern Transvaal and a preliminary paper on the Cape Colony Reconnaissance series by Board. The latter series at 1:250,000 covered the north-west region of the Colony, 35 sheets were surveyed and/or compiled but only 33 were published. The Royal Engineer Survey teams responsible for mapping the Cape Colony were withdrawn in November 1911 leaving most of the rest of the Colony to rely on poor maps of varying accuracy and quality dating to the recent war or before it. This paper not only charts the progress of mapping the series known as GSGS1764 from analysing published maps, but draws on collections in London and Cambridge which contain unpublished compilation material and the elusive model sheet for the series. Its discovery and description throw light on the War Office’s requirements for mapping in the dying days of an era of colonial mapping.
  • 13 197O BIAFRA a CHRONOLOGY of DEVELOPMENTS July 15, 1969-January 12, 1970

    13 197O BIAFRA a CHRONOLOGY of DEVELOPMENTS July 15, 1969-January 12, 1970

    C rMisc. publication % ) /' T~ ~! i~aT ~~ CT \T TO, U L C , r C r L~1 BIAFRA - ~ A CHRONOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENTS July 15, 1969-January 12, 1970 19'% CAROLYN K. COLWELL Analyst in International Relations Foreign Affairs Division January 28, 1970 13 197O BIAFRA A CHRONOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENTS July 15, 1969-January 12, 1970 Summarv The Nigerian/Biafran civil war came to a.sudden conclusion with the announcement of the Biaf ran surrender on January 12, 1970. Biafra's capitulation followed the Federal forces' recapture of Owerri and assault against Uli airfield. In the months preceding the Biafran surrender, several attempts had been made to bring both sides together for peace talks; agreement on the preconditions for negotiations remained a stumbling block. Massive food relief shipments had not resumed since the cessation of ICRC deliveries on June 5, 1969; Joint Church Aid and some other groups tried to continue relief flights but the amount of food reaching Biafra was drastically cut. On October 2 the Nigerian Red Cross officially took over the task of coordinating relief activities in Nigeria. The United States, meanwhile, continued its efforts to help relief forces find a plan for relief shipments which would be acceptable to both sides. A. Military In recent months the Nigerian forces appeared to have redirected their strategy toward the pursuit of a quick military victory. Signs of discontent among front line commanders and civilians anxious to end the war quickly may have prompted such a change. On January 3, 1970, a Federal spokesman announced that Nigerian forces had succeeded in dividing the remaining Biaf ran territory into three parts.
  • Politics in Southern Africa: State and Society in Transition

    Politics in Southern Africa: State and Society in Transition

    EXCERPTED FROM Politics in Southern Africa: State and Society in Transition Gretchen Bauer and Scott D. Taylor Copyright © 2005 ISBNs: 1-58826-332-0 hc 1-58826-308-8 pb 1800 30th Street, Ste. 314 Boulder, CO 80301 USA telephone 303.444.6684 fax 303.444.0824 This excerpt was downloaded from the Lynne Rienner Publishers website www.rienner.com i Contents Acknowledgments ix Map of Southern Africa xi 1 Introduction: Southern Africa as Region 1 Southern Africa as a Region 3 Theory and Southern Africa 8 Country Case Studies 11 Organization of the Book 15 2 Malawi: Institutionalizing Multipartyism 19 Historical Origins of the Malawian State 21 Society and Development: Regional and Ethnic Cleavages and the Politics of Pluralism 25 Organization of the State 30 Representation and Participation 34 Fundamentals of the Political Economy 40 Challenges for the Twenty-First Century 43 3 Zambia: Civil Society Resurgent 45 Historical Origins of the Zambian State 48 Society and Development: Zambia’s Ethnic and Racial Cleavages 51 Organization of the State 53 v vi Contents Representation and Participation 59 Fundamentals of the Political Economy 68 Challenges for the Twenty-First Century 75 4 Botswana: Dominant Party Democracy 81 Historical Origins of the Botswana State 83 Organization of the State 87 Representation and Participation 93 Fundamentals of the Political Economy 101 Challenges for the Twenty-First Century 104 5 Mozambique: Reconstruction and Democratization 109 Historical Origins of the Mozambican State 113 Society and Development: Enduring Cleavages