The Role of Nitroreductases in Resistance to Nitroimidazoles

biology Review The Role of Nitroreductases in Resistance to Nitroimidazoles Carol Thomas 1 and Christopher D. Gwenin 2,* 1 School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK; [email protected] 2 Department of Chemistry, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, 111 Ren’ai Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou 215123, China * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-(0)512-81888710 Simple Summary: Antimicrobial resistance continues to be a major global health threat. It is estimated by the WHO that 700,000 people die each year because of drug resistance, and this is predicted to rise to 10 million by 2050. As well as the increased cost, which is forecast to exceed $100 trillion, as more expensive drugs have to be deployed, illnesses often last longer and require hospital treatment. This, in turn, increases the strain on often-inadequate healthcare systems. As resistances continue to grow, finding alternatives is crucial. This review showed that nitroreductases play a role in drug activation but are also associated with resistance mechanisms. These mechanisms require further investigation to fully understand them before they can be utilised against multidrug- resistant organisms. This will depend on committed collaborations between the private and public sector to translate academic research into the clinic. Abstract: Antimicrobial resistance is a major challenge facing modern medicine, with an estimated 700,000 people dying annually and a global cost in excess of $100 trillion. This has led to an increased need to develop new, effective treatments. This review focuses on nitroimidazoles, which have seen a resurgence in interest due to their broad spectrum of activity against anaerobic Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. The role of nitroreductases is to activate the antimicrobial by reducing the Citation: Thomas, C.; Gwenin, C.D. nitro group. A decrease in the activity of nitroreductases is associated with resistance. This review The Role of Nitroreductases in Mycobacterium tuber- Resistance to Nitroimidazoles. Biology will discuss the resistance mechanisms of different disease organisms, including 2021, 10, 388. https://doi.org/ culosis, Helicobacter pylori and Staphylococcus aureus, and how these impact the effectiveness of specific 10.3390/biology10050388 nitroimidazoles. Perspectives in the field of nitroimidazole drug development are also summarised. Academic Editor: Keywords: nitroreductases; antimicrobial resistance; mitromidazole; metronidazole; nim genes Vincent Sanchis-Borja Received: 5 January 2021 Accepted: 10 February 2021 1. Introduction Published: 1 May 2021 Nitroreductases (NTR) are a family of proteins involved in the reduction of nitro- containing compounds [1]. The flexibility of these enzymes comprises their usefulness in a Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral variety of biological and medical applications. These include environmental decontami- with regard to jurisdictional claims in nation using bioremediation [2]; various cancer therapies such as gene and viral-directed published maps and institutional affil- prodrugs [3–7] and probes for detecting hypoxia in tumours [8–11], antiparasitics [12,13], iations. herbicides [14] and for the detection of explosives [15]. For a more detailed review of the many uses of nitroreductases, see the papers by Kumari et al. [11], Zhang et al. [4] and Nepali et al. [16]. Nitroreductases can be divided into two groups: flavin reductases [17] and those from Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. enteric bacteria [18]. Typical NTRs share similar biochemical properties; they usually occur Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. as a homodimer, contain flavin mononucleotide (FMN) as a cofactor and catalyse using the This article is an open access article ping-pong bi-bi kinetic mechanism [1,19]. The bacterial NTRs can be further split into Type distributed under the terms and I, oxygen-insensitive and type II, which are oxygen-sensitive, as illustrated in Figure1 [20]. conditions of the Creative Commons Bacteria can contain both type I and II, although the most studied are those enzymes that Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// belong to type I [19]. The oxygen-insensitive NTRs can be further divided into major and creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). minor protein groups. The minor group can utilise nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide Biology 2021, 10, 388. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10050388 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/biology Biology 2021, 10, x 2 of 16 Biology 2021, 10, 388 those enzymes that belong to type I [19]. The oxygen-insensitive NTRs can be further2 ofdi- 16 vided into major and minor protein groups. The minor group can utilise nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAPH) or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)(NAPH) or, while nicotinamide the major adenine group dinucleotidecan utilise NADPH phosphate only (NADPH), as the electron while donor the major [21]. group The mostcan utilisestudied NADPH examples only of asthe the major electron and minor donor groups [21]. The are most the E studiedscherichia examples coli NfsA of and the NfsBmajor enzymes and minor [21]. groups are the Escherichia coli NfsA and NfsB enzymes [21]. FigureFigure 1. 1. TheThe reduction reduction scheme scheme of of aa nitro nitro group group and and the the respective respective electron electron transfers transfers required required [2 [200].]. NAD:NAD: nicotinamide nicotinamide adenine dinucleotidedinucleotide and and NADPH: NADPH: nicotinamide nicotinamide adenine adenine dinucleotide dinucleotide phosphate. phosphate. The physiological functions of NTRs are not completely understood, but several have beenThe proposed physiological for oxygen-insensitive functions of NTRs bacterial are not NTRscompletely [19]. Itunderstood has been assumed, but several that have they beenhave proposed a role to for play oxygen in detoxification,-insensitive bacterial as they reduceNTRs [19]. a broad It has range been ofassumed compounds that they [19]. haveSome a arerole involved to play inin specificdetoxification degradation, as they pathways, reduce sucha broad as nitrobenzenerange of compounds reductase [19]. and Somenitrophenol are involved reductase in specific [22,23 ].degradation NTRs may pathways also be involved, such as innit therobenzene response reductase to oxidative and nitrophenolstress, as the reductase enzyme NfsA[22,23]. is NTRs regulated mayby also the be SoxRS involved system, in the which response is involved to oxidative in the stressprevention, as the of enzyme oxidative NfsA damage is regulated [24,25]. Theby the range SoxRS and adaptabilitysystem, which of NTRsis involved have enabled in the preventionsome of these of oxidative enzymes damage to specialise [24,25] in. The different range metabolic and adapta functionsbility of NTRs without have necessarily enabled somelosing of the these other enzymes reductase to specialise activities [in19 ].different Therefore, metabolic while some functions NTRs without are associated necessarily with losingspecific the metabolic other reductase pathways activities or thereduction [19]. Therefore, of different while nitroaromatic some NTRs are compounds, associated others with specificmay be metabolic active in processes pathways such or the as oxidativereduction stressof different response nitroaromatic or bioluminescence compounds, [26]. oth- Due ersto themay ability be active of NTRs in processes to affect thesuch toxic, as oxidative mutagenic stress and carcinogenicresponse or characteristicsbioluminescence of many[26]. Duenitroaromatics, to the ability nitrofuran of NTRs derivativesto affect the have toxic, been mutagenic used to developand carcinogenic a group of characteristics antimicrobials ofcommonly many nitroaromatics, knowns as nitroimidazoles nitrofuran derivatives [27]. have been used to develop a group of an- timicrobialsNitroimidazoles commonly have knowns seen as a nitroimidazoles resurgence in interest [27]. due to their broad spectrum of activity against anaerobic Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. They are particularly Nitroimidazoles have seen a resurgence in interest due to their broad spectrum of being seen as important in the battle against antibiotic resistance. Resistance to antibiotics activity against anaerobic Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. They are particu- is a major challenge facing modern medicine, and its importance was highlighted in 2016 larly being seen as important in the battle against antibiotic resistance. Resistance to anti- when it was a topic for discussion at the United Nations General Assembly [28]. It is biotics is a major challenge facing modern medicine, and its importance was highlighted estimated that 700,000 people die each year because of infections that are resistant to in 2016 when it was a topic for discussion at the United Nations General Assembly [28]. It current antibiotics and that this figure is predicted to rise to 10 million annually by 2050, is estimated that 700,000 people die each year because of infections that are resistant to with the global cost forecast to exceed $100 trillion over the next few decades [29]. The current antibiotics and that this figure is predicted to rise to 10 million annually by 2050, overuse of antibiotics in both clinical and agricultural settings has accelerated the process with the global cost forecast to exceed $100 trillion over the next few decades [29]. The of resistance [29,30]. Perhaps the most widely known antibiotic is penicillin, which was overuse of antibiotics in both

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