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Space-Charge-Limited Currents in Silicon Using Gold Contacts

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Space-Charge-Limited Currents in Silicon Using Gold Contacts AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF Alan Winthrop Ede for the Ph.D. in Electrical and Electronics Engineering presented on August 9, 1968. Title: Space -Charge -Limited Currents in Silicon Using Gold Contacts Redacted for privacy Abstract approved: James C. Looney - 1 Major professor The theoretical characteristics of space- charge- of limited currents in solids are reviewed, and a survey suitable dielectric materials and experimental space - charge- limited devices is presented. The properties of the gold -silicon contact as used in- in space- charge -limited devices were experimentally vestigated. It was found that the observed characteris- dif- tics could be explained on the basis that the gold fuses far enough into the silicon under fabrication reduces temperatures to set up a region of traps, which tc a very the space -charge- limited component of current low value. -limited An attempt to fabricate planar space- charge as the triodes using silicon as the dielectric and gold source and drain contacts was unsuccessful. Space- Charge- Limited Currents in Silicon Using Gold Contacts by Alan Winthrop Ede A THESIS submitted to Oregon State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 1969 APPROVED: Redacted for privacy Associate Professor of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in charge of major Redacted for privacy and Eiead of Departmént tof Electrical Electronics V Engineering Redacted for privacy Dean of Graduate School Date thesis is presented August 9, 1968 Typed by Erma McClanathan ACKNOWLEDGMENT It is a pleasure for the author to express his gratitude to the many people whose assistance and advice were invaluable in this investigation. Particular thanks go to Professor James C. Looney of the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his overall guiding hand; to Professor Louis N. Stone, Head of the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, and the Collins Radio Company for financial assistance which indirectly made this investigation possible; and who to Mr. T. N. Tucker, of the Dow Corning Corporation, so kindly supplied the all- important silicon. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 I. INTRODUCTION II. SPACE- CHARGE -LIMITED CURRENTS IN SOLIDS 5 Analogy to a Vacuum Tube 5 The Perfect Insulator 8 The Semi- Insulator with Traps 14 Semiconductors 20 Warm and Hot Electrons 22 Double Injection 27 Transient Space- Charge- Limited Currents 30 Space- Charge Suppression of Noise 34 Temperature Effects 38 Capacitance of Conducting Dielectric 39 Transit -Time Effects 42 43 III. MATERIALS FOR SPACE -CHARGE -LIMITED DIODES Properties of Suitable Materials 43 Cadmium Sulfide 44 Silicon 46 Other Materials 48 51 IV. SPACE -CHARGE- LIMITED TRIODES The Gate 51 History of Early Solid -State Triodes 51 The Gate -Controlled Analog Triode 53 Thin -Film Dielectric Triodes 61 The Heterojunction Triode 67 Metal -Gate Dielectric Triodes 69 The Surface -Channel Dielectric Triode 70 Two- Carrier Dielectric Triodes 73 Noise in Space- Charge- Limited Triodes 74 Frequency Response of Dielectric Triodes 76 77 V. THE PLANAR SURFACE -CHANNEL DIELECTRIC TRIODE Choice of Geometry 77 Choice of Dielectric 78 Type of Contact 79 Metal Contacts to Silicon 80 81 Gate Insulator Gate Material 82 Drain Electrode 82 Design Procedure 82 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Experimental Procedure 86 Photoresist Procedure 86 Step -by -Step Fabrication Procedure 88 Testing Procedure 92 Expected Results 92 Discussion of Results 96 106 VI. NATURE OF THE GOLD -SILICON CONTACT Purpose of the Study 106 Design of One- Dimensional Devices 106 Step -by -Step Fabrication Procedure 107 Theoretical Considerations 114 Testing Procedure 117 Discussion of Results 117 Conclusions 126 BIBLIOGRAPHY 128 APPENDIX 152 LIST OF FIGURES 1. The Vacuum Diode 6 2. Potential in a Vacuum Diode 6 3. Mathematical Model for Perfect Insulator Diode 10 4. V -J Characteristic for Semi -Insulator with Deep Traps 10 5. Trap -Free Current for Step Voltage 33 6. Non -Trap -Free Current for Step Voltage 33 7. Lilienfeld's Earliest Triode 52 8. Hilsch and Pohl's Device 52 9. Lilienfeld's Later Device 52 10. Shockley's Early Triode 54 11. Shockley's Analog Triode 54 12. Wright's Mathematical Model 56 56 13. Triode of Ruppel and Smith 60 14. Zuleeg's Analog Triode 15. Weimer's Thin -Film Triode ............ 60 63 16. Geurst's Mathematical Model 17. Typical Silicon TFT 63 18. Heterojunction Triode of Brojdo et al 68 68 19. Band Diagram of Heterojunction Triode 71 20. Surface -Channel Dielectric Triode 21. Mathematical Model for Surface -Channel Dielectric Triode 71 85 22. Source -Drain Geometry 85 23. Gate Geometry LIST OF FIGURES (Continued) 24. Cross -Sectional Geometry 85 25. Mathematical Model for Silicon Surface -Channel Dielectric Triode 93 26. Expected Drain Characteristics 93 27. Response of Triode 1 AuB to a 25 [1-sec. Pulse 103 28. Method of Handling Small Devices 113 29. Diffused Gold Contacts................... ..... 123 LIST OF PLATES I. High -Voltage Operation of Triode 1 AuB 101 II. High- Temperature Operation of Triode 1 AuB 101 III. Depletion Mode Characteristics of Triode 1 AuB 102 IV. Characteristics of Platelet No. 5 at 25 °C and 220 °C 102 LIST OF GRAPHS I. Drain Characteristics of Triodes of Chip No. 1. 97 II. Drain Characteristics of Triodes of Chip No. 2. 98 III. Characteristics of Platelet No. 1 118 IV. Characteristics of Platelet No. 2 119 V. Characteristics of Platelet No. 3 120 SPACE -CHARGE- LIMITED CURRENTS IN SILICON USING GOLD CONTACTS INTRODUCTION his environ- As man strives to reach ever further from long ment, he finds that communication over increasingly difficult. distances becomes both more important and more beam, high In order to concentrate energy into a narrow faint frequencies must be used, and in order to detect the signal, stable low -noise equipment is necessary. the Technological progress has brought into being and the junction transistor, the field -effect transistor, solid - space- charge -limited dielectric triode among active the state devices. Of these, the junction transistor has most well -developed technology, and has been extremely to successful. Although great strides have been made of increase the frequency response and decrease the noise fact that it the junction transistor, it suffers from the which is in- operates by means of a diffusion mechanism, factor herently a slow process, and which is the limiting bipolar in the frequency response. In addition, it is a present device, and carrier regeneration and combination is that it is to generate noise. A third disadvantage is variations. relatively unstable with respect to temperature being At the present time, a great deal of effort is transistor, expended in the development of the field- effect 2 particularly the metal -oxide- semiconductor (MOS) type. done, opera- Although a tremendous amount of work has been They tion of these devices is not yet fully understood. and as are known as one of the group of unipolar devices, noise. such, they do not suffer from carrier recombination the dimen- Current is by drift in a conducting region, and sions and /or conductivity of the conducting region is modulated by means of a transverse electric field. The pres- diffusion mechanism of the junction transistor is not this process. ent, and frequency response is not limited by of the The MOS transistor has only recently come out ap- research stage into development. Continued progress and the fact pears assured in light of the effort involved, an that development of this device appears to be as much art as a science. Space- charge- limited currents in solids, on the other hand, can often be handled theoretically in,a rigorous currents can manner. Such work has shown that substantial mobil- be drawn through an insulator having a high carrier since ity. These currents show very low noise figures, smoothed out by the random variations of drift current are con- the presence of a space- charge cloud at the emitting supply tact. This space- charge region acts as a virtual currents do of carriers, or source, and as such, diffusion an increase not limit the frequency response. In addition, the in temperature decreases the current by decreasing 3 carrier mobility, which makes for thermally stable devices. Yet, space -charge -limited devices have remained a laboratory curiosity. Although simple in theory, diffi- culties arise in practice. It is the purpose of this thesis to examine some of the technological problems encountered in the fabrication will of dielectric devices. An experimental planar triode the be described, and its characteristics examined, and characteristics of the gold -silicon contacts used will be experimentally investigated. The second chapter discusses the mathematical models and theoretical determinations of space -charge- limited currents in insulators, impure insulators, semi -insulators, dis- and semi -conductors. Transient effects are briefly cussed, as is space- charge suppression of noise, capaci- tance of a conducting dielectric, and transit -time effects. The third chapter describes the materials which have compares been used in experimental two -contact devices and them from a technological standpoint. The fourth chapter is a history of the space- charge- and theo- limited triode. A summary of the experimental retical work up to the present time is presented. The fifth chapter describes the experimental three - charac- electrode devices, and compares the experimental teristics with the theoretical ones. the The sixth chapter discusses the properties of 4 gold- silicon contacts, and describes some experimental one -dimensional devices. 5 SPACE -CHARGE -LIMITED CURRENTS IN SOLIDS Analogy to a Vacuum Tube cur- The solid -state analog of a space -charge -limited current rent in a vacuum diode is a space- charge -limited of solids in an insulator. It is shown in the band theory carriers, and that a perfect insulator contains no free follows since a vacuum contains none either, the analogy (158). an anode The vacuum diode consists of a cathode and an electrode in an evacuated enclosure.
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