Constitutions of Lay Congregations by Joseph F

Constitutions of Lay Congregations by Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. 361 Attitudes towards Religious Garb by Sister M. Clauddle Miller, S.U.L. 438 Charity: A Doctrinal Synthesis by Guy de Broglie, S.J. 447 One Art of the Confessor by Andrew Weigert 484 Spiritual Preparation of a Chapter by Sister M. Guthbert Hdlwig, S.G.M.M. 489 The Particular Friendship by Joseph B. Simons, G.S.G. 496 Charity and/or Human Love by Brother Joachim Frederick, F.S.G. 501 o The Religious Habit by Sister Mary Bonaventure, O.S.F. 505 Searching for Good Managers by Richard M. McKeon, S.J. 511 Gnosis by Donald A. Spoto, F.S.C.H. 515 Survey of Roman Documents 516 Views, News, Previews 524 Questions and Answers 530 Book Reviews 534

JOSEPH F. GALLEN, S.J. ..,Typical Constitutions of Lay Religious Congregations

INTRODUCTION The purpose of the present work is to give the canonical or legal articles found in the constitutions of pontifical and diocesan congregations of sisters and brothers, both with and without provinces, but not those of the constitutions of orders of nuns nor of a lay order of men. The collection has been compiled from approved constitutions and is intended primarily as an aid to the understanding of the law that governs all such institutes. It will be of service in any revision of the constitutions of lay congregations, even after the revision of the Code of Canon Law. The collection will likewise help any study not only of the excessive but also of the proper and necessary place of law in the religious state. It should be useful also for any theoretical ’or practical effort for the more perfect union and harmony of the juridical with the scriptural, theological, ascetical, and liturgical elements of the religious life. The usual terms have been retained because they are in actual use in constitutions. There is a discernible desire or tendency at present to replace some of these 4. ,terms with more familiar words, for example, dining 4. room for refecto}y, room or bedroom for cell, directress 4. for mistress, and so forth. The pertinent canons are cited Joseph F. Gallen, under the individual articles for ready reference. They $.J., is professor of canon law at Wood- should not be so expressed in general revisions of con- stock College; stitutions proposed to the Holy See and, if included in Woodstock, Mary- the printed edition of the constitutions, canons are more land 21163. appropriately placed in a table at the back of the book. The canons given in the table or index of sources at the VOLUME 25, 1966 back of this article are those that appertain to the constitutions of a pontifical congregation of women. A translation of the canons that concern lay religious can be found in Canonical Legislation concerning Religious, Rome: Vatican Press, 1918. The second column in the index of sources contains the citations of a ~,ery fundamental document on which the constitutions of most lay congregations are at least ultimately based, that is, Normae secundum quas Sacra Congregatio Episcoporum et Regulariura procedere solet in approbandis novis institutis votorum simplicium, Rome: Vatican Press, 1901 (referred to as the Normae of 1901). The third column is the Normae pro constitutioni- bus congregationum iuris diocesani a Sacra Congrega- tione de Propaganda Fide dependentium, Rome: Vatican Press, 1940 (referred to as Propagation of the Faith Con- stitution Outlines of 1940). This document is expressly for diocesan missionary congregations but it is a good guide to the more general practice of the Holy See. A like extension is true of the document of the fourth and last column of the index of sources, which is Statuta a sorori- bus externis monasteriorum monialium cuiusque ordinis servonda, Rome: Vatican Press, 1931 (referred to as Statutes for Extern Sistersof 1931). These Statutes can be found in Latin in Coronata, Institutiones iuris canonici, V, ed. 2, Turin: Marietti, 1947, 244-57, The Normae of 1901 and the Propagation of the Faith Con- stitution Outlines of 1940 are contained in Latin in Schaefer, De religiosis, ed. 4, Rome: Apostolato Cattolico, 1947, 1079-1135, and also in Ravasi, De regulis et consti- tutionibus religiosorum, Rome: Descl~e, 195.8, 195-226, 234-57.

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]. F. Gallen, S.].

REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 362 CONTENTS " PART I PURPOSE OF THE CONGREGATION ADMISSION OF MEMBERS MANNER OF LIFE CHAPTER PAGE I Title, Purpose, and Spirit of the Congregation (I-4) 365 II Members, Precedence, and Titles (5-9) 365 III Religious Habit (10-17) 368 IV Dowry and Material Entrance Requirements (18- 28) 369 § 1 Dowry (18-25) 369 § 2 Material Entrance Requirements (26-28) 370 V Admission of Candidates (29-37) 371 VI Postulancy (38-45) 373 VII Noviceship (46-71) 374 § 1 Place of the Noviceship (46-49) 374 § 2 Requirements for the Noviceship (50-57) 374 § 3 Formation of the Novices (58-64) 375 § 4 End of the N0viceship (65-69) 376 § 5 Profession of a Novice in Danger of Death (70--71) : 377 VIII Religious Profession (72-81) 377 IX Vow and Virtue of Poverty (82-93) 380 X Vow and Virtue of Chastity (94) 381 XI Vow and Virtue of Obedience (95-100) 381 XII Penance and Holy Eucharist (101-117) 382 § 1 Penance (101-112) 382 § 2 Manifestation of Conscience (113) 384 § 3 Holy Eucharist (114-117) 385 XIII. Religious Exercises (118-124) 385 XIV Mortification and Penance (125-126) 386 XV Enclosure, Correspondence, Silence (127-138) 387 § 1 Enclosure (127-133) 387 § 2 Correspondence (134-136) 388 § 3 Silence (137-138) 388 XVI Apostolate (139-141) 389 XVII Care of the Sick (142-146) 389 XVIII Suffrages for the Dead (147) 390 XIX Departure and Dismissal (148-.164) 390 § 1 Unlawful Departure (148-151) 390 § 2 Departure at the Expiration of Temporary Profession (152) 391 § 3 Exclaustration and Secularization (153-154) 391 § 4 Dismissal by Decree of a Professed of Tem- + porary Vows (155-156) 392 ÷ § 5 Dismissal by Decree of a Professed of Per- + petual Vows (157-160) 393 § 6 Automatic Dismissal of a Professed of Per- Constitutions petual or Temporary Vows (161) 395 § 7 Provisional Return of a Professed of Per- VOLUME 25, 1966 petual or Temporary Vows to Secular Life (162) 395 363 § 8 Effects of Dismissal (163) 396 § 9 Charitable Subsidy (164) 396 PART II

GOVERNMENT -o XX Supreme Authority (165-167) 396 XXI General Chapter (168-232) 397 § 1 Convocation and Members (168-176) 397 § 2 General Norms to be Observed in Elections (177-194) 398 § 3 Election of Delegates (195-205) 400 § 4 Provincial Chapter (206-213) 403 1. Convocation and Members (206-207) 403 2. Sessions (208-213) 403 § 5 Preliminary Sessions (214-216) 404 § 6 Election of the Mother General (217-222) 404 § 7 Election of the General Officials (223-224) 405 § 8 Chapter of Affairs (225-232) 406 XXII Mother General (2~3"241) 408 ’XXIII Canonical Visitation (242-249) 409 XXIV General Council (250-271) 411 § 1 Councilors and Their Duties (250-265) 411 § 2 First Councilor (266-271) , 415 XXV Secretary General (272-276) 416 XXVI Procurator General (277-280) 416 XXVII Treasurers and the Administration of Temporal Goods (281-306) 417 § 1 Treasurers (281-282) 417 § 2 Treasurer General (283-284) 417 § 3 Provincial (and Regional) Treasurers (285) 418 § 4 Local Treasurers (286-287) 418 § 5 Administration of Temporal Goods (288- 303) 418 § 6 Prohibited Acts (304-306) 421 XXVIII Provinces (307-320) 421 § I Mother Provincial (309-314) 421 § 2 Provincial Councilors, Secretary, and Treas- urer (31 5-320) 423 XXIX Regions (321-324) 425 XXX Houses (325-339) 426 § 1 Houses (325-327) 426 § 2 Local Superiors (328-334) 427 § 3 Local Officials (335-339) 427 XXXI Mistress of Novices (340-346) 428 XXXII Constitutions (347-356) 429 § i Ol~ligation, Change, Interpretation (347- ÷ 353) 429 4. § 2 Dispensation (354-356) 430 ÷ Index of Sources 431

~. F. Gallen, S.].

REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 364 PART I PURPOSE OF THE CONGREGATION ADMISSION OF MEMBERS MANNER OF LIFE

CHAPTER

TITLE, PURPOSE, AND SPIRIT OF THE CONGREGATION 1. The Sisters of .... are a pontifical (diocesan) con= gregation1 whos~ general purpose’i~ the glory of God and the sanctification of its members by the observance of the three simple vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, (of.the Rule of),2 and,of theseconstitutions. 487-8, 1--4°; 593;. 492, § 38 2. The special purpose (for example) is the imparting of a Christian education and the care of the sick in hospitals. 3. (Pontifical,and diocesan erected from July 16, 1906)4 Without the permission of the Holy See the special purpose may not be changed, nor m~y works that are not included in it be added in a general and permanent manner.’ 618, § 2, 1° , ~ 4. (Diocesan erected before July 16, 1906) Without the consent of all the ordinaries ih whose dioceses the congregation has houses, the special purpose, etc., as in the preceding.~ 492, § 2; 495, § 2 CHAPTER II

MEMBERS, PRECEDENCE, AND TITLES 5. The members form one class of sisters subject to the one mother general and living under’the same common discipline. Those who have made profession of

¯ Aggregation to a first order, if it exists, should be expressed here, e.g., "affiliated to the Order of Friars Minor." Canon 492, § 1 should also be then added to the canons cited~ ~ "Of the Rule of" is included only if the congregation has a Rule, for example, of St. Augustine, Benedict, Francis. s When the number of.a canon is printed in roman type, the relative article "of the constitutions is wholly or partly the canon. When the number of a canon is in italics, the relative article has reference to the canon. The canons are cited here under the individual articles for facility of reference. They should not be included in the text proposed to th~ Holy’See, find in the’ printed text, if included, they are + much more suitably placed in a table immediately before the alpha- betical index. ’ By the motu proprio Dei providentis of Pius X, July 16, 1906, the local ordinaries were not permitted thereafter to erect diocesan congregations without first consulting the Holy See on th~ name, Constitutions habit, purpose~ and other matters, none of which could then be changed, without the consent of the Holy See. 5 One.or more articles on either or both the spirit and the patrons VOLUME 25, 1966 of the congregation arevery frequently added to this chapter. 365 temporary vows enjoy the s’ame indulgences, privileges, and spiritual favors as the professed of perpetual vows, and in case of death have the right to the same suffrages. They are equally obliged to the observance of the constitutions. The novices also enjoy all the privileges and spiritual favors granted to the congregation; if they die they have a right to the same suffrages as are prescribed for the professed sisters. The novice is subject to the mistress of novices and the superiors and is obliged to obey them. 578, 1-2°; 567, § l; 561, § 2; 488, 7° 6. The sisters’ are granted active and passive voice by perpetual profession.6 578, 3° 7. The following is the order of precedence.7 a) The mother ge’neral precedes all superiors and sisters in the whole congregation. b) The mother assistant has the same precedence after the mother general. , N.B. In some constitutions the mother assistant is given only, ~he precedence accorded to the general councilors. c) The general councilors, in the order of their election, in the motherhouse. In other houses they follow the mother provincial and the local superior. N.B. In some congregations the general councilors have this precedence also in the other houses; in some the local superior precedes the general councilors also in the motherhouse. d) The secretary general, in the motherhouse. e) The treasurer general, in the motherhouse. In other houses the secretary and treasurer general follow the local superior. N.B. In a few congregations the treasurer general precedes the secretary general. In pontifical congregations of brothers, the procurator general precedes or follows the secretary and treasurer general or precedes the latter. f) Former mothers general, in the motherhouse. In other houses they follow the local superior. N.B. The varying practice on former mothers general in some constitutions is as follows: they immediately follow the general councilors; they are always preceded by the mothers provincial or the local superiors; or they are given no special ÷ precedence. ÷ g) The mothers provincial. ÷ N.B. In her own province, the mother provincial

I. F. Gallen, S.~. ~ This is merely an illustrative article. The possession of active and passive voice varies in different institutes. The article on this matter REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is found more commonly only under the election of delegates. 7 The norms of constitutions on precedence are very varied. The 366 typical article given here consists of norms frequently found. usually yields only to the mother general, a general visitor, and in some institutes, to the mother assistant. Outside their own provinces, provincials rank among themselves according to first profession, or date of appointment or election, but after the local superior, except in the general motherhouse, in some institutes the local superior always precedes the provincials of other provinces. h) Vice-provincials, regional superiors, superiors of missions. i) The provincial councilors, in the provin~cialate. In other houses they follow the local superior. N.B. In some constitutions the assistant pyovincial is given precedence after the mother provincial throughout the province. The order of precedence among elected provincial councilors is that of election. j) The provincial secretary, in the provincialate. k) The provincial treasurer, in the provincialate. In other houses the provincial secretary and treasurer follow the local superior. N.B. In some institutes provincial councilors and officials are given precedence throughout the province. Other practices are: they are given no special precedence; they are given special precedence only when exercising their office; frequently they always follow the local superior. 1) The local superiors. N~B. In her own house the local superior usually yields only to the mother general, visitor general, mother provincial, provincial visitor, and sometimes to the mother assistant and assistant provincial. She accordingly ranks over other local su- peridrs in her own house. Among themselves local superior~ usually ~:ank by first profession, sometimes by date of appointment, and in at least one institute by the date of the foundation of their houses. m) The mistress of novices, in the novitiate house only. N.B~ Frequently the mistress follows the local assistant. In more recent constitutions the mistress of.junior professed is given special precedence and in at least some of these before the mistress of ÷ novices. Her precedence also is confined to the ÷ juniorate house. ÷ n) The assistant mistress of novices, in the novitiate house’ o~ly. Constitutions N.B. Frequently the assistant mistress is given no special precedence. VOLUME 25, 1966 o) The local assistants, in their own houses. 367 N.B. In some constitutions the local assistant precedes the local superiors of other houses. p) The local councilors, in their own houses. N.B. Frequently the local councilors are given no .special precedence. At least one congregation gives former mothers provincial precedence after the local councilors. q) The professed sisters according .to the seniority of their first profession. r) The novices according to the priority of their reception. s) The postulants according to the order of their entrance. If there is no difference in the time of profession, reception, or entrance to the postulancy, the senior in age precedes. 106; 491 8. The visitor during the time of her visitation precedes all the sisters, even the local superiors in their own houses. 106, 1° (or) A general visitor during the time of her visitation precedes all the sisters, even the provincial and" local superiors, and a provincial visitor in the same w~ty precedes even the local superiors. 106, 1 ° 9. The mother general shall be called .... The title of ¯.. shall be given to .... The title of all other religious is Sister. The sisters are not permitted to assume or retain any merely honorary titles or privileges. The mother general alone at the expiration of her term of office shall retain the title of Mother and have the precedence stated in article 7. 515 CHAPTER III

TtIE RELIGIOUS HABIT 10. The habit is of suitable black material, reaching from the throat to the feet. It is plaited on a yoke and at the waist and has sleeves fitting close to the arms.s 492, § 3 11. The veil’ of the professed sisters is of black material and light in weight. The veil of the novices is white. The coil and guimpe are of wldte material.492, § 3; 557 12. A rosary of large black beads hangs on the right side from a black leather cincture. 13. The professed sisters wear a silver ring on the third ÷ finger of the left hand. 4- 14. The sisters are permitted to wear white habits, veils, 4- cinctures, and rosaries while occupied in duties or in a climate that necessitates or counsels this dress. J. F. Gallen, S.]. 15. All professed sisters must wear the habit both in

REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS s Al’ticles 10-14 are taken from one sqt of constii~utions and are illustrative of the merely external app.earanc~ of the habit that should 368 be described in the constitutions; and out of the house, unless for a serious reason they are legitimately excused according to the judgment of the mother general (in provincial congregations: higher superior),9 or, if the case is urgent, of the local superior. The habit prescribed by the constitutions for novices must likewise be worn during the entire period of the noviceship, unless special local circumstances determine otherwise. 596; 557 16. No permanent, substantial, or general change in the form or color of the habit may be made without the permission of the Holy See (but ~in a diocesan congregation whose habit was not approved by the Holy See: without the consent .of all the ordinaries in whose dioceses the congregation has houses). 492, § 3; 618, § 2, 1° (but in the latter type o[ diocesan congregation: 492, § 2; 495, § 2;" 492, §. 3).10 17. Postulants shall wear a modest dress different from that of the novices. 540, § 2

CHAPTER IV

"-FHE ~DowRY AND MATERIAL ENTRANCE I~.EQUIREMENTS § 1. Dowry 18. Postulants shall bring the dowry determined by the general chapter. The chapter may grant delegation in this matter to the mother general and her council. The dowry must be given to the mother general (in provincial congregations usually: mother provincial) before the beginning of the noviceship, or at least its payment guaranteed in a manner recognized as valid in civil law. 547, §§ 2-3 19. The mother general (in provincial congregations: higher superior) with the consent of her council may remit wholly or in part the dowry of a candidate who lacks financial means, or because of special reasons.H 20. The prescribed dowry may not be cohdoned in any other case, either in whole or in part, without an indult of the Holy See (in diocesan congregations: without a dispensation from the local ordinary).1-~ 547, § 4 21. A postulant dispensed from the dowry is obliged to establish one later if she receives any substantial gift or bequest,x3

0 For brevity a congregation divided into provinces is indicated in ÷ these constitutions as a provincial congregation. a0 On diocesan~ congregations, see note 4. + , = This power varies in different constitutions, and academic degrees or like qualities are frequently emphasized as the equivalent, Constitutions =In virtue of their faculties outside the Code of Canon Law, bishops and local ordinaries may dispense from the dowry also in VOLUME 25, 1966 pontifical institutes. ~ This article is found in several constitutions. 369 22. After the first profession 0[ a sister, the mother general (in provincial congregations usually: mother provincial) with the consent of her council and that of the 16cal ordinary must invest the dowry in safe, lawful, and profitable securities. The same conditions are necessary for any change in the investment. It is absolutely forbidden before the death of a sister to spend the dowry itself for any purpose whatsoevey, even for the building of a house or the payment of a debt. 549; 533, § 1, 2°; § 2; 2412, 1 o 23. The dowries must be prudently and justly ~dmin- istered at the habitual residence of the mother general (in provincial congregations usually: mother provincial). It is the right of the local ordinary to see to it that the dowries are maintained intact and to exact an account of them, particularly on the occasion of his canonical visitation. 550; 535, § 2 24. The dowry is irrevocably acquired by the congregation on the death of a sister, even though she had made profession of only temporary vows. 548 25. If aprofessed sister leaves the congregation for any reason whatsoever, her dowry must be returned to her in frill but not the interest already derived from it. 551, § 1

§ 2. Material Entrance Requirements 26. The mother general (in provincial congregations: mother provincial, or: higher superior) with the consent (or advice, or no vote required) of her council shall determine the wardrobe and the sum to be paid for the expenses of the postulancy and noviceship. In particular cases and for just reasons, the mother general (in provincial congregations: higher superior, or: mother provincial) has the right to dispense wholly or in part from this requirement. 570, § 1 27. A record shall be kept in a special register of all the property that the candidate brings with her to the. postulancy, signed by the candidate and two sisters as witnesses. The property that has not been consumed by use shall be returned to h~r in its current condition if she leaves without having made religious profession. 570, § 2 ’ 28. Those wh6 leave, either at the expiration of temporary profession or by an indult of secularization or ÷ dismissal, may not seek compensation for services ren- ÷ dered the congregation at any time from their entrance. ÷ The candidates, therefore, upon their admission to the postulancy, must sign a civilly valid document in which ]. F. Gallen, S.]. they declare that they" will not seek compensation for services given before or after profession, whether they REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS leave or are dismissed. This document is to be renewed 370 at the time of perpetual profession. 643;§ 1 CHAPTER V

ADMISSION OF CANDIDATES 29. Any Catholic woman may be admitted provided she is free from all impediments, is motivated by the right intention, and is capable of fulfilling the duties of the religious life. 538. 30. The mother general (in provincial congregations: higher superior) shall not admit a candidate to the postulancy before careflfl investigation has been made regarding her character and conduct,14 544, § 7 31. The following are invalidly admitted to the noviceship: a) Those who renounced the Catholic faith and joined a non-Catholic sect. b) Those who have not completed their fifteenth year. c) Those who enter religion induced by force, grave fear, or fraud; also those whom the mother general (provincial congregation: higher snperior) receives under pressure of the same influences. d) A married woman as long as the bond of matrimony endures. e) Those who are or have been professed members in any religious institute. f) Those who are menaced with punishment for a grave crime which they have committed and of which they have been or can be accused. 542, 1°; 2411; 2352 32. The following are illicitly but validly admitted to the noviceship: a) Those who are burdened with debts which they are unable to pay. b) Those who are under the obligation of rendering an account of some administration or who are im- plicated in other secular affairs from which the congregation may have reason to fear lawsuits or an- noyance. c) Those whose parents or grandparents are in grave necessity and need their assistance; and mothers whose help is necessary for the support or education of their children. d) Those of an Oriental rite, nnless they first obtain written permission from the Sacred Congregation for the Oriental Church. 542, 2°; 98; 756; 2411 + 33. Only the Holy See or those who have received the + faculty from it can dispense from the impediments enu- + merated in articles 31-2.80; 118; 2411 34. The mother general, must have the deliberative Constitutions

VOLUME 25, 1966 "Canon 544, § 7 applies only to candidates for institutes of women; 371 vote of her council to dispense the following who are bound by an impediment of the constitutions against their licit admission to the noviceship: a) Those who are illegitimate and have not been legiti- mated. b) Those over thirty years of age. c) Those who were postulants or novices in another religious institute. d) Widows. 35. When there is question of admitting candidates who have been in a postulancy or noviceship of another institute, the mother general (provincial congregation: higher superior) shall obtain testimonial letters from the higher, superior of that institute. These letters must contain the reasons fo~ the aspirant;s dismissal or volunta.ry departure, must be signed under oath by the superior, and sealed. The letters shall not be given to’ the aspirant but must be forwarded to the mother ~general (higher superior) who applied for them. 544, § 3; 545; 2411 (Congregation of ’brothers) Testimonial letters must be obtained from the ordinary of the place of origin of the candidate and of every place in which he has resided beyond a morally continuous year after the completion of his fourteenth year. When ther~ is question of admitting candidates who have been in a seminary, ecclesiastical college, postulancy, or noviceship of another institute, the brother general (provincial congregation: ’higher superior)shrill obtain testimonial letters from the rector of the seminary or college after consultation with the local ordinary or from the higher superior of the religious institute. These letters must contain the reasons for the aspirant’s dismissal or voluntary departure, must be signed under oath by the,rector or higher superior, and :sealed. The letters shall not be given to the aspirant but must be for- " warded to the brother general (higher superior) who applied for them. 544, §§ 2-3; 545; 2411 36. Before being admitted candidates must present these credentials: a) Certificates of baptism and confirmation. b) A. testimonial of good moral character from their pastor or another priest, unless .the aspirant is already well known to the mother general (higher superior). c) CertifiCates 6[ good health, both physical and mental, from reliable professional sources. ~. F. Gallen, $.~. d) Other testimonials that the mother general (higher

REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ~ This article is not necessarily contained in constitutions and, when so contained, often varies in content. superior) may consider necessary or opportune. 544, §§ l, 6-7 37. All who receive any of the foregoing information are strictly obliged to keep secret not only the information but also the names of the persons who supplied it.16 546

CHAPTER

POSTULANCY 38. The right to admit an applicant to the postulancy belongs to the mother general (provincial congregation: higher superior), who has also the right to dismiss.her if she is judged Unfit for the life of the congregation. A postulant has full liberty to leave the co.ngregation. 39. The postulancy, under the direction of a religious of tried virtue, shall be made in the novitiate house or in another house of the congregation where the discipline prescribed by the constitutions is faithfully observed.17 540, § 40. The time prescribed [or the postulancy is a year. For a jUSt reason and with the advice of her council, the mother general (higher superior) may prolong or shorten this time, but not beyond six months,is 539 41. Every three months, the mistress shall give to the mother general (higher superior) and her council a report of the postulant’s virtues, defects, and aptitude for the life of the congregation. 42. About three months before the beginning of the noviceship; the postulant shall in writing p.etitioia the mother general (higher superior) for the holy habit. 43. The superior must inform the local ordinary at least two months in advance of the approaching admission of a postulant to the noviceship, in order that he or his delegate, at least thirty days before the noviceship begins, may examine the postulant and determine whether she was deceived or forced into entering the congregation, ¯ and whether she understands the import of what ~he is about to do. If there is certainty of her religious and free intention, the postulant may be admitted to the noviceship. 552; 2412,2° 44. The right to admit to the noviceship belongs to

X0Articles are often added in this chapter on the n~cessary quali- tiers,and signs of a vocation, the responsibility ~f all concerned to encourage and admit only suitable candidates, and on personal interviews with the candidates. 17 In institutes of men, only lay brothers are obliged to the pos- Con~tlt.utions tfllancy prescribed by the Code (c. 539, § 1); but in institutes of :brothers,, the common practice is tbat all make a postulancy. VOLUME 25, 1966 P A postulancy of hind months to a year is the common practice at present in congregations of sisters. the mother general (higher superior) with the consent of h~r council. 543 45. Before beginning the noviceship, the postulant shall make a spiritual retreat of eight entire days and, according to the prudent judgment of the confessor, a general confession of her past life.a9 541 CHAPTER VII NOVICESHIP

§ 1. Place of the Noviceship 46. The establishment or transfer of a novitiate may be made only by the mother general with. the consent of her council and the (pontifical congregation) permis-. sion of the Holy See (diocesan congregation:.., her council and the permission of the local ordinary)3° 554, § 1 47. (Provincial congregation) As soon as possible, each province shall have its own novitiate. More than one novitiate house may not be erected in the same province without a serious reason and a special apostolic indult. 554, § Z 48. As far as possible, the novitiate shall be separated from the part of the house occupied by. the professed sisters so that, without a special reason and the permission of the superior and the mistress of novices,, the novices may have no communication with the professed sisters nor the latter with the novices. 564, § 1 49. Superiors shall have in the novitiate house only sisters who are exemplary in their zeal for religious observance. 554, § 3 § 2. Requirements for the Noviceship 50. (One year) The duration of the noviceship is one year, and it is completed on the day following the anni- versar.y day of its inception. 555, § 1, 2°; 34, § 3, 3° 50. (Two years) The duration of the n0viceship is two years. The first is the canonical year. The second year is no.t required for the validity of profession, although only the Holy See (diocesean congregation: local ordinary) may dispense from it wholly or in part. An apostolic indult is requi~ed to transfer the canonical year to the second year. 555; 34, § 3, 3° 52. The canonical year begins with the reception of the habit, or in any other manner determined by the mother general (provincial congregation: higher superior). It is 19 Articles on the purpose and discipline of the postulancy and on J. F. Gallen, S.$. the qualities and appointment of the mistress of postulants are often included in this chapter. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ’-~ The mother provincial with the consent of her council presents to the mother general the request for the erection or transfer of a 374 novitiate. completed on the day after the first anniversary of its commencement. The second year ends on the second anniversary of the inception of the canonical year, and on this day the temporary profession may be licitly pro- nounced. 553; 34, § 3, 3° 53. Besides the conditions enumerated in article 31, it is further required for validity that the canonical year be made for an entire and uninterrupted yea~ and in the novitiate house. 555, § 1 54. The canonical year is interrupted so that it must be begun again and completed: a) If a novice is dismissed by the~mother general (provincial congregation frequently: higher superior or mother provincial) and leaves the house. b) If a novice, without the permission of the superior, leaves the house with the intention of not returning. c) If for any reason whatever a novice has remained outside the house, even with the intention of returning and with the permission of the superior, for more than thirty days, whether these days were consecutive Or not. 556, § 1; 32, § 1 55. If a novice, either with the permission of super!ors or constrained by force, has remained outside the house under obedience to the superiors for more than fifteen but not more than thirty days of the canonical year, even if these days were not consecutive, it is necessary and sufficient for the validity of the noviceship that the novice make up the time thus passed outside. If the absence under these conditions did not exceed fifteen days, the mother general (provincial congregation frequently: higher superior or mother provincial) may require that it be made up, but this is not necessary for the validity of the noviceship. 556, § 2; 32, § 1 56. If a novice is transferred from one novitiate to another, the noviceship is not interrupted, but articles 54 and 55 are to be observed. 556, § 4. 57. Superiors shall not grant a novice permission to remain outside the confines of the novitiate except for a just and serious reason. 556, § 3 § 3. Formation of the Novices 58. The time of the noviceship under the direction of the mistress must have for its object the forming of the mind and will of the novice by.the study (of the Rule and) ÷ of the constitutions; devout meditation and assiduous + prayer; instructions on matters which appertain to the ÷ vows and virtues; suitable exercises for the thorough amendment of defects, the restraining of evil inclinations, Constitutions and the acquisition of virtues.~x 565, § 1 VOLUME 25, 1966 ’-’~ "Of the Rule and" are omitted if the congregation has no Rule. See note 2. 375 59. During the first year, the novices must not be employed in extei-nal works of the congregation nor should they apply themselves intensively to the study of letters, sciences, or the arts. They may perform domestic-duties in a subordinate capacity and only insofar as these do not interfere with the prescribed exercises of the noviceship. 5.65, § 3 60. "During the second year, the novices may be employed in the external works but without prejudice to the fundamental laws of the noviceship. Therefore, during the second year, the discipline of the spiritual life must be attended to above all other duties. 61. This employment must. be assigned with prudence and moderation and only for the instruction and training of the novices. N~vices shall never have the entire charge of any such employment, but shall always be under the direction and supervision of an experienced and exemplary religious who by word and example shall in- struct arid guide them. 62. For a grave reason and by way of exception, a novice may be assigned to external works outside the novitiate house during this ~ime. This may be done only for a reason founded on the requirements of the novice’s training, but never for the utility or necessity of the congregation. 63. NoviCes’ shall abstain from all external works two months before their profession and, if they are outside the novitiate house, they are to be recalled, so that during this entire period they may strengthen-themselves in the spirit of their vocation and prepare for their religious profession. 64. The novices and postulants are ’to be instructed thoroughly in Christian doctrine. A special conference on this subject shall be given to them at least once a week, if posgible by a priest approved by the local ordinary. They Shall not only commit to memory the ordinary formulas of the faith, but shall also be able to explain them properly. The mother general (provincial congregation frequently: motfier provincial or higher superior) shall not admit novices to profession unless they .satisfactorily pass a special examination in Christian doctrine. § 4. End o[ the Noviceship 65. Three months before the end of the noviceship, the novices, shall in writing reque.st admission to profession frbm the mother general (provincial congregation ÷ frequently: mother-provincial). ’ 66. ’The novice shall be informed of her admission to ]. F. Gallen, S.]. .vows so that in due time she may relinquish the administration of her property, dispose, of its use and usufruct, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS and +make a will, as prescribed in the chapter on poverty. 376 569 67. She may freely leave the congregation, or for any just reason be dismissed by the mother general (provincial congregation frequently: higher superior or mother provincial) with the advice of her council. The superior is not obliged to reveal to the novice the reason [or her dismissal. 571, § 1. 68. When the noviceship is completed, the novice shall be admitted to profession if she is judged suitable; otherwise she must be dismissed. If her suitability is doubtful, the mother general (provincial congregation frequently: higher superior) with the advice of her council may prolong the time of the noviceship but not beyond six months. 571, § 2. 69. Before pronouncing her vows, the novice shall make a spiritual retreat of eighi entire days. 571, ~. 3 , § 5. Profession of a Novice in Danger of Death 70. Even though she has not completed the time of her noviceship, a novice in danger of death may, for the consolation of her soul, be admitted to profession by any superior, the mistress .of novices, or their delegates. The ordinary formula of profession is to be used if the condition of the novice permits, but without any determination of time. 7i. By this profession, the novice’is granted a plenary indulgence in the form of a jubilee; the profes~ion,however, has no canonical effect. If the novice should’recover her health, her state will be the same as if she had made no profession. Therefore, if she perseveres, she must complete the full time of the noviceship and on its completion m~ke a new profession.2~ CHAPTER VIII

RELIGIOUS PROFESSION 72. Upo~ the completion of the noviceship and in the novitiate house, the novice shall, make profession of simple vows for one year. This profession is to be renewed annually until five full years of temporary vows are completed,z~ The mother general (provincial congregation: mother provincial or higher superior) may prolong the prescribed period of temporary pro.fession, but not beyond a ),ear, in which, case the sister must re- 4, new her temporary profession. 574; 34, § 3, 5°; 577, § 1 4, OR:... the novice shall make profession of simple vows 4, for three (two) years. At the end of this period, the sister Constitutions ~ This cha’pter often contains spiritual articles on the formation of novices and on interviews with the mistress. . , VOLUME "~S, 1966 -~ Five years of temporary vows is.the growing 15ractice in cOngre- gations of sisters. shall renew her vows for two (three) years.24 The mother general... OR: Upon the completion of the noviceship and in the novitiate house, the novice shall make profession of simple vows for" three years or until the completion of her twenty-first year if a longer time is necessary to attain the age prescribed for perpetual pro~ession. The mother general .... may prolong the prescribed period of tem- porhry profession, but not beyond a second term of three years; in which case the sister must renew her temporary profession.2~ 574; 573; 34, § 3, 5°; 577, § 1 73. The right to admit to profession belongs to the mother general with the vote of her council. This vote shall be deliberative for the first temporary profession but onIy consultative for the renewal and prolongation of temporary vows and for perpetual profession. Before the first and perpetual profession, the local ordinary shall be informed in the manner described in article 43. 543; 575, § 2; 552; 2411; 2412,2° (Provincial congregation) The right to admit to first profession, prolongation of temporary vows, and perpetual profession appertains to the mother general with the vote of her council. This vote shall be deliberative for ¯ the first temporary profession but only consultative for the prolongation of temporary vows and perpetual profession. The mother provincial presents the requests ~or admission to the mother general, with the deliberative vote of her’ council for first profession and the consultative vote for prolongation of temporary vows and for perpetual profession. The right to admit to renewals of temporary vows ~appertains to the mother provincial with the consultative vote of her council. Before the first... (as in the preceding).26 74. For the validity of any profession these conditions are necessary: a) That the. sister who makes profession will have completed her sixteenth year before temporary and her twenty-first year before perpetual profession. b) That she be admitted to profession by the mother

~ The Holy See does not insist on any determined division of the five-year duration and has approved five annual professions, three 4, annual professions and one of two years, a profession of two’ years 4, followed by one of three years, and a profession of three years followed by one of two years. 4, z~ In a thre~-year duration also the Holy See has not insisted on any determined duration of profession and has approved constitu- .1. F. Gallen, S.J. tions in which the profession is made in the one act for three years, the most common practice, or that the first be made for one and the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS second for two years, or vice versa. ~ There is sufficient variety on the right of admission in provincial congregations. See R~vmw fOR R~ezous, 19 (1960), 144. general (higher superior) according to the constitutions. c) That the profession be preceded by a valid noviceship. d) That it be made without violence, grave fear, or fraud. e) That it be made in express terms. t’) That it be received by the mother general or a sister delegated by her. (Provincial, regional, and) Local superigrs and their l.egitimate substitutes are,delegated by the constitutions to receive all professions in their (provinces, regions, and) houses and with power also to subdelegate. For the validity of the simple perpetual profession it is further required that it be preceded by three ..complete years of temporary vows. The added period of two years is not necessary for the validity of the perpetual prqfes- sion but only the Holy See (diocesan congregation: local ordinary) may dispense from it wholly or in part. 572-3; 2352 75. The following is the formula of profession: ... 576, § 1; 585 76. The written declaration of the profession, whether temporary or perpetual, must be signed by the p~rofessed sister, the mother general or sister delegate who received the profession, and two other sisters as witnesses. This document shall be carehdly preserved in the files of the congregation. 576, § 2 77. Three months before the expiration of each temporary profession, the’ sisters’shall present a written petition to the mother general (provincial congregation frequently: mother provincial) to be admitted to the renewal of temporary vows or to perpetual profession. 78. When the time for which the vows were pro- nounced has expired, they must be renewed without delay~ However, for a just reason, the mother gen.eral (provincial congregation frequently: higher superior or mother provincial) may permit the renewal of temporary vows to be anticipated, but not by more than a month. An anticipated profession expires only on the day on which a non-anticipated profession would have expired. 577 79. Before perpetual profession, the sisters shall make a retreat of .. . entire days, and before the renewal of temporary vows, a retreat of ... day(s). Only the first pro- + fession must be made in the novitiate house. 574, § 1 80. When the period of temporary profession has expired, the sister must without delay make perpetual pro- ~ession or return to secular life; but even during the period of temporary pro[ession, it not judged worthy to VOLUME 25, 1966 pronounce perpetual vows, she may be dismissed by the 379 mother general (diocesan congregation: local, ordinary) conformably to articles 155 and following. 575, § 1 ’ 81. Simple profession, whether temporary or perpetual, ¯ renders acts contrary to the vows illicit but not invalid.27 579 CHAPTER IX Vow AND VIRTUE OF POVERTY 82. By the vow of poverty the sisters renounce the right of disposing licitly Of any temporal thing of mone- tary value without the permission of their lawful superior. 83. With the permission of the local superior, the sisters may perform acts of proprietorship required by civil law. If such an act includes alienation of property or concerns an important matter, this permission is reserved to the mother general (provincial congregations: higher superiors) unless the case is urgent, when it may be given by the local superior. " 84. The sisters, .whethEr of temporary or perpetual vows, retain the ownership of their property and the capacity of acqtiiring other property, subject to the pro- visions that follow regarding its disposition and adminis- .tration. 580, § 1 85. Whatever the sistersacquire after profession by their personal activity or for the congregation or as religious becomes the property of the congregation (,prov-. ince,) or house. 580, § 2 86. A professed sister, whether of temporary or perpetual vows, may not renounce the ownership of her property by a free gift effective during her lifetime. 583, 1 ° 87. If during the course of her noviceship a novice renounces her property in any m~nner or burdens it with any obligation, the renunciation or obligation is not only illicit but also null and void. 568 88. Before her first profession and for the entire time that she will be bound by vows, the novice must cede the administration of her property to whomsoever she chooses and freely dispose of its use and usufruct. 569, § 1 89. If this cession and disposition were omitted because the novice had no property and if subsequently property comes to her, or if, after making the provision, other property comes to her under any title, she shall, notwith- ÷ standing her simple profession, make or renew the provision stated above for the newly acquired property. 569, § 2 90. A professed sister may change this cession and dis- ÷ position with the permission of the mother general, but ~. F. Gallen, S~J. ~ This chapt.er Often contains an article on the devotional renewal of vows and articles on the formation of the junior professed. The REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS former is fkequently placed in ~l~e chapter(s) on the religious exercises, the latter in a special section of the chapter on the works of the 380 congregation. the permission of the Holy See is necessary if the change is of a notable part of the property in favor of the congregation. 580, § 3 91. If a sister leaves or is dismissed, the cession and disposition cease to have any validity. 580, § 3 92. Before profession of temporary vows, a novice shall freely.make a civilly valid will concerning all the property she actually possesses or may subsequently acquire. A professed sister may not alter her will without the permission of the Holy See or, if the case is urgent and time does not permit recourse to the Holy See, without the permission of the mother general (provincial ’congregation: higher superior); when recourse cannot be .had to the latter, ~without the permission of the local, superior. 569, § 3; 583, 2° ¯ 93. Common life must be observed exac.tly in all houses and by all the sisters even in matters of food, clothing, and personal necessities.2s 594; 2389

CHAPTER X VOW AND VIRTUE OF CHASTITY 94. By the vow of chastity :the sisters bind themselves to a life of celibacy and, by a new obligation from the virtue of religion, to abstain from any internal or external act opposed to chastity39 1058; 2388, § 2 CHAPTER XI

VOW, AND VIRTUE O~ OBEDIENCE 95. By the vow of obedience the sisters consecrate to God their own will and oblige themselves from the virtue of religion to obey the commands of their lawful superiors in everything that directly or indirectly concerns the observance,of the vows and constitutions.¯ 96. The sisters are bound to obey by reason of the vow only when lawful superiors command expressly in virtue of holy obedience or in equivalent words.30 ~s Other articles are usually included in this chapter on the purpose of religious poverty, that the cession anti disposition are to be made in a manner civilly binding, that a clause should be added allowing the sister to revoke the cession and disposition at her mere will, the virtue or spirit of poverty, that superiors are to insist on the observance of poverty, exhortations to all to observe it, the example of our Lord, His counsel on poverty, the importance of common life and insistence on its observance, norms on gifts, the level of material + things permitted in the congregation, a prohibition against being the + custodian of property of seculars, norms on asking for contributions q. especially from students, and exhortations to trust in divine providence. = Other articles are commonly found in this chapter on the pur- Constitutions pose of religious chastity, exhortations to its most perfect observance, and some norms on precautions and preservatives. VOLUME 25, 1966 ~ Other formulas are found, for example, under formal precept, and so forth. 381 97. Superiors shall rarely, prudentJy, and cautiously command in virtue of holy obedience and only for a grave reason. It is expedient that a formal precept be given in writing or at least in the presence of two witnesses. 98. Local superiors, especially of small houses, shall not give commands in virtue of holy obedience except in grave and urgent cases and they should then immediately notify the mother general (provincial congregation: mother provincial).31 99. The sisters are obliged by the virtue of obedience to fulfill the prescriptions of the constitutions and other orders of superiors. 100. The sisters may. always have their vow as the motive of any act of obedience, and such an intention is implicitly contained in the act of their religious profession. The special merit of the vow thus extends not only to formal precepts but also to the usual directions of superiors and to every act in conformity with the constitutions.32 CHAPTER XII

PENANCE AND HOLY EUCHARIST § 1. Penance 101. The sisters will usually go to confession at least once a week. 595, § 1, 3 °; 566, § 1 102. For every house there shall be only one ordinary confessor, designated by the local ordinary, .who shall hear the confessions of the entire commpnity, unless it is necessary to assign, two or even more confessors because of the large number of sisters or for any other just reason. 520, § 1 ¯ 103. If a particular sister, ~or the .peace of her conscience or greater spiritual progress, should ask. for a special confessor or spiritual director, the request shall be made to the local ordinary. It is his duty to see that abuses do not arise, and if they do arise to eliminate them. 590, § 2 104. To every community sh~ll be assigned an extraordinary confessor, who at least.four times a year shall come to the religious house and to whom all the sisters shall present themselves, if only to receive his blessing. 521, § 1 4- al Various forms of this article are found in constitutions, for example, the authority to give a precept in virtue of the vow is reserved in some congregations to higher superiors. a~ Other articles are ordinarily included in this chapter on the pur- 1. F. Gallen, S.]. pose of religious obedience, the obedieuce of will and judgment, the example of our Lord, representation, on asking ordinary permissions REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS from the immediate superior, respect and reverence for superiors, avoidance of criticism and murmuring, prompt aud faithful attend- 38_’2 ance at common duties, and on following the horarium. 105. Snperiors shall inquire from the local ordinary what priests have been designated for each house, to whom in particular cases the sisters may easily have recourse for the sacrament of penance without having to apply to the Ordinary on each occasion. 521, § 2 106. If a sister should ask for one of these confessors, no superior is allowed either personally or through others, either directly or indirectly, to inquire into the reason for the petition, to show opposition to it by word or deed, or in any way manifest displeasure at the request. 521, § ~; 2414 107. If notwithstanding the prescriptions of the preceding articles, a sister has recourse for the peace of her conscience to a confessor approved by the local ordinary for the confessions of women, even though not approved for religious women, this confession is valid and licit provided it is made in a church or oratory, even semipub- lic, or in any other place legitimately designated for the confessions of religious or secular women, The superior may not forbid such a confession nor ask about it even indirectly, and the sister is under no obligation to inform the superior of the matter. Nevertheless, the sisters are bound to respect the requirements of religious discipline. 522; 2414; 909-10, § 1 108. When sisters are seriously ill, even though not in danger of death, they may call any priest approved for the confessions of women, though not designated for religious women, and make their confession to him as often as they wish during their serious illness. The superior may not either directly 0r indirectly prevent them from doing so. 523; 2414 109. When in danger of death, the sisters may make their confession to any priest, even to one not approved for confessions, and even if an approved priest should be present. 882 110. All superiors are to strive earnestly to have confessors readily available before Communion. 111. The ordinary confessor of the sisters may not exercise his office for a term exceeding three years. The local ordinary, however, may appoint him for a second and even a third term if scarcity of priests suitable for the office does not permit him to provide otherwise; oi if the majority of the sisters, including even those who in other + matters have no right to vote, petition by secret voting + for the reappointment of the confessor. Those who dissent + are to be otherwise provided for if they so desire,sa 526; 524, § 2 " Constitutions

VOLUME 25; 1966 re.In virtue of their Pastorale munus faculty n. 33, bishops may make this reappointmcnt even for a fifth triennium. 383 112. The sisters shall remember that the confessors may not in any manner interfere in the internal or external government of the community. 524, § 3

In institutes of brothers, the preceding section on penance will be as follows: § 1. Penance 1. The brothers will usually go to confession at least once a week. 595, § 1, 3 °; 566, § 2, 1" 2. Every house shall have an ordinary confessor, and an extraordinary confessor is to come to each house four times a year. Both confessors are appointed by the local ordinary. If a brother requests a special confessor, the superior is to grant the request without in any way inquiring into the reason for the petition. 528; 874, § 1; 875,.§ 2 3. There shall be one or more ordinary confessors for the novitiate according to the number of novices. These are to come at least frequently to the novitiate house to hear the confessions of the novices. 566, § 2, 1-2" ’~ 4. Some other confessors are to be appointed, in addition to the ordinary confessors, whom the novices may freely approach in particular cases. The master of novices is to show no displeasure on such occasions. 566, § 2, 3° 5. At least four times a year the novices shall be given an extraordinary confessor, to whom all the fiovices must present themselves, if only to receive his blessing. 566, § 6. I[ a brother has recourse [or the peace o[ his conscience to a confessor approved by the local ordinary, even though he is not among the appointed con[essors, the con~ession is valid and licit. 519 7. When in danger o~ death, the brothers may make their con~ession to any priest, even to one not approved for confessions, and even ff an approved priest should be present.~ 882 8. All superiors.are to strive earnestly to have donfessors readily available before Communion.

§ 2. Manifestation of Conscience 113. All superiors are strictly forbidden to induce their subjects in any manner whatever to make a manifestation of conscience to them. Subjects are not forbidden to open their consciences freely and spontaneously to their su- perid~s; on the contrary, it is profitable for subjects to approach their superiors with filial confidence. 530 1. F. Gallen, SJ. ~ In some constitutions of brothers the following confessor is also REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS found: "In case of illness the sick brother may ask for any confessor he desires. His pious wishes shall be respected as regards Holy Com- 384 munion," § 3. Holy Eucharist 114. The sisters shall assist daily with all possible d’evo- tion at the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass. Superiors shall promote among their subjects the frequent, even daily, reception of Holy Communion, and liberty must be given to every properly disposed religious ’to receive the Holy Eucharist frequently and even every day.35 595, § :’1, 2°; § 2;. 863 1.15. Superiors must carefully eliminate every obstacle to the liberty of the individual religious to receive or abstain from Holy Communion. 116. If a sister since her last sacramental confession has given grave scandal to the community or committed a serious external fault, a superior may forbid her to receive Holy Communion until she has again approached the sacrament of penance. 595, § 3 117. Super,iors are obliged to give the sisters sufficient time for preparation and thanksgiving for Mass and Holy Communion, as well as for confession.36 CHAPTER XIII RELIGIOUS EXERCISES 118. The :sisters shall recite daily in common and in the vernacular Lauds, Vespers, and Compline of the Di- vine Office.3r 595, § 1, 2° 119. Every morning (day)the sister~ shall spend a half hour in mental prayer,a8 They shall individually prepare the subject of the prayer the preceding evening. 595, § 1, 2o ~’~ The articles on Mass and Communion may be very appropriately expressed in liturgical language. ~ Other articles frequently included in this chapter are on the grandeur of the Mass and the sacraments, preparation for them and the manner and dispositions for receiving and assisting with profit, and the observance of rigid secrecy by superiors in matters of’ manifestation of conscience. 27 The Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary is the one that has usually been recited in institutes of simple vows. Constitutions en- joining only private recitation of this Office arc relatively few. The amount and days of common recitation prescribed in other institiates are sufficiently varied. In some congregations the whole Office is recited daily in common and in all the houses; in others this same obligation extends only to the mother house, while houses engaged in the external works of the institute recite the entire Office in common only on Sundays, holydays and other vacation days; finally; some in- + stitutes demand that only a part og the Office be~:recited daily in + common. See R~vmw for l~e~ous, 13 (1954), 129-30. An article such as that on the Office could be expressed in liturgical language. On the Divine Office for congregations, see R~wEw for R~tm~ous, 24 (1965), 47~-4. ~ Constitutions s~ This minimum of a half hour is the practice in very many congregations; many have a half hour in both morning’ and afternoon; VOLUME 25~ 1966 a few have a notably greater period, for example, a hour and a half or three quarters daily. 385 120. They shall make the particuIar and general examination of conscience at noon and at night. Privately and at a convenient time during the day, they shall recite five decades of the rosary and devote at least fifteen minutes to spiritual reading. 125, 2°; 592; 595, § 1, 2° 121. The sisters shall accustom themselves to make frequent visits to the Blessed Sacrament. 125, 2°; 592 122. Annually the sisters shall make a retreat of... full days.39 They shall observe a day of monthly recollection, which ordinarily is to be the... Sunday of the month. 595, § 1, 1° 123. The sisters shall make a public devotional renewal. of their vows on .... They should renew their vows fre-" quently in private, particularly after Holy Communion and on the day of monthly recollection. The formula of this renewal is: .... 595, § 1, 2° 124. Superiors shall grant another suitable time to sisters who are prevented from performing the prescribed spiritual duties at the regular time.4° 595, § 1 CHAPTER XIV

MORTIFICATION AND PENANCE 125. Once a month (four times a year) the sisters in public chapter shall accuse themselves of external trans- gressions of religious discipline. 126. In the practice of corporal mortifications and penances of a private nature, the sisters are to be guided solely by the confessor; for those that are public they must have the permission of the superior.41

~0 Ordinarily the prescribed duration is eight or six days, but seven and five days are found. Some also have a retreat of one or three days at the close of the year. ,0 Other exercises are very frequently prescribed in the constitutions, for example, morning and evening prayers, way of the cross, holy hour, hour or half hour of adoration of the Blessed Sacrament, Franciscan rosary, novenas, exercises in honor of the Passion on Friday, the Blessed Mother on Saturday, and added prayers or devotions during the months of March, May, June, October, November, and the season of Lent. The chapter usually also contains articles on the obligation of superiors to see that the religious exercises are performed, their power of dispensing from these, and that the religious are not to absent themselves from the exercises without permissiou. In these typical constitutions the article on the exhortations is placed + in the chapter on local houses and superiors. + 4~The more spiritual section of the constitutions is ordinarily found in this part in chapters on virtues and devotions, for example, + spirit of the congregation, charity, fraternal charity, union and charity, humility, modesty, simplicity, constancy in striving for perfection~ J. F. Gallen, S.J. meekness, zeal, mortification and penance, religious observance, perfection of ordinary actions, order of the day, employment of time, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS devotion to the eternal Father, to the Passion of our Lord, the Sacred Heart, the Eucharist, the Holy Spirit, the Blessed Virgin Mary, angels, 386 and St. Joseph. CHAPTER XV

ENCLOSURE, CORRESPONDENCE, SILENCE

§ i. Enclosure 127. The law of enclosure shall be observed in. every house. This requires that certain parts of the convent remain so reserved to the sisters that no person of the other sex42 may be admitted. These parts are the refectory, the dormitories~o[ the sisters, their ceils, the infirmary, in a word, all places destined by the mother general (provincial congregation: higher superior) for the exclusive use of the sisters. 604, §§ 1, 3 128. The following are permitted to enter the enclosure: the local ordinary or his delegate for the canonical visitation, priests to administer the sacraments to the sick or to assist the dying, physicians, and those whose services are necessary. Others also may be admitted when a just and reasonable cause exists in the judgment of the superior. The proper precautions are always to be observed. 604, § 1; 598, § 2; 600 129. When a convent has attached to it a school for day or boarding pupils or quarters devoted to other works proper to the congregation, at least a separate part of the house should be reserved, if possible, for the living quarters of the religious, and this part should be subject to the law of enclosure. Even to places outside the enclosure reserved for day or boardingp~upJilssor for works proper to the congregation, those o[the other sex should not be admitted except for a good reason and with the permission of the superior. 604, § 2; 599 130. If the.chaplain or other priests live in the house of the sisters, their apartments shall if possible have a separate entrance and be separated from the part of the house occupied by the sisters. 131. Superiors shall diligently insist that the law of enclosure be strictly observed and that neither the visits of externs nor useless conversation relax religious discipline nor weaken religious spirit. 605; 604, § 3 132. The sisters may not leave the house without the permission of the superior. Ordinarily they may not go out without a sister companion. 606, § l; 607 133. Superiors may not permit their subjects to live outside a house of the congregation except for a just and + serious reason and [or as brief a.period as possible. For an + absence of more than six months, except for study, the + permission of the Holy See (diocesan congregation: local ordinary) is, always required. In the case of study the Constitutions

VOLUME 25, 1966 ~"-Some congregations exclude by the law of their own constitutions also those of the same sex. ~8~ sisters are obliged to live in a religious house if possible, and to attend institutions that are approved or recognized by ecclesiastical authority. 606, § 2 § 2. Correspondence ¯ 134. The sisters shall not send or receive letters without permission of the superior, who has the right to read them, and to deliver or retain them according to her judgment. The superior should exercise this authority with discretion, charity, and prudence, She is obliged to observe rigorous secrecy about what she has learned from the sisters’ correspondence. 135. All the sisters may freely send letters exempt from all inspection to the Holy See, to its legate in the country, to the mother general (provincial congregation: higher superiors) and her (their) councilors, to their local superior when she is absent from the house, and to the local ordinary in matters in which they are subject to him. From all of these persons the sisters may also receive letters which no one has the right to inspect. 611 136. The correspondence of the junior professed, novices, and postulants is under the supervision of their mistresses and superiors with the exceptions mentioned in the preceding article. § 3. Silence 137. Sacred silence shall be observed throughout the house from.., until .... If it should be absolutely necessary to speak during this time, the sisters shall do so as briefly as possible and in a low voice. During the re: mainder of the day except at times appointed for recreation, they should observe ordinary religious silence, speaking briefly and quietly when this is required by duty, charity, or courtesy. 138. Silence shall be observed at meals~ according to the custom oL the congregation. The reading at table shall be from a spiritual or instructive book approved by the superior.43 ~ ~ Other articles found frequently inthis chapter are on the purpose of cloiste.r; location of parlors and necessity of permission to receive visitors; restrictions on visits, at least outside of special cases, during Advent, Lent, days of special recollection, and time of religious exercises; deportment with visitors; permission of higher superior necessary for overnight absences; norms on family visits; when traveling the sisters are to stay in one of their own convents or, if poss.ible, in the house of another religious institute; norms for frequency and style of correspondence; purpose of silence; observance of interior silence; strict silence to be observed always in determined I. F. Gallen, places, for example, chapel, sacristy, dormitories or ceils, and the corridors of the convent; duty of superiors to guard the observance REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS of silence; frequency of and deportmeht during daily recreation; and an. article stating that talking is permitted on recreation days at the customary times and places. APOSTOLATE 139. Superiors shall have in the juniorate house only sisters who are exemplary in their zeal for religious observance. 554, § 3 140. The sisters in hospitals shall be guided by’ religious and ethical principles in their professional activities. In case of doubt they shall consult religious or ecclesiastical authority. 141. A sacristan shall be appointed in each house, She should have a thorough knowledge of liturgical requirements and be particularly attentive to the laws concerning shcred vessels, the washing of Sacred linens, the cus- tody of the tabernacle key, the necessity of having at least one lamp burning before the Blessed Sacrament, and on the material that may be used for the lamp. 1269, § 4; 1271; 130644 CHAPTER XVII

CARE OF THE SICK 142. Spiritual aid shall aI~ays be promptly given to the sick. The sisters who are seriously ill may ask for the

~ The part of the constitutions on the apostolate contains very canons or other common legal articles. It is frequently divided into sections or contains articles on the following topics. 1. General. Sub- limity of apostolate; solidarity of all members in it; necessity of excellence in all aspects of formation and of the apostolate and of constant progress; need of prudent adaptation of methods to the times; necessity of loyal cooperation in all; fostering.of vocations. 2. Juniorate and mistress of junior professed. Obligation of complete undergrad- uate education before full assignment to apostolate; generosity in supplying necessities for studies to juniors; motive in, studies; naturd’ of period of temporary vows; outline of subjects to be studied; teachers in the juniorate; qualities of mistress; manner of appointment; norms for her direction of juniors. 3. Period of greater recollection before perpetual profession and renovation or tertianship. Purpose of both; time o~[ making latter; norms for the mistress o[ each; general plan of both. 4. Supervisor(s) oI schools and studies. Duties; relation to higher superiors; annual visitation of schools. 5. Teaching sisters, Purpose; necessity of preparation; relation to principal; manner of dealing with students. 6. Principals. Duties. 7. Hospital supervisor, whose duties parallel those of supervisor of schools. 8. Hospital sisters. Purpose of their apostolate; their training; necessity of constant progress in their work; relations with doctors and other hospital 4. personnel. 9. Hospital administrators. Norms for their work and for 4- the harmonious direction of those under them. 10. Social service supervisor. Qualities; relation to higher superiors; visitation; norms for 4. her work, 11. Sisters in social work~. Purpose; to be properly and fully trained; directives for their work. 12. Convent duties. Purpose of and Constitutions norms for the work of those engaged in laundry, sewing, housekeep- ing departments and as sacristan or portress, and so forth. The arti- VOLUME 25, 1966 cles on the latter two are usually found in the chapter on local houses and superiors. 389 confessor they prefer, and he should be called conformably with articles 108-9. 523; 882 143. All sisters who are ill should be given the opportunity of receiving Holy Communion frequently, and even daily, during their illness. 863; 865 144. When a sister is in danger of death, it is the duty of the superior and infirmarian to have the last sacraments administered in due time. 865; 944; 882; 468; 514, 145. It is both a permissible and salutary practice that a sister receive Holy Viaticum daily, even when not fasting, as long as the probable danger of death continues, 864, § 3 146. At .the approach of death, a priest shall be called° to assist the sister who is dying according’to the rite prescribed by the Roman Ritual.4~ ’/68 CHAPTER XVIII

SUFFRAGES FOR THE DEAD 147. At the death of a professed religious or novice, the local superior shall immediately inform the mother general (provincial) and the close relatives of the deceased. The mother general (provincial)46 shall promptly send a notification to all the houses (o[ the province). 567, § 1; 578, 1o CHAPTER XIX

DEPARTURE" AND DISMISSAL § 1. Unlawful Departure 148. An apostate from religion is one who, having made profession of solemn or simple perpetual vows, unlawfully leaves the religious house with the intention of not re- 4~ The matter of this chapter is principally norms on the obligation of the superior to care for the health of the sisters and of the latter to use the ordinary means but to avoid excessive care, the obligation to inform the superior when ill, norms for the care of the sick and for suffering patiently, on consulting and visits to doctors, obligation of superiors aml counsel to other sisters to visit the sick. care for and charity also to aged and feeble sisters, qualities of and norms for the infirmariao, reservation at least in larger~houses of a suitable section as an infirmary, Eucharistic fast for sick, prayers for ÷ those in danger of death, attendance of other sisters at rites for the dying, and on funerals and burial. : - ÷ 4n This chapter is composed principally of articles on the suffrages ÷ for professed and novices, greater suffrages for present and past superiors and officials, suffrages for the Roman pontiff, cardinal pro- J. F. Gallen, S.J. tector, local ordinary, father and mother of a sister, for benefactors, relatives, and friends, means for informing all of the anniversary of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS a sister’s death, and an exhortation to perform the prescribed suffrages promptly and to remember deceased sisters in.other prayers 390 and good works. turning; or who, with the intention of withdrawing herself from religious obedience, though she lawfully left the house, does not return to it. The evil intention referred to in the preceding paragraph is legally presumed when the religious within a month has neither returned nor manifested to her superior the intention of returning. . A fugitive is one’ who without the permission of her superiors deserts the religious house but with the intention of retufning to her institute.. 644; 2385-6 149. Neither apostates nor fugitives are freed from the obligation of the rule and vows and must without delay return to their institute. The superiors must seek them with solicitude and receive them if they return animated by a sincere repent- anew. 645 150. A religious who apostatizes from her congregation automatically incurs an excommunication reserved to the ordinary o~ the place where she is staying. She is ex- cluded from legitimate ecclesiastical acts and is deprived of all the privileges of her institute. If she returns, she is perpetually deprived of active and passive voice and is moreover to be otherwise punished by her superiors according to the gravity of her guilt and in conformity with the constitutions. 2385 151. A religious fugitive automatically incurs the priva- tion of any office she holds in the institute. When she returns, the higher superior shall inflict punishments in proportion to the gravity of her guilt. 2386 § 2. Departure at the Expiration of Temporary Profession 152. Tl~e mother general47 with the advice of her council, for just and reasonable motives, may exclude a religious from renewing the temporary vows or from making profession of perpetual.vows; not, however, because of ill health, unless it is proved with certainty that it was fraudulently concealed or dissimulated before profession. Religious who have made profession of temporary vows may freely leave the congregation when the term of vows has expired. 637; 575, § 1 § 3. Exclaustration and Secularization

153. An indult to remain outside the congregation ÷ temporarily, that is, an indult of exclaustration, may be ÷ ~r Canon 637 leaves to the constitutions the determination of the ÷ superior competent for exclusion. The constitutions usually assign this right to the superior general with the consultative vote of her Constitutions council, but a few demand the deliberative vote. A small number of constitutions give this power to the provincial or higher superio~:s V01.1JME 25, 1966 either alone or with the consultative or, less frcquently~ the deliberative vote of the council. See REVIEW fOR RELIGIOUS, 16 (1957), 216. granted only by the Apostolic See (diocesan congregation: is granted by the ordi~ahry oi the diocese where the sister ’ is staying). Anyone who has obtained this indult remains bound by her vows and the other obligations of her profession compatible with her state; but she must put of[ the religious habit. During the time of the indult she lacks active and passive voice but enjoys the spiritual privileges of her institute. She is subject to the ordinary of the diocese in which she resides, and this even by virtue of her vow of obedience, in the place, of the superiors of her own institute. 638-9 154. An indult to remain outside the congregation perpetually, that is, an indult of secularization, or a dispensation from the vows, may be granted only by the Apostolic See (diocesan congregation: is granted by the ordinary of the diocese where the sister is staying). There- fore, if a sister of perpetual, vows, or of temporary vows during the term of these vows, wishes of her own accord to leave the congregation, an indult of secularization must be obtained from the Holy See (diocesan congregation: local ordinary). A secularized religious is no longer a member of her congregation. She must put off the religious habit, is freed of her vows, and is not bound by the other rules and the constitutions. If she is again received into the congregation, in virtue of an apostolic indult, she must make a new noviceship and profession, and her rank among the professed members is computed from the day of her new profession. 638; 640 § 4. Dismissal by Decree of a Professed of Temporary Vows 155. (Pontifical) A sister of temporary vows may during the term of her temporary profession be dismissed by the mother general with the consent of her council expressed by secret ballot. 647, § 1 (Diocesan) A sister of temporary vows may during the term of her temporary profession be dismissed by the ordinary of the place where the religious house to which she is assigned is situated. The ordinary may not use this right without the knowledge or contrary to the just opposition of the mother general. An application for dismissal must be presented by the mother general with the consent of her council. 647, § I 156. The (diocesan .congregation: local ordinary land the) mother general and the members of her council are ~. F. Gallen, S.]. bound by a grave obligation in conscience to observe the following: REVIEW-FOR RELIGIOUS a) The reasons for the dismissal must be serious. 3911 b) They may be .on the part of either the congregation or the sister. The absence of the religious spirit which is a cause of scandal to others is a sufficient motive for dismissal when at least two admonitions given in writing or in the presence of at least two witnesses, with a threat of dismissal joined with a salutary penance, have produced no effect. Ill health is not a sufficient motive unless it is proved with certainty that it was fraudulently concealed or dissimulated before profession. c) Although the reasons must be known with certainty by the mother general and her council (diocesan congregation: local ordinary), it is not necessary that they be proved by a formal trial; but they .must always be manifested to the sister, :and she must be given full liberty to answer the charges. Her answers must be faithfully submitted to the.mother general and her council (local ordinary). d) The sister has the right to appeal to the Holy See against the decree of dismissal and if she makes this appeal within ten days from the date on which she was informed of her dismissal, the decree has no juridical effect while the recourse is pending. 647,

§ 5. Dismissal by Decree oI a Pro[essed o[ Perpetual Vows 157. The dismissal of a sister of perpetu, al vows is reserved to the Holy See (diocesan congregation: local ordinary). 652, §§ 1, 3 158. For such a dismissal, serious external reasons are required, together with incorrigibility, after attempts at correction have been previously made without success, so that in the judgment of the mother general and her council there is no hope of amendment. The efforts at correc,- tion shall include not only the admonitions, as above, but. also a-change of employment, transfer to another house, and other suitable means if judged expedient for a reform of conduct. 651, § 1 159. The reasons for dismissal must always be manifested to the sister, and she must be given full liberty to answer the charges. Her replies must be faithfully reported in the acts. 651, § 2; 650, § 3 160. If by the consent of the council expressed in secret ballot .the sister has been found incorrigible and her dismissal approved, the mother general shall transmit the ÷ whole matter with all the relevant acts and documents to ÷ the Sacred Congregation of Religious (diocesan congrega- ÷ tion: ordinary of the diocese where the religious house to which the sister is assigned is situated). 652, §§ 1, 3 Constitutions (Added article in diocesan congregation) The sister has the right to appeal to the Holy See against the decree of VOLUME 25, 1966 dismissal; and if she makes this appeal within ten days 393 from the date on which she was informed of her dismissal, the decree of dismissal has no juridical effect while the recourse is pending. 647, § 2, 4°

In institutes of brothers the preceding articles on the dismissal of a professed of perpetual vows will be replaced by the following. 1. A brother of perpetual vows may not be dismissed except after three serious external crimes against the common law or the constitutions, two admonitions, and the failure to amend. 649; 656 2. There must be at least three crimes of the same species or, if of. different specieg, of such a nature as to manifest, when viewed collectively, a will obstinate in evil, or one continued crime that, after ’repeated admonitions, becomes virtually three. 657 3. An admonition may not be given unless the crime is notorious or certain from the extrajudicial confession of the defendant or from other sufficient proofs obtained in a prelimiiaary investigation. 658, § 1 4. The admonition is to be given by the immediate higher superior personally or by another acting on the former’s mandate. A superior is not to give this mandate unless he has obtained information of the facts according to the norm of the preceding article. A mandate given for the first admonition is valid also for the second. 659 5. There must be two admonitions, one for each of the first two crimes; but in the case of continuous or permanent crimes, an interval of at least three whole days must elapse between the first and second admonition. 660 6. The superior shall add opportune exhortations and corrections to the admonitions, also imposing penances and other penal remedies that he judges apt to effect the amendment of the erring member and to repair the scandal. The superior is likewise obliged to remove the of- fender from the occasions of relapse and even to transfer him, if necessary, to another house where ~npervision would~be easier and occasions of relapse more remote. A threat of dismissal must be added to each admonition. 661 7. The brother is considered as not having amended if he commits a new crime or perseveres in the same continuous crime after the second admonition. At least six days must elapse after the last admonition before any ~further steps are taken. 662 8. The reasons for dismissal must always be manifested to the brother, and he must be given full liberty to answer ]. F. Gallen,. S.]. the charges. His reply must be faithfully ’reported in the acts. 650, § 3 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 9. (Pontifical) The brother general and his council 394 shrill study all aspects of th~ matter and consider whether the case is one of dismissal. If a majority of the votes favor dismissal, the brother general shall issue the decree of dismissal, which is not effective unless confirmed by the Apostolic See. 650, §§ 1-2, 2° I0. (Diocesan) The brother general and his council shall study all aspects of the matter and consider whether the case is one of dismissal. If a majority of the votes favor dismissal, the brother general shall forward the entire matter to the ordinary of the place where the religious house of the defendant is located. The decision on the dismissal appertains to the prudent judgment of the ordinary. 650, §§ 1-2, 1 ° (Added article in diocesan congregation) The brother has the right to appeal to the Holy See against the decree of dismissal; and if he makes this appeal within ten days from the date on which he was informed of his dismissal, the decree of dismissal has no juridical effect while the recourse is pending. 647, § 2, 4°; 650, § 2, 1 °

§ 6. Automatic Dismissal of a Professed of Perpetual or Temporary Vows 161. The following are automatically dismissed: a) Religious who have publicly apostatized from the Catholic faith. b) A religious woman who has run away with a man. c) Religious who attempt or contract marriage, even the so-called civil marriage. In these cases, it is sufficient that the mother general (provincial congregation: higher superior) with the advice of her council make a written declaration of the fact, but she is to take care that the collected proofs of the fact are preserved in the files of the ’congregation. 646

§ 7. Provisional Return of a Professed of Perpetual or Temporary Vows to Secular Life 162. In the case of grave external scandal or of very serious imminent injury to the community, any professed sister may be immediately sent back to secular life by the mother general (provincial congregation: higher superior) with the consent of her council or even, if there is danger in delay and time does not permit recourse to the mother general (higher superior), by the local superior with the consentof her council and that of the local ordinary. The sister must ifiamediately put off the religious habit. The local ordinary or the mother general (higher superior), if she is present, must without delay submit the matterVOLUME 25, 1966 to the judgment of the Holy See. 653 395 § 8. Effects oI Dismissal 163. A sister who has been canonically dismissed according to articles 155-61 ’is by that very fact freed from all her religious vows. 648; 669, § 1 § 9. Charitable Subsidy 164. If. any professed sister who leaves or is dismissed was received without a dowry or with an insufficient dowry and cannot provide for herself out of her own resources, the congregation is obliged in charity to give her what is necessary to return safely and becomingly to her home, and to provide her, according to natural equity, for a certain period with the means of a respectable liveli- hood. This is to be determined by mutual consent or, in the case of disagreement, by the local ordinary of the former religious,as 643, § 2; 647, § 2, 5°; 652, § 3 (In a congregation that does not impose a dowry) If any professed sister who leaves or is dismissed cannot provide for herself out of her own resources, the congregation ....

PART II GOVERNMENT

CHAPTER XX

SUPREME AUTHORITY 165. All the sisters are subject to the Roman pontiff as their highest superior, whom they are bound to obey also in virtue of their vow of obedience. 499, § 1; 218 166. (Pontifical)They are likewise, according to the norm of the ~acred canons, under the jurisdiction of the locaFordinaries. The sisters shall manifest the most profound respect for the ordinaries. 500, § 1; 618-20 (Diocesan) The local ordinaries exercise complete authority over the houses and sisters within their dioceses in accordance with the sacred canons. The sisters shall manifest the most profound respect for the ordinaries. 492, § 2 167. Supreme internal authority is exercised ordinarily by the mother gefieral assisted by her council and extraor- dinaril~ by the legitimately assembled general chapter. 501, § 1; 502

~ A similar article is often found in the constitutions of brothers, for example: "Brothers who leave the institute shall be given the money necessary to enable them to return home, unless they have sufficient money from other sources." Constitutions frequently also contain ’an :article of the following type: "Superiors must observe justice, charity, and prudence in dismissing a sister. They shall do REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS all in their power to safeguard the reputation of a sister who is leaving or is dismissed, and they shall act with such motherly kindness that the sister will depart well disposed toward the congregation." CHAPTER XXI

GENERAL CHAPTER § 1. Convocation and Members 168. The general chapter must be convoked as often as general elections are necessary. The ordinary convocation takes place every sixth year at the expiration of the term of office of the mother general and on her death~, resignation, or deposition. 162; 161; 178;’34, § 3, 5° 169. (Pontifical) To convoke the chapter for any reason other than those specified above, the permission of the Holy See is required in addition to the consent of the general council. (Diocesan) To convoke the chapter for any reason other than those specified above, the mother general must have the consent of her council. 170. The chapter must be convoked by the mother general six (three) months before the day fixed for its assembly. In the letter of convocation, the date and place of the chapter shall be designated, and the prayers to be said for the success of the chapter shall be prescribed. The place for the ~ssembly of the chapter shall be determined by the mother general with the consent of her council. 171. Before the convocation the mother general must inform the ordinary of the diocese in which the chapter will convene of the date of the election of the mother general, that he may preside either personally or by delegate at this election. 506, § 4 172. The meeting of the chapter may be anticipated or deferred for an important reason, but not more than three (six) months in either case. 161; 178 173. In the event of the death, resignation, or deposition of the mother general, the chapter must be convoked by the mother vicar as soon as possible, so that the assembly of the chapter will not be postponed more than six (three) months after the vacancy of the office. 162; 161; 178 174. The members of the chapter are: a) The mother general b) The four general councilors c) The secretary general d) The treasurer general e) (The procurator general) + t’) Former mothers general g) The mothers provincial h) __ delegates elected by each province49 Constitutions,~ ~OThe elected delegates from a province are almost universally VOLUME 25, 1966 two, most rarely three or four. See REVmW FOR RELIGIOUS, 24 (1965), 132-3. 397 or g) The regional superiors5° h) The delegates elected by (the regions and) houses according to article(s) -- or g) The local superiors of houses in which at least twelve sisters habitually reside51 h) One delegate elected by the sisters of each of these larger houses52 i) Two delegates elected by each group of smaller houses or g) The ___ delegates elected from the houses~ The mother general, general councilors, secretary general, treasurer general, (and procurator general), continue as members of the assembled chapter even though at the elections other sisters have succeeded them in office. 164-8 175. The mother general with the consent of her council may summon other sisters to assist in the clerical and similar work of the chapter. She may in the same manner invite such sisters and externs to present and discuss questions with the chapter. None of these are permitted to vote, and all such sisters have the same obligation to secrecy as the capitulars. 165 176. The chapter elects the mother general, general councilors, secretary general, treasurer general, (and procurator general) and treats of the more important affairs that concern the entire congregation.~4 § 2. General Norms to Be Observed in Elections 177. The tellers elected for the general chapter must take an’oath to perform their duty faithfully and to keep secret the proceedings of the chapter even after the elections are completed. All the capitulars are likewise bound to secrecy. The places of the tellers and secretary shall be near the president. 171, § 1 178. The tellers are to take care that the ballots are cast by each elector secretly, individually, and in order of prec-

~ Regional superiors may be made ex officio members of the general chapter. See REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, ibid., p. 132. ~ Twelve is the common norm for a larger house; twenty-three the highest usually in the present practice of the Holy See for the grouping of smaller houses, but many other limits have been approved. See REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, ibid., p. 135. ~ Added delegates have been admitted for larger houses. See RE- VIEW fOR RELIGIOUS, ibid., pp. 135-6. ¯ s This illustrates the usual way of expressing a group system in this article. ra The procurator general in pontifical institutes of men is ordinarily elected in the general chapter and is an ex officio member of this chapter. The Holy See in its present practice demands that both J. F. Gallen, S.]. the secretary general and treasurer general be given ex officio mem- bership in the general chapter and that the treasurer general be REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS elected by the general chapter. Election is also preferred in the case of the secretary general, but it is permitted that the secretary be ap- 398 pointed by the mother general with the consent of her council. edence. The secretary draws up accurately the proceedings o[ the chapter, which shall be signed by the president, the tellers, and the secretary herself. These are to be preserved in the archives of the congregation. 171, §§ 2, 5 179. Two-thirds ol~ the capitulars must be present for the validity of the acts of the general (and provincial) chapter, but all must be convoked. 162-3 180. Even though a sister may have the right to vote in her own name under several titles, she may nevertheless cast but one vote. 164 181. The capitulars must be present in person at the election. No one may validly vote by letter or proxy. If a capitular in the house where the election is being held cannot be present at the election because of illness, her written vote shall be collected by the tellers in a sealed envelo.pe. 163; 168 182. If a capitular believes that she cannot attend the general (or provincial) chapter on account of sickness or for some other serious reason, she is to inform the mother general (or mother provincial), who shall decide with the consent of her council whether the capitular should be excused and her substitute snmmoned. 183. All the sisters, whether capitulars or not, are forbidden to procure votes directly or indirectly for themselves or others. Prudent consultations regarding the qualities of those eligibl~ is permitted within the bounds of justice and charity. 507, § 2 184. Each of the electors shall write on her ballc~t the name of the sister for whom she votes, fold the ballot, and drop it in the ballot box placed before the president. 185. When all the ballots have been cast, the tellers shall first count the folded ballots in the presence of the president and the electors to ascertain whether the number of ballots corresponds to the number of electors. If the number of ballots exceeds the number of electors, the balloting is null and void. Otherwise they shall proceed to the inspection of the ballots. 171, §§ 2-3 186. The ballots are then opened and examined. They are read first by the junior teller, then by the president, and lastly by the senior teller who in an audible voice shall make known the name on each ballot. The votes must be recorded by the secretary. At the end of each balloting, the president must announce the names of all the sisters voted for and the number of votes given to each. 171, §§ 2, 5 187. No sister may validly vote for herself. A vote is also null and void: a) If given by one who is incapable of a human act or Constitutions has by law been deprived of active voice; b) If it is not given freely. Consequently a vote is in- VOLUME 25, ~.966 valid if an elector is forced directly or indirectly by ~’ grave fear or fraud to elect a specified sister or one or the other among several specified sistei’s; c) If it is not secret, certain, absolute, and determined; d) If it is blank or foran ineligible person. 167; 169-70 188. Eveh if one or more votes are null and void, the election’ is valid provided the one elected received the number of valid votes required by ~he constitutions. 167,

189. Unless otherwise prescribed for a particular election, all elections shall be decided by an absolute majority of secret votes, that is, a number which exceeds half the number of valid votes cast; but if after two ballotings no one has received an absolute majority, a third and last balloting shall be held, in which a relative majority de- cides. In an equality of votes among several candidates in this third balloting, the~ senior by first profession is elected; if the sisters made their first profession on the same day, the seni0r.by age is elect6d. This same norm shall resolve an equality of Votes on the only, limiting, or decisive balloting of any election. 17~; 101, § 1, 1° 190. After the required number of votes has been obtained, the president shall declare the election legiti- nlately made and announce the name of the sister elected. This proclamation of the newly elected mother general tei:minates the duties of the presiding local ordinary. 174 ¯ 191. All sisters are obliged to accept any office to which they have been elected.55 175-6 192. ’The ballots must be burned by the tellers after each session. 171, § 4 193. If a sister elected as mother general or general offi- ci~d is not present at the chapter, she is to be summoned immediately; but the sessions of the chapter are suspended only in the former case. 194. The office of the mother general and of the elected general officials always terminates at the election of their successors. § 3. Election o[ Delegates~ 195. From the date of. the letter of convocation until the completion ’of the election of delegates, no vocal shall be transferred from one house to another. Neither shall local superiors be changed. If their term of office expires after the date of convocation, it is extended without fur-. ther formal’ confirmation until after the general (provincial) chapter. 196. All professed sisters, including those of temporary vows, have active voice in the election of delegates. Only ]. F. G~llen, r= Many but not all constitutions approved by the Holy See con- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS tain this article. ~To th~ general chapter or, if there are provinces, to the pro- 400 vindal chapter. sisters of perpetual vows have both active and passive voice. 578, 3° 197. The election of delegates shall be made according to the norm of article 189’and shall take place on the day specified in the letter of convocation, in local chapter, in the houses where at least twelve professed sisters habitually reside. Every such house shall elect one delegate.57 198. After the election of the delegate, they shall also, by separate balloting and according to the same norm, elect two sisters as substitutes, who in the order of their election’ shall replace either the local superior or the elected delegate, if for any reason these should be prevented from attending the general (provincial) chapter. 199. The local superior presides at the elections and is assisted by the two junior sisters of perpetual vows as tellers. The younger of these shall also act as secretary. The duties of these sisters are the same as those of the tellers and secretary of the general chapter. 200. When the elections are completed, the secretary shall write two reports of the proceedings, which must be signed by the presiding local superior and the two tellers. One copy is to be sent immediately to the mother general (provincial); the other is to be preserved in the files of the house. 201. The smaller houses, in which fewer than twelve professedsisters habitually reside, shall be formed into groups by the mother general (provincial) with the consent of her council, so that each group shall comprise at least twelve and not more than twenty-three professed sisters.5s 202. In each of these houses, on the day determined in the letter of convocation, the voters shall assemble under the direction of their local superior and shall elect by secret ballot two delegates belonging to their group, one of whom must be a local superior, the other a sister who is not a local superior. 203. The local superior shall collect all the ballots without inspecting them and enclose them with her own vote in an envelope, which she shall seal in the presence of the electors. She shall inscribe upon this inner envelope: "The election of the delegates of group N., house N.," and forward it immediately to the mother general (provincial). 204. The mother general (provincial) with her council shall open these envelopes and count the votes. The secretary general (provincial) shall record the votes. The sisters who received a relative majority are elected. The substitute of the superior will be that superior who received the Constitutions highest number of votes after the superior elected; the VOLUME 25, 1966 See footnote 52, ~SSee footnote 51. substitute of the other delegate will be the sister, not a superior, who received the greatest number of votes after this delegate. The mother general (provincial) shall immediately inform the congregation (province) of the results. 174; 101, §1, 1° 205. (Provincial congregation) Houses immediately subject to the mother general elect two delegates, superiors or subjects, to the general chapter. The voting is carried out and the votes forwarded to the mother general according to the norms of articles 202-4. The substitutes are the sisters who in order received the next highest number of votes.~9

Group and List System of Articles 1. From the date of the letter of convocation, local superiors shall not be changed. If their term of office expires after this date, it is extended without further formal confirmation until after the general (provincial) chapter. 2. The mother general (prov.incial) with the consent of her council shall divide the sisters of perpetual vows into seven equal groups according to precedence so that each group will have the same gradation of older and younger sisters, superiors as well as subjects. Sisters who are members of the general (provincial) chapter in virtue of any .office are not eligible as delegates. 3. In each house on the day determined in the letter of convocation, the sisters shall assemble under the direction of their local superior. Each shall elect by secret ballot from prepared lists three delegates belonging to their group (of each group), one of whom must be a local superior, the others, sisters who are not local superiors. (Other forms are, for example: a) From a prepared list containing the names of all local superiors then in of- rice, each sister shall vote for ten delegates. On a second ballot, each sister shall vote for twenty delegates who are neither local superiors nor members of the general (provincial) chapter in virtue of any office. b) Each sister shall vote for thirty de!egates, whether local superiors or subjects, and in any proportion.6°) 4. The local superior shall collect all the ballots without inspecting them and enclose them with her own ballot in an envelope, which she shall seal in the presence of the electors. She shall write on this inner envelope, "Elec- tion of delegates, house N.," and forward it immediately to the mother general (provincial).

]. F. Gailen, $~J. U This article is found only in some provincial institutes. The number of delegates from such houses varies~ See R~wEw FOR RE- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS LIGIOUS, 24 (1965), 133. ® These articles sufficiently illustrate the group and list systems. 402 For others, see REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, ibid., pp. 131-42. 5. As soon as possible after all [he envelopes have been received, the mother general (provincial) with her council shall open the envelopes and count the votes. The secretary general (provincial) shall record the votes. The elections are decided by a relative majority. The substitutes are the local superiors and sisters of each group who in order received the next highest number of votes.

§ 4. Provincial Chapter6t 1. Convocation and Members 206. The provincial chapter is to be convened as often as a general chapter is to be held and at least three months before the date of the assembly of the latter. This chapter is presided over by the ’mother provincial, and its principal purpose is to elect the delegates tO the general chapter. The mother provincial shall convoke the provincial chapter at least two months before its assembly. 162 207. The members of the chapter are: a) The mother provincial b) The four (two) provincial councilors c) The provincial secretary d) The provincial treasurer e) (... The delegates from the houses as stated in n. 174, g), h), i))~ 164-8. 2. Sessions 208. The chapter shall immediately elect from among the capitulars, by a relative majority of votes and on the one secret ballot, the two tellers and the secretary of the chapter. The tellers for this election shall be the two junior capitulars by first profession, and the secretary shall be the provincial secretary. 171, §§ 1, 5 209. The chapter shall then elect by separate and secret ballotings and according to the norm of article 189 two (three, four) delegates and two (three, four) ~ubsti- tutes to the general chapter. These must be sisters of perpetual vows. 210. After these elections, the chapter shall deliberate on matters that concern the spiritual and temporal welfare of the province. The same procedure shall be fol- 63 lowed in deliberations as in the general chapter. + + m This section is obviously found only in the constitutions of institutes divided into provinces. It is frequently placed in the chapters + on provinces. o~ This article is ordinarily followed by articles 195 ft. on the elec- Constitutions tion of delegates to the provincial chapter. : ~This power is contained only in relatively few constitutions. A VOLUME 25, 1966 great.er number grant the power stated in a. 212 to deliberate on proposals to the general chapter. 4O3 211. Enactments of the provincial, chapter have no force until they are approved by the mother general with the consent of her council. They are ,then promulgated to the province by the mother provincial. 212. The chapter shall finally deliberate on the proposals to be made to the general chapter by the province. 213. The secretary shall draw up the complete proceedings of the chapter according to the norm of article 178. One copy is to be’ sent immediately to the mother general and a second copy is to be preserved in the archives of the province. The mother provincial shall immediately publish the elections to the province.

§ 5. Preliminary Sessions 214. The chapter immediately elects from among the capitulars, by a relative majority of votes and on the one secret ballot, the two tellers and the secretary of the chapter. The tellers for this preliminary election shall be the two capitulars youngest by first profession, and the secretary general shall be the secretary.64 171, §§ 1, 5 215. The chapter shall then elect by a relative majority of secret votes and by one secret ballot a committee of three capitulars who had no part in preparing or approving the reports of the mother general. This committee is to examine the reports thoroughly and give its observa- tions to the chapter before the election of the mother general. 216. The mother general presents to the chapter two distinct and complete reports: one of the persons, discipline, and works; the other on the material and financial condition of the congregation since’:the last chapter. Both reports must have beenlapproved and signed by the general councilors before the opening of the chapter. The financial report must have been prepared and also signed by th~ treasurer general. Copies of the report should be distributed to the capitulars before the opening session.6~ § 6. Election o[ the Mother General 217. The day before the election of the mother general shall be spent in retreat by the captiulars, and permission shall be requested for exposition of the Blessed Sacra- ment.66 1274, § 1 218. On the day of the election of the mother general, Mass shall be offered in the house where the chapter is held to invoke the b!essing of God on the work of the o, See REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, 23 (1964), 139-40, on the various ways ~. F. ~ Gallen, S.l.~ of electing the ’tellers and secretary. en Many institutes in fact.distribute copies but do not mention this REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS in their constitutions. eOThis article is found in a few constitutions. The length of the retreat varies, for example, one, at least one, three days. chapter. All the capitulars are urged, to receive Holy Com- munion for the same intention. I1 the rubrics permit, the Mass shall be the votive Mass of the Holy Spirit. 595, § 4 219. To be elected validly to the ot~ice of mother general, a sister must have been professed for at least ten years in the congregation computed from her first profession; be of legitimate birth; and have completed her fortieth year. 504 220. The mother general is elected for six years. She may be elected for a second but not for a third consecutive term. 505; 34; § 3, 5*. (Institutes of brothers) Before the election of the brother general, each and every capitular shall promise by oath to elect the one who, before God, he judges should be chosen. 506, § 1 221. The mother general is elected by an absolute majority of secret votes. If three ballotings fail to produce this majority, a fourth and last balloting shall be held. In this balloting the electors shall vote for one of the two sisters who had the highest number of votes in the third balloting, but these two sisters themselves shall not vote. If more than two would be eligible by reason of an equality of votes in the third balloting, the norm of article 189 shall limit the candidates to two. Of these two, the sister who receives the greater number of votes in this fourth balloting is elected. 174; 101, § 1, 1° (Diocesan congregation of women) The local ordinary has full power to confirm or rescind the election of the mother general according to his conscience. 506, § 4; 177,

222. The president shall proclaim the newly elected mother general. This act terminates the duties of the presiding local ordinary. 174 § 7. Election of the General Officials 223. After the election of the mother general and after she has taken the oath according to article 177, the chapter under her presidency shall elect the four general councilors, the secretary general, and the treasurer general (and the procurator general). The elections are made by separate ballotings and according to the norm of article 189. The first councilor elected shall also be the mother assistant:and mother vicar,e7 516, §§ 1-3; 506, § 4; 171, § 1 ÷ 224, To be elected a general councilor or official a sis- ÷ ter must have completed her thirty-fifth year and have ÷ made perpetual profession. Any one of the councilors ex- Constitutions ¯ r One or two institutes require a distinct election for the designation of the mother assistant from among the elected councilors. VOLUME 25, 1966 A very small number of institutes elect an admonitrix of the mother general, who is at least ordinarily one of the councilors. 405 cept the first may be elected as secretary general or treasurer general. These two officials should possess the specialized competence required for their offices. The mother general may appoint one or more assistant secretaries and treasurers.0s (Appointment articles) The secretary general and the treasurer general are not elected by the chapter but appointed (for a term of three years) by the’ mother general with the consent of her council. Both may be general councilors but neither may be the first councilor. They must possess the specialized competence required for their office. Both must reside in the motherhouse. The mother general may appoint one or more assistant secretaries and treasurers. The secretary general is not elected by the chapter but appointed (for a term of three years) by the mother general with the consent of her council. She may be a general councilor but not the first. She must possess the specialized competence required by her office. She must reside in the motherhouse. The mother general may appoint one or more assistant secretaries and treasurers.60

§ 8. Chapter of Affairs 225. After the elections, the chapter shall treat of the more important affairs that concern the entire congregation. The ordinances of the chapter may not be contrary to canon law or the constitutions. 226. All matters are decided by an absolute majority of secret votes. If the votes are equal, the mother general has the right of deciding the matter after the third balloting. 101, § l, 1o (or) All matters are decided by an absolute majority. If the votes are equal, the mother general has the right of deciding the matter after the third balloting. The voting is public. Any capitular has the right of requesting a secret vote on a particular matter. Such a request shall be put to the public vote of the chapter. If a majority favor the request, the voting on the particular matter shall be secret. 101, § 1, 1° 227. (The provincial chapters~ and) All sisters of perpetual vows may submit written proposals to the general chapter either directly or through a capitular. These must be forwarded to "the mother general at least a month before the opening of the chapter. The capitulars retain the right of making.proposals thereafter and during the ses-

1. F. Gallen, ~ Some constitutions impose limitations on the reelection of general officials. See REVIEW fOR RELIGaOUS, 23 (1964), 229--31. Some for- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS bid two relatives in the first or second degree to be members of the general council at the same time. 406 ~ See also footnote 54. sions up to a definite time determined by the chapter, after which no proposals may be submitted.TM 228. At a suitable time before the general chapter ~le- termined by the mother general, one or several committees of three or more capitulars, appointed by the mother general with the consent of her council, shall examine and arrange the pi’oposals and prepare a report on them for the chapter. 229. The chapter is not obliged to deliberate on every matter proposed. It may simply exclude anything that appears useless or inopportune, or it may remit a matter to the study and decision ol~ the mother general and her council after the close of the chapter. 230. The principal affairs are: a) Suitable means of restoring or perfecting religious discipline. b) Proposals submitted to the chapter. c) Determination of the contribution that each house must make to the general treasury. (or) Determination of the contribution that each house must make to the provincial treasury, and each province to the general treasury. d) Extraordinary expenditures which the mother general (provincial, regional), and local superiors may authorize or make alone, those that demand the advice or consent o[ their councils, and those for which local superiors must recur to the (provincial, regional superiors and either o~ these to the) mother general. e) Norms to be observed in addition to the prescriptions o~ the sacred canons in alienations, purchases, the assuming of obligations, and other matters of a financial nature. f) Determination of the dowry. g) Confirmation, modification, or abrogation ~of ordinances of previous general chapters. h) (In provincial congregations) Establishment of new provinces or the suppression o~ existing ones; the uniting of provinces or the modification of their boundaries. i) Determination o~ more important.matters [or which the advice or consent ~ff the general (provincial, regional,) or local councils is necessary. + 231. The enactments of the chapter remain in force + permanently unless amended or abrogated by subsequent + chapters. (or) The enactments of the chapter remain in force Constitutions

VOLUME 25t 1966 7o Very many constitutions are indefinite on the right of submit- ting proposals. 407 until the next chapter, in which they may be confirmed, modified, or abrogated. ~232, ~The chapter may not be protracted beyond a reasonable length, of time. The mother general shall publish the elections, ordinances, and other acts which the capitulars have determined should be published.71 CHAPTER XXlI

MOTHER GENERAL 233. (Pontifical) The mother general governs and a~l- ministers the entire congregation according to the sacred canons and these constitutions. Her residence shall be at the motherhouse and may not be permanently transferred without the consent of the general council and the ~oer- mission o[ the Holy See. 501, § 1,502 (Diocesan) The mother general governs and adminis- ters the entire congregation according to the sacred can- otis and these constituti6ns. Her residence shall be at the motherhouse and may not be permanently transferred without the consent of the general council and the permission of the ordinary of the prdsent and proposed places of residence. 501, § l; 502 234. The office of mother general is incompatible with thato[ local superior, even in the motherhouse, or with that of any other official. 516, § 3 235. The mother general has authority over all the (provinces, regions,)houses and members. With the deliberative vote of her council, she may place certain houses and works under her immediate authority and may also transfer these to a province. 501, § l; 502 236. A serious reason and the deliberative vote of her council are iequired for the mother general (a higher or regional superior) to transfer or remo~ce a superior or official before the expiration of a prescribed term of office. Unless otherwise specified, offiCials may be reappointed indefinitely. With the consent of her council, the mother general may prolong the term of office 6f (provincial, regional, and) local superiors when this is necessary, but only for a short time. 560 237. The mother general has the right to transfer the

n Other articles found frequently in this chapter arc on prayers to be said on a prescribed number of days in all houses before the election of the mother general, verification of credentials, ~ prayers for. opening and closing the sessions, distribution of lists of those eligible for the office of mother general and general official, resignation of mother general before the election to this office, symbolic presentation of seal of congregation and/or keys of house to local J. F. Gallen, S.]. ordinary by the retiring mother general, priests accompanying the local ordinary may take no part in the election, formula of proclama- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS tion of the mother general, closing ceremony of her election, and informing the local ordinaries of the dioceses in which the congregation has houses of the election of the mother general. sisters from one house to another and to assign their duties. 501, § 1; 502 (Provincial congregation)Only the mother gener.al with the advice of her council and ordinarily after consulting the interested provincials may transfer a sister from one province to another..501, § 1; 502 238. She shall prudently super~,ise the administration of the temporal goods of the congregation and of each (province, region, and) house in accordance with the prescriptions of canon law and of these constitutions. 516,.§ 2 239. Every five years, in the year determin.ed by the Sacred Congregation of Religious, the mother general shall send to the Holy See (diocesan: through the ordinary of her residence) a report of the persons, discipline, and the material and financial condition of the congregation. This report must be compiled according to the instructions of the Sacred Congregation and is to be signed by the mother general, her councilors, (pontifical) and the ordinary of the residence of the mother general. 510 240. The mother general may not appoint a vicar and delegate powers to her, nor may she grant a sister active or passive voice or deprive her of it. 241. If it should ever seem necessary to remove, the mother general from office, the general council must submit the matter to the Sacred Congregation of Religious (diocesan: the ordinary of the residence of the mother general). If the mother general thinks it her duty tg~ r, esign her office, she shall in writing make known her reasons to the same Congregation (diocesan: same ordinary). 183- 9272 CHAPTER XXIII

CANONICAL VISITATION 242. The mother general shall make the visitation of the entire congregation at least every three years (at least once during her term of office). She shall see that the houses immediately subject to her are visited every year. The mother provincial shall make the visitation of all the houses of her province once a year, and the same fre-

7~ Other articles found frequently in this chapter are on the man- her of government of the mother general; manner of dealing with subjects; that she is to have an especial care for the spiritual welfare + and progress of all (provinces) houses, and individuals; to exercise + vigilance for the careful observance of the vows, constitutions, customs, and distinctive virtues of the congregation; especially supervise 4- the formation of the postulants, novices, and junior professed; is to endeavor to learn the aptitudes of the sisters; that she is to keep in Constitutions ~ ~., close contact with her councilors, and (provincial, regional, and) local superiors; that she is to guard against the influence of personal af- VOLUME 25, 1966 ~ fection and aversion; her duty of example; of correction of others; and the duty of all to pray for the mother general. 409 quency of visitation of ~a region shall be observed by the regional superior. . Both may omit this visitation in the year of the visitation by the mother general. Should the higher or regional s~perior be lawfully prevented from making the visitation, another sister is to be delegated for this purpose.73 511 243. The mother general may designate a visitor for an individual (province or) house or for a particular matter; (the mother provincial and regional superior may do the same for an individual house or a particular matter;) but to appoint a visitor for the entire congregation (in the case of a provincial or regional superior, for the entire province or region), the consent Of the pertinent council must be obtained. The visitor must be a sister of perpetual vows. 511 244. The purpose of the visitation is to strengthen union and charity, to inquire into the government and administration of the (province, region, and) house as also into the observance of the constitutions and customs, to correct prevalent abuses, and to give occasion to each sister to speak freely on matters that concern her personal welfare or the general good. The (provincial, regional, and) local superiors retain the usual exercise of their of- rice during the visitation. 245. The visitor has the right and duty to question the sisters and to obtain information on matters that pertain to the Visitation. All the sisters are obliged to reply truth- fully to the visitor. Superiors have no right to divert them in any manner whatever from this obligation or otherwise hinder the purpose of the visitation. 513 246. Superiors as well as subjects who personally or through others, directly or indirectly, have induced sisters not to reply to the questions of the visitor, or to dissimu- late in any way, or not sincerely to expose~ the truth, or who under any pretext whatever have molested others because of answers given to the visitor, shall be declared incapable of holding any office that involves the government of other religious, and if they are superiors the9 shall be deprived of their office. 2413, § 1 247. The two preceding articles must be observed also in the visitation made either personally or through a delegate by the local ordinary, who has the right and duty of visiting all the houses of the congregation in his diocese every five years with regard to the church, sacristy, public oratory, and confessionals. He may enact regulations con- J. F. Gallen, $.~. cerning these. 512, § 2, 3°; 513; 2413, § 1

REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS = On the varying frequency of visitation in constitutions, see RE- 410 VIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, 12 (1953), 21. 248. (Pontifical) The local ordinary also has the right and duty to inquire whether religious discipline is maintained conformably to the constitutions, whether sound doctrine and good morals have suffered in any way, whether there is any violation of cloister, and whether the sacraments are duly and regularly received; but he may not examine into financial matters except in conformity with article 295. 512, § 2, 3°; 618, § 2, 2°; 619; 535, § 3, 2°; 533, § 1, 2-4o; § Z 249. (Pontifical) The schools, homes, hospitals and similar institutions attached to houses of the congregation are subject to the supervision and visitation of the local ordinary in all that concerns morals, religious instruction, religious exercises, and the administration of the sacraments. 1382; 1491 (Instead of the two preceding articles in diocesan congregations) The two preceding articles must be observed also in the visitation made either personally or through a delegate by the local ordinary, who has the right and duty of visiting all houses of the congregation in his diocese every five years.74 512, § 1, 2° CHAPTER XXIV

GENERAL COUNCIL § 1. Councilors and Their Duties 250. The general council is composed of the four general councilors. The mother general, although she presides and votes in the council, is not a member of the general council. She places all acts in her own name, even in matters that require the consent or advice of the council, since she alone possesses the authority to govern the congregation. 516, § 1 251. Although the mother general has the right of acting completely unassisted except in matters reserved to higher authorities or that by law demand the consent or advice of the general council, yet she is earnestly counseled to seek the advice of her council also in other important matters. 252. The duty of the councilors is to give advice and assistance to the mother general in matters of government and administration, to cast a deliberative or consultative vote according to canon law and the constitutions, and to 4" propose whatever they think is to the best interest of the + congregation. 516, § 1 + 253. The councilors should live at the motherhouse; but in case of necessity two of them, with the exception of Constitutions 74 Other articles found in some constitutions are on the obligation VOLUME 25, 1966 of secrecy of tile visitor and the instructions and regulations of the visitor. See REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, 12 (1953), 30--4. 4]] the mother assistant, may live elsewhere, provided they can without difficulty attend the meetings of the council,. to which .they must always be summoned. The councilors should not be burdened with any employment that might prevent them from fulfilling properly their duties as councilors.. 254. The councilors must be exemplary religious, zealous for the welfare of the congregation, and devoted to the observance of the constitutions and religious discipline. They should be closely united with the mother general and manifest toward her a spirit of reverence and loyalty. They should always uphold her authority and the decisions made in council. 25~. An ordinary session of the council shall be held every month, but the mother general may convoke the council as often as important at~airs are to be discussed. The council may not deliberate unless the president and at least two councilors are present.75 256. At the beginning of the session the minutes of the preceding meeting as recorded by the secretary general shall be read. When approved they shall be signed by the mother general and the secretary36 257. The mother general shall then place before the councilors the matters for discussion. When a subject has been stated and appropriate explanation given, she shall allow the councilors to speak and shall take care to obtain the opinion of each, The councilors shall express their opinions with becoming ~espect, simplicity, and sincerity. 105, 3° 258. When the consent of the councilors is required, the voting must be by secret ballot. The decisions of the council are to be made by an absolute majority, In an equality of votes, the mother general may decide the matter after the third balloting37 101, § 1, 1° 259. A full council is necessary for appointments to of- rice. If a councilor cannot be present and the appointment cannot be deferred, a sister of perpetual vows shall be chosen by the councilors as substitute.~s 260. The mother general may summon sisters who are not councilors for information or advice, but such sisters are never permitted to vote. All who thus attend sessions of the council are obliged to secrecy. 261. The councilors are bound to secrecy cbncerning 4. all matters discussed in the sessions, as well as those con-

~ On the number of councilors required for a session, see REVIEW FOR REI~OIOUS, 19 (1960), 134--6. ~. F. Gallen, S.]. ~6 On the approval and signing of the minutes, see REw~w volt R~;.~clous, ibid., 147. ~ On breaking a tie, see REview VOR REI~m~OUS, ibid., 140. REVIEW FOR’ RELIGIOUS ~s On the necessity of a full council and substitution, see Ra~w~w FOR Rr~oIOUS, ibid., 134-6. tided to them by reason of their office. If a councilor violates this secrecy, she shall be admonished by the mother general. If she repeatedly violates it, she shall be,punished according to the gravity of her fault. 262. In matters which by canon law or thes~ constitutions require the consent or deliberative vote of the council, the mother general acts invalidly if she acts without or contrary to the vote of the council. When only’ihe advice or consultative vote is required, it suffices for validity that she hear her council. Although she is under no obligation to accede even to the unanimous consultative vote of the council, she must take such a vote into serious account and shall n6t depart from ,it without a preponderant reason, of which she is the judge. 105, 1° 263. The mother general must have the deliberative vote of her council in the following cases: a) Condonation in whole or in part of the dowry (a. 19). b) Investment of the dowry (a. 22). c) Determination of the expenses of the postulancy and noviceship (a. 26). d) Dispensation from an entrance impediment of the constitutions (a. 34). ~ e) Admission to the noviceship and first profession (aa. 44, 73). f) Establishment or transfer of a’novitiate, (a. 46). g) Imposition of a formal precept of obedience on the entire congregation, (a province), or house. h) Dismissal Of a professed~of temporary or perpetual vows and the sending of/~ profesged religious immediately back to secular life (aa. 155, 160, 162). i) Convocation of an extraordinary general chapter; designation of the place of the general chapter; inviting of externs and sisters who are not capitulars to the chapter; excusing of a capitular and the sum- moning of her substitute; grouping of smaller houses for the general chapter; appointment of committees for proposals to the general chapter; and approval of enactmehts of provincial chapters (aa. 169-70; 175, 182, 201,228, 211). j) Transfer of the permanent residence 0f the mother general or of the mother provincial (aa. 233, 310). k) Appointment of a visitor for the entire congregation ÷ (a. 243). ÷ I) Choice of a substitute for an absent general councilor (a. 259). m) Acceptance of the resignation, removal or deposi- Constitutions tion of a general councilor or official, and appointment of a successor in these cases (a. 265). VOLUME 25, 1966 n) Appointment, prolongation of term, transfer, and 413 removal of (provincial, regional, and) local superiors, their councilors, secretaries, and treasurers; of a mistress or assistant mistress of novices, of junior professed, of postulants; instructor of tertians; supervisors of schools and studies, principals of schools, and administrators of hospitals.79 (aa. 236, 285-6; 309, 315, 323-4, 328). o) Placing of houses and works under the immediate authority of the mother general and transferring of them to provinces (a. 235). p) Transfer or removal of a superior or official before the expiration of a prescribed term (a. 236). q) Approval of the accounts of the treasurer general (a. 283). r) Imposition of an extraordinary tax, investment of money, alienation of property, contracting of debts and obligations, making of contracts in the name of the congregation, extraordinary expenses, and other matters of a financial nature according to the norms of canon law and the ordinances of the general chapter (aa. 289, 294, 298). s) (Establishment, change, and suppression of provinces and regions and) erection and suppression of houses (~a. 307, 321, 325-6). t) Uniting of the offices of local superior and local treasurer (a. 286). u) All matters remitted to the deliberative vote by the general chapter (a. 230). v) Determination of matters that require the consent or advice of the (provincial, regional, and) local councils (aa. 318-20; 324, 337). 516, § 1 264. The mother general must have the consultative vote of her council in the following cases: a) .Abbreviation and prolongation of the postulancy (a. 40). ¯ b) Prolongation of and dismissal from the noviceship (aa. 67, 68) c) Admission to renewal of temporary vows, their prolongation, admission to perpetual profession, and exclusion from renovation of temporayy profession and from perpetual profession (aa. 73, 152). d) Declaration of fact for the automatic dismissal of a 4, professed sister (a. 161). e) Transfer of a sister from one province to another (a. 237).

~. F. Gallen, S.J~ ~The appointment, transfer, and removal of local councilors, treasurers, assistant mistress of novices, of postulants, and principals REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS of schools often appertains to the mother provincial with the consent of her council. See a. 318, i, and REvIEw FOR RELUnOUS, 19 (1960), 144-5.. f) Approval of the reports of the mother general to the general chapter (a. 216). g) Approval of the quinquennial report to the Holy See (a. 239). h) A practical interpretation of a doubtful point of the constitutions (a. 350). i) All matters remitted to the consultative vote by the general chapter (a. 230). 516, § 1 265. If a general councilor or elected general official dies, resigns, becomes incapable of fulfilling her duties regularly, or is deposed, the mother general with the ’consent of her council shall replace her by a sister having the requisite qualities, who shall hold office until the next general chapter. The newly appointed councilor will hold office last in precedence. No general councilor or official may resign her office or be removed except, for a serious reason, recognized as such by the mother general with the consent of her council. Moreover, the deposition of a councilor must be confirmed by the Holy See (in diocesan congregations: by the local ordinary of the motherhouse) (in pontifical institutes of men: nor may the procurator general be removed before the expiration of his term without consulting the Holy See). 183-92; 517, § 2.

§ 2. First Councilor 266. The first councilor is the mother assistant and vicar, and she takes the place of the mother general when the latter is absent or when for any reason whatever is unable to exercise her office. 267. It is the duty of the mother assistant to manifest an observant care for the mother general, providing especially for her needs and health. When necessary, she shall admonish the mother general with much charity and respect.80 268. Although the mother general alone has the right to convoke the general council, when she is ill, absent, or otherwise impeded, the mother assistant convenes and presides over the council. 269. When acting in her representative capacity, the mother assistant shall issue only such directions as are required for regular government and cannot be deferred; and then as far as possible she shall act according to the presnmed will of the mother general. + 270. At the death, resignation, or legitimate removal 4. from office of the mother general, the mother vicar shall assume the government of the congregation with full power and equal rights. She shall continue in this office Constitutions

1966 8o Very many constitutions make no provision for an admonitrix of VOLUME 25, the mother general or of other superiors. ,tl,5 until the election of the ~mother gefleral at the next chapter, to be convoked according to article 173. ’ 271. In the absence or disability of the mother assistant, the councilor who was elected second, and so on in suc- cession, shall act as the representative of the mother general.

CHAPTER XXV

SECRETARY GENERAL 272. It is the duty of the secretary general to assist the mother general with the official correspondence of the congregation. She shall be present at all meetings of the general council and record the minutes of the sessions. She is obliged to. secrecy in all that refers to her office. 273. She shall be in charge of the general archives and all documents relating to the history and administration of the congregation. No document shall be taken from the archives except in conformit~ with the established regulations. 274. The secretary shall compile the annals of the congregation. Every year she shall receive from the local superiors an accurate record of the principal events of their houses. (or) The secretary shall compile the annals of the congregation. Every year she shall receive from the provincial (and ’regional) superiors an accurate record of the principal events of the provinces, (regions,) and houses. 275. The secretary shall be attentive to all legislation and decrees of the Holy See and to diocesan regulations and civil enactments that affect the congregation, and shall keep the mother general and her council informed on all such matters. 276. The preceding articles apply with due distinctions to (provincial, regional, and) local secretaries.

CHAPTER XXVI

PROCURATOR GENERALs1 , 277. The procurator general is appointed for a term of. three (six) years by the brother general with the consent of his council,,s2 He must be at least thirty-five sx Canon 517, § 1 commands a procurator general for pontifical in- ~÷ stitutes of men. A like office can be had in an institute for women; for example, article 404 of the constitutions of the Congregation of the Good Shepherd 0f Angers reads: "The Procuratrix General re- ,÷ sides in Rome and transmits the affairs o[ the Congregation to the Roman Cur!a, according to the intentions and directions of the In- ]. F. Gallen, S.l. stitute. The Procuratrix General has the right to attend the General Chapter and to give her suffrage." REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS s~ The procurator general is more frequently elected in the general chapter than appointed by the superior general. Even when appointed he is an ex officio member of the general chapter, at least years of age, well informed, prudent, and capable of dealing with others harmoniously and efficiently. The procurator transacts the business of the congregation and of its members with the Holy See and gives the Holy See all information that may be requested concerning the congregation in general or particular brothers. He may also have other duties assigned to him by the brother general provided they are compatible with the discharge of his distinctive functions and with his residence in Rome. 517,

278. The procurator shall keep the brother general informed of all the affairs i.n progress at the Holy See. I[ his opinion is asked by the Roman Curia, he shall give it in all sincerity, identifying himself in judgment as far as possible with the brother general. He shall give the brother general all rescripts and other documents from the Holy See that concern the congregation. These are to be preserved in the general archives. 279. The procurator should exercise tact and prudence in the transaction of the affairs entrusted to him and speak of them only to those to whom it may be necessary. 280. He should show in his comportment toward ecclesiastical authorities that spirit of reverence and submission that are due from the congregation to the Holy See and the prelates entrusted with the government of the Church. CHAPTER XXVII

TREASURERS AND THE ADMINISTRATION OF TEMPORAL GOODS § 1. Treasurers 281. The administration of the temporal goods is entrusted to the general, (provincial, regional,) and local treasurers under the direction of the respective s0periors and the supervision of their councils. The treasurers are obliged to secrecy in all that appertains to their office. 516,§2 282, The mother general may appoint as many assistants as necessary to the general and local treasurers (general treasurer, and the mother provincial and regional superior may do the same for provincial, regional, and local treasurers). ÷ § 2. Treasurer General +, 283. The treasurer general manages the financial af- + fairs connected with the general funds. Every six months she must give an account of her administration to the Constitutions according to th~ very common practice. In precedence, in different VOLUME 25, 1966 congregations, he precedes or follows the secretary and treasurer general or precedes the latter. 417 mother general and her council. If everything is found in order, the mother general and the council shall approve her administration by signing the statement. 516, § 2 284. The treasurer general must see that the (provincial, regional, and) local superiors send a report of their administration to the motherhouse eyery six months. She shall examine these reports to obtain an exact insight into the financial state of the congregation and its parts and shall give the general council an accurate account of her examination. 516, § 2 § 3. Provincial (and Regional) Treasurers 285. The provincial (and regional) treasurer(s) is (are) appointed by the mother general with the consent of her council. Neither the mother provincial nor the assistant provincial may be provincial treasurer. The two preceding articles must be observed also by the provincial (and regional) treasurer with regard to the mother provincial (and the regional superior), her council (their councils), and the local houses. 516, §§ 2-4 § 4. Local Treasurers 286. In each house there shall be a local treasurer, who is appointed by the mother general (provincial) with the consent of her council. Ahhough it is preferable to separate the office of local superior from that of local treasurer, the mother general (provincial), with the same vote of her council, may combine them if this is necessary. 516,

287. The local treasurer shall render a monthly account of her administration to the local superior and her council, who shall examine and approve it.according to the norm of a. 283. Every six months each house shall send an accurate financial statement to the mother general (provincial). 516, § 2

§ 5. Administration o[ Temporal Goods 288. Not only the congregation but also each (province and) house is capable of acquiring, possessing, and ad- ministering temporal property. 531; 1495, § 2; 1499, § 2 289. Each province must contribute to the general and each house to the provincial (or regional) treasury the ÷ sum determined by the general chapter. The mother gen- ÷ eral. with the consent of her council may, when necessary, ÷ impose an extraordinary tax on all or some of the provinces and houses or authorize a mother provincial or re- ~. F. Gailen~ $.]. gional superior to impose such a tax. 290. Houses or works whose financial responsibility ap- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS pertains to ecclesiastical or lay administrators and in 418 which the income consists o~ salaries paid for the sisters shall remit to the general treasury that part of the surplus determined by the general chapter. 291. The treasurers validly incur expenses and perform juridical acts of ordinary administration within the limits of their office. 532, § 2; 1523 292. Stocks, bonds, securities, deeds, and similar papers shall be placed in a secure safe or safe-deposit box, and the treasurer shall keep an exact record of all such de- posits and withdrawals. 1523, 6° 293. Each house must maintain an inventory ol~ all property owned by the community. The inventory must be renewed annually for adjustment and depreciation. One copy is to be retained in the house, (one in the regional or provincial house,) and another in the files of the treasurer general. An inventory is to be maintained in the same manner for all property owned by (the provinces and) the congregation. 1522, 2-3° 294. The investment of money should not be made except on the authorization of the mother general (higher superior) with the consent of her council and ordinarily with the advice of an honest and competent financier. 533,

295. (Pontifical congregation of sisters) If the investment consists of the dowries of professed sisters or of funds donated or bequeathed to a house [or divine worship or works of charity to be carried out in that particular place, the previous consent of the local ordinary must be obtained for the investment and every change of investment. The ordinary also has the right of inquiring into the administration of these funds, and an account of the administration of the dowries is to be given him on the occasion of his canonical visitation or even oftener if he considers this necessary,s~ 533, § 1, 2-3°; § 2; 535, § 3, 2°; 549; 550, § 2; 618, § 2, 1 o (Diocesan congregation of sisters) For an investment and any change of investment of the funds of a house the superior must obtain the previous consent of the local ordinary. The same norm applies to the dowries of the professed sisters. The local ordinary also has the right of inquiring into the economic state of every house, and an account of the administration of the dowries is to be given him on the occasion of his canonical visitation or even oftener if he considers this necessary. 533, § 1, 1°; § 2; 535, ÷ §§ 2-3; 549; 550, § 2 ÷ (Diocesan congregation of brothers) I[ the investment 4-

~The twofold mention of the dowry, as also in the following ar- Constitutions ticle, is omitted when the congregation does not exact a dowry. The article for a pontifical congregation of brothers is the same with the VOLUME 25, 1966 twofold omission of the dowry. The canons to be cited in both these cases are 533, § 1, ~*; § 2; 535, § ~, 2°; 618, § 2, 1% 419 consists of funds donated or bequeathed to a house for divine worship or works of .charity to be carried out in that particular place, the previous consent of the local ordinary must be obtained for the investment and every change of investment. The ordinary also has the right of inquiring into the administration of these funds and into the economic state of every house. 533, § 1, 3°; § 2; 535, 296. When a donor has bequeathed or donated money for a determined purpose, or has specified the manner of administration, religious are obliged to follow these specifications most carefully. 1514 297. Besides the ordinary expen.ses, each (region, province, and) house may expend only the sum determined by the general chapter. For other extraordinary expenses recourse must be made to the mother general (higher or regional superiors). 298. When there is question of alienating movable or immovable property of a value that exceeds the sum determined by the Holy See, belonging either to the con- " gregation or to a particular (province or) house, of contracting debts or obligations above this sum, or of alienating precious objects, the contract is null and void unless the authorization of the Holy See has been previously obtained. For smaller amounts permission in writing of the (diocesan congregation of women: lo~al ordinary and the) mother general (higher or regional superiors) with the deliberative and secret vote of her council is necessary and sufficient according to the norms established by the general chapter. 534, § 1; 1530-1; 1541, § 2, lO; 2347 299. In the petition for obtaining permission to contract debts or obligations, all other debts or obligations with which the congregation, (province,) or house is encumbered up to that date must be mentioned; otherwise the permission obtained is null and void. 534, § 2 300. The mother general (higher and regional superiors) must take care not to contract debts or allow them to be contracted unless it is certain that the interest on them can be met from the current revenues, and that within a reasonable time the capital debt can be paid off. 536, § 5 301. If the congregation, (province,) or a house contracts debts or obligations, even with the permission of ÷ superiors, it is separately responsible for them. If a sister ÷ contracted them, she herself is responsible unless she acted with the permission of superiors in behalf of the J. F. Gallen, $.~. congregation. 536, §§ 1-4 302. Donations from the goods of the congregation, (a REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS province,) or house are not permitted except as alms or 420 for other just reasons and with the permission of the mother general (higher or regional superior) according to the norms established by the general chapter. 537 303. In contracts of hire all religious shall give employees an adequate and just wage. They must see to it that employees are free at suitable times to perform their religious duties. They must avoid anything that would interfere with the employees’ duties .to their families or their practice of thrift. TheT shall not impose on employees a burden of work beyond their strength nor a type of work unsuited to their age or sex. 1524 § 6. Prohibited Acts 304. Religious are forbidden to engage either personally or through others in business or trade, whether for their own benefit or that of others. 142; 592; 2380 305. Without the permission of the local ordinary, the sisters shall not undertake the administration of property belonging to lay persons nor assume secular offices that involve the obligation of rendering an account. 139, § 3; 592 306. Religious are forbidden to be surety for others, on the security of even their own personal property, without previous consultation of the local ordinary. 137; 592 CHAPTER XXVIII

PROVINCES 307. The congregation is divided into provinces. It appertains exclusively to the Holy°See (diocesan congregation: to the local ordinaries) to unite existing provinces or to modify their boundaries, to establish new provinces or to suppress existing ones. The initial proceedings in such matters appertain to the general chapter or to the mother general with the deliberative vote of her council. 494, 488, 6° 308. In each province there shall be a provincial house so organized that the proper performance of all provincial duties may be assured. § 1. Mother Provincial 309. Each province is governed by a mother provincial who like the mother general is h higher superior. The mother provincial is appointed by the mother general with the consent of her council for a term of three years. + She may be reappointed for a second but not for a third 4- immediate term in the same province. She continues to + govern the province until the arrival of her successor,s4 505 Comtitutions st The usual practice of constitutions is a three-year term and only a second immediate reappointment is permitted; a few allow a third VOLUME 25, 196b immediate term. A few have a six-year term and again permit only a second immediate reappointment in the same province. Other du- 42t 310. To be appointed validly to the office of mother provincial, a sister must be at least thirty years of age,s5 of legitimate birth, and be professed for at least ten years in the congregation computed from her first profession. Her residence shall be at the provincial house and may not be permanently transferred without the consent of the mother general and her council. 504 311. The primary duty of the mother provincial is to govern the whole province so as to promote the common and individual good. She must be an example of religious observance, distinguished for her virtue and practical judgment, devoted to the interests of the sisters, loyal to the supreme authority in the congregation, and obedient to ecclesiastical directives. She is to be thoroughly convinced that on her administration depends the well-being of the province. 501, § 1; 502 312. The mother provincial has the right: a) To govern the whole province in accordance with the constitutions and with the exception of matters reserved to higher authorities. b) To give commands and make regulations in con- fortuity with the constitutions. c) To admit candidates to the postulancy. d) To grant the sisters the necessary permissions for studies, travel, visits, and similar matters according to the established regulations. e) To encourage and initiate good works. 501, § 1; 502 313. It is the duty of the mother provincial: a) To exercise supervision over the observance of the constitutions and all obligations of the religious life. b) To make a visitation of the houses in conformity with Chapter XXIII and to submit a report of her visitation to the mother general. c) To advise and direct local superiors in their activities. d) To present, with her recommendations, matters submitted by local superiors that require recourse to. the mother general. e) To examine the financial statements of the houses and to make the financial reports of the province. f) To examine the annual personnel and disciplinary reports of the local superiors and forward copies of these, along with her own report, to the mother gen- 4. eral. 501, § 1; 502 4. 4. rations can be found, for example, a five year term, as also other limitations, for example, serious reasons and a two-thirds vote of the ]. F. Gallen, S.]. genera/ council for a third immediate three-year term, a six-year term with reappointment forbidden without a dispensation from the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Holy See. ~The law of constitutions more frequently requires that the mother provincial be thirty-five years of age. 314. In extraordinary and difficult matters, the mother provincial should consult the mother general. If the ur- gency of the case makes this impossible, she should later inform the mother general of the matter. § 2. Provincial Councilors, Secretary, and Treasurer 315. The four (two)s6 provincial councilors constitute the provincial council in the same way as was stated for the general council. The first councilor shall be the assistant and vicar. She shall take the place of the mother provincial when the latter is absent or otherwise impeded from fulfilling the duties of her office, unless the mother general with the consent of her council has appointed another sister as acting provincial. In the event of the death or removal from office of the mother provincial, the assistant shall assume with full powers and equal rights the government of the province until the newly appointed mother provincial assumes office or until the arrival of an acting provincial appointed in the same way by the mother general. In other respects the assistant, who is also the admonitrix of the mother provincial,s7 shall observe the norms established in articles 266-71. The provincial councilors, secretary, and treasurer are appointed on the recommendation of the mother provincial by the mother general with the consent of her council; they must be at least thirty years of age and of perpetual profession. The provincial secretary and the treasurer may be councilors but not the first. 516, §§ 1-2, 4 316. The norms of Chapters XXIV-XXV and XXVII apply with due distinctions to the provincial council and councilors and the provincial secretary and treasurer. The provincial councilors shall individually submit an annual report to the mother general on the spiritt, al and tetnporal state of the province. 317. The mother provincial shall assemble her council once a month; extraordinary sessions shall be called when necessary or opportune. 318. The mother provincial must have the deliberative vote of her council for the following acts: a) Condonation in whole or in part of the dowry (a. 19). b) Investment of the dowry (a. 22). c) Determination of the expenses of the postulancy and noviceship (a. 26). d) Admission to the noviceship (a. 44). e) Imposition of a formal precept of obedience on the whole province or an entire house. Constitutions

The congregations that have four and those that have two pro- VOLUME 25, 1966 vincial councilors are about evenly divided. See note 80. D Sending of a professed religious immediately back to secular life (a. 162). g) Designation of the place of the provincial chapter; inviting of extems and sisters who are not capitulars to the chapter; excusing of a capitular and summon- ing her substitute; grouping of smaller houses for the provincial chapter; and the appointment of committees for proposals to the general chapter (aa. ~82, 2ol). h) Appointment of a visitor for the entire province (a. 243). i) Appointment, transfer, and removal of local councilors and treasurers, the assistant mistress of novices, the mistress of postulants, principals o[ schools, and the uniting of the offices of local superior and local treasurer (a. 286). j) Removal or transfer of an official before the expiration of a prescribed term (a. 236). k) Choice of a substitute for an absent provincial councilor (a. 259). 1) Approval of the accounts of the provincial treasurer (a. 2S5). m) Investment of money, alienation of property, contracting of debts and obligations, the making of contracts in the name of the province, extraordinary expenses, and other matters of a financial nature according to the norms’ of canon law and the ordinances of’ the general chapter (aa. 294, 298). n) Other matters according to the enactments of the general chapter or of the mother general with the consent of her council (230, 263). o) The determination o[ matters that require the consent or advice of local councils (a. 337). 516, § 1 319. The mother provincial must have the deliberative vote of her council for the following requests to the mother general: a) Dispensation from an entrance impediment of the constitutions (a. 34). b) Erection and transfer of a novitiate and erection and supression of houses (aa. 46, 325-6). c) Admission to first profession (a. 73). d) Dismissal of a professed of temporary or perpetual vows (aa. 155, 160). 4, e) The appointment, proposal of names, removal, d.ep- 4, osition, and replacement of provincial councilors and officials, local superiors, mistress of novices, of ]. F. Gallen, S.]. junior professed, instructor of tertians, supervisors of schools and studies, and administrators of hos- REVIEW FOR ~RELIGIOUS pitals (aa. 285, 315, 328). 424 f) The imposition of an extraordinary tax (a. 289). g) Other matters according to the ordinances of the general chapter or of the mother general with the consent of her council (aa. 230, 263). 516, § 1 320. The mother provincial must have the consultative vote of her council for the following acts or requests to the mother general: a) To assign the duties of the sisters and to transfer them from one house to another within the province. b) Abbreviation and prolongation of the postulancy (a. 40). c) Prolongation of and dismissal from the noviceship (aa. 67, 68). d) Admission to renewal of temporal vows (a. 73). e) Request to the mother general for prolongation of temporary vows, admission to perpetual profession, and exclusion from renovation of temporary profession and from perpetual profession (aa. 73, 152). f) Ddclaration of fact for the automatic dismissal of a professed sister (a. 161). g) Other matters according to the ordinances of the general chapter or of the mother general with the ’consent of her council (aa. 230, 263). 516, § 1 CHAPTER XXIX

]~EGIONS 321. Because of their distance from the motherhouse or other proportionate reasons, houses that cannot as yet be united into a province may be grouped into regions, which are not distinct moral persons. The establishment, change, and suppression of regions appertain to the mother general with the consent of her council. 501, § 1; 502 322. Regions are governed by regional superiors, who in almost all respects have the rights and duties of provincials. Their authority is delegated by the mother general but, unless an express restriction is made or is to be understood from the nature of the matter, this delegation contains all the authority possessed by provincials. The regional superiors are consequently to be guided in general by the articles of the constitutions on the provinces, the mother provincial, and the provincial officials. 501, § l; 502; 199, § 1 323. By the law of the constitutions and for her lawful + appointment as regional superior, a sister must possess 4. the qualities enumerated in article 310 for the mother 4- provincial. The articles of the constitutions on the manner of appointment, term of office, reappointment, re- Constitutions moval from office, and relation of the mother provincial to the mother general all apply also to the regional su- VOLUME 25s 1966 perior. 425 324. The regional superior is assisted by two councilors and, if it seems necessary or opportune, by a secretary and a treasurer, all appointed by the mother general with the consent of her council. All these officials must be siste~:s of perpetual vows. The first councilor is the regional assistant, vicar, and admonitrix. The regional superior shall convoke her council every three months or oftener, if necessary. With due distinctions; Chapters XXIV-XXV, XXVII and article 315 apply to the regional council, councilors, and the regional secretary and treasurer. The regional councilors shall individually submit an annual report to the mother general on the spiritual and temporal state of the region. 516, §§ 1-3 CHAPTER xxx HOUSES § 1. Houses 325. (Pontifical) For the erection or suppression of a house, the mother general must have the consent of her ¯ council and the written consent of the local ordinary. To erect a house in territories subject to the Sacred Congrega- tion for the Propagation of the Faith, it is necessary to have the consent also of this Sacred Congregation. The formalities prescribed for an erection are required also to change the purpose of a house, unless the change affects only internal government and religious discipline. 497-8; 488, 5°; 99-100; 102 (Diocesan) For the erection of a house, the mother general must have the consent of her council and the written consent of the local ordinary. In dioceses where no house of the congregation is already established, the consent of the ordinary of the motherhouse is also necessary. To erect a house in territories subject to the Sacred Congre- gation for the Propagation of the Faith, it is necessary to have the consent also of this Sacred Congregation. The suppression of a house appertains to the local ordinary, after having consulted the mother general. The mother general must have the consent of her council before requesting or agreeing to a suppression. 497-8; 495, § 1; 488, 5°; 99-100; 102 326. The special written permission of the local ordinary is likewise necessary and sufficient for the opening of ÷ an establishment separated from the religious house. 497, §3 ÷ 327. No house may be erected unless it can be prudently foreseen that its own income, customary alms, or ]. F. Gallen, $.]. other resources will provide suitable living quarters and support for its members. At least four (three)ss sisters REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS SSin constitutions four is commonly prescribed as the minimum 426 number of sisters; a lesser number demand three. must be assigned to a house and adequate provision made for their spiritual assistance. 496; 488, 5° § 2. Local Superiors 328. Every house, including the motherhouse, shall be governed by a local superior, who is appointed by the mother general with the consent of her council for a term o[ three years. She may be appointed [or a second but not immediately for a thirdterm in the same house. The local superior must have completed her.thirtieth year and be professed of perpet.ual vows. She continues to govern the house until the ari:ival of her successor. 505; 34, § 3, 5° 329. A sister who has been in office for six (twelve) successive years may not again be appointed local superior in any house before the lapse of a (two, three, six) year(s), except in a case of serious necessity,s~ 330. The local superior possesses the authority that the constitutions assign to her and has the right to govern the house in all matters not reserved to higher authorities. 501, § l; 5O2 331. She must take care that all the sisters make an annual retreat; assist daily at Mass, make mental prayer, faithfully perform the other religious exercises prescribed by the constitutions; and have the opportunity to approach the sacrament of penance at least once a week. 595, § 1; 592; 125, 2° 332. She shall see that a religious exhortation is given to the whole community at least twice a month. 509, § 2, 2° 333. The superior shall devote herself with generosity and perseverance to the education and formation of the younger sisters, particularly those of temporary vows. 334. The local superior shall send a written report once a year to the mother general (provincial) on the spiritual and temporal s~ate of her community. § 3. Local Olficials 335. In every formal house there shall be two councilors. The first is the assistant, vicar, and admonitrix. In smaller houses there is one councilor. The councilors must be sisters of perpetual vows. The local councilors shall write individually to the mother general (provincial) once a year on the spiritual and temporal state of the ° 4. house. 516, § 1; 488, 5 ÷ 336. In the absence of the local superior, the assistant shall preside and replace her in whatever is necessary for + the regular managem.ent of the house. Constitutions 337. The local superior shall convoke her council every s~ On the existence and variation of such an interval, see REVIEW VOLUME 25, 1966 fOR RELICIOUS, 19 (1960), 247. 427 month, or oftener if necessary. The norms on the general council, with due distinctions, apply to the local council. Local councilors have only a consultative vote except in the extraordinary case mentioned in article 162 and in m~itters for which the general chapter or the mother general (or mother provincial) with the consent of her council has decreed that the vote must be deliberative. 516, § 1; 501, § 1; 502 338. The following are the subjects to be discussed by the superior and her council: the observance of the obligations of the religious life and the religious spirit of the community, the occupations of the sisters, the material and financial condition of the house, the work of the school or institution, and the means to be used to encourage works of zeal and to correct abuses and defects. 516, §1 339. The local treasurer to be appointed in each house according to a. 286 shall follow, with the proper distinctions, the norms established in Chapter XXVII.90 516, §§ 2-4

CHAPTER XXXI

MISTRESS OF NOVICES 340. The formation of the novices is entrusted to the mistress of novices, who must be at least thirty-five year~ of age and at least ten years professed from the date of her first profession. 559, § 1 341. If the number of novices or any other good reason renders it expedient, a sister shall be given as assistant to the mistress. The assistant shall be under the immediate authority of the mistress in all matters pertaining to the government of the novitiate. She must be at least thirty years old, professed at least five years from the date of her first vows, and possess the other necessary and suitable qualifications for the office. 559, § 2

~ The constitutions usually contain also at least one article each on the sacristan and portress in this chapter and sometimes also on other minor local employments. Articles of this type do not seem to appertain to the constitutions, which constitute the fundamental law of the institute. There are also non-canonical articles commonly included in the present chapter, for example, that the local superior 4- should be an example of observance to her community, especially 4- by her prompt and faithful attendance at the religious exercises, that her primary duty is to direct her subjects to religious sanctity, that ÷ the manner of government should be neither severe nor lax, mater- nal but firm, that she should avoid partiality, have regular inter- 1. F. Gallen, Sd. views with her subjects, for example, monthly or three or four times a year, foster a family spirit, exercise a special care of the sick and "REVIEW FOR RI:LIGIOUS aged, be solicitous about the health and needs of the sisters, and be united in loyalty and obedience to higher superiors. See REVIEW FOR 428 RELmIOUS, 18 (1959), 183. 342. The mistress and her assistant are appointed for three years.01 Both must be free from all other offices and duties that might interfere with the care and government of the novices. 560; 559, § 3 343. The mistress alone has the right and obligation of providing for the formation of the novices. She alone has the government of the novitiate, so that no one under any pretext whatsoever may interfere in these matters except the mother general (higher superiors) (regional superiors) and, at the time of the visitation, the visitor. The mistress and the novices are subject to the local superior with regard to the general discipline of the house. 561, § 1 344. The mistress has a serious obligation to exert all care that the novices be thoroughly formed in the religious life according to the constitutions. 562 345. The mistress shall grant all ordinary permissions and dispensations to the novices. 561, § 1 346. Every three months°" the mistress must present to the mother general (mother provincial, regional superior) a report on the vocation, character, conduct, progress in religious life, aptitude, and state of health of each novice.~3 563 CHAPTER XXXII

CONSTITUTIONS § 1. Obligation, Change, Interpretation 347. Each sister, superior as well as subject, is bound not only to observe faithfully and entirely the vows of ¯ which she has made profession, but also to order her life according to the (Rule and) constitutions and thus tend to the perfection of her state. 593 348. The (Rule and) constitutions do not of themselves bind under sin but only under the penalty imposed for their infraction, unless the violation concerns the vows, or divine or ecclesiastical laws; or if the infraction arises from a sinful motive or gives scandal. 349. Superiors are bound to admonish the sisters and to impose penances for violations of the constitutions. The sisters are obliged to accept the corrections and to perform the penances. 501, § 1; 502; 593 350. (Pontifical) The mother general may interpret

~ A three-year term is very commonly established in the constitu- + tions. ¯ 2 Every three months is the far most common frequency enacted + in constitutions. 4. ~a This chapter usually contains other important but non-canonical articles, for example, the qualities of the mistress, the motherly Constitutions love she is to have for the novices, manner of formation, necessity of individual direction, and a more detailed description of the forma- 1966 tion in the spirit, distinctive virtues, practices, and works of the par- VOLUME 25, ticular congregation. 429 authentically also thd’ ordinarices of~ the general chapter,°4 but the~ Holy See alone can autkentically interpret and~ change the constitutions. In’a case of doubt about some particular point, the general chapter, as also the mother general with the advice of her council, may give a practical interpretation of the matter and the sisters are obliged to follow this interpretation. 17; 618, § 2, 1°; 501, § l; 502 (Diocesan) The mother general may interpret authentically also the ordinances of the general chaptdr, but the constitutions ’can be’neither authentically interpreted nor changed without the unanimous consent of the ordinari.es of the dioceses in which the ~ongregation has houses. In a case of doubt ..... 17; 495, § 2; 501, § 1; 502 351. Changes in the constitutions may not be made without serious reason. Any change must be first discussed in the general chapter, and if it obtains at least two-thirds of the votes, it shall be submitted to the Holy See (diocesan: local ordinaries) for a decision. 618, § 2, 1° ’352. A complete copy of the constitutions shall be given to every sister at the beginning ~f the noviceship that she may study and earnestly strive to observe them. 353. Every superior shall promote among her subjects the knowledge and practice of the decrees of the Holy See that concern religious. The local superiors shall have the entire constitutions read publicly at least once a year as well as the decrees that the Holy See shall order to be read. 509, §§ 1-2, 1 ° § 2. Dispensation 354. No authority within the congregation may dispense from the laws of the Church or the decrees of the Holy See. 80; 118 355. For a determined time and a proportionate reason, the mother general may dispense individu~l sisters, a house, province, region, or the entire congregation from a merely disciplinary article of the constitutions. A mother provincial and-a regional superior have the same power for their sisters, houses, province, or region, and a local superior for her sisters and house. The mistress of novices has the sam6 power as a local superior but only with regard to the novices and the novitiate. 561 ~ 356. All superiors may dispense themselves in those ÷ matters in which they may lawfully dispense others.~5 201, 4,

air is not the practice of constitutions to give this power to the ~. F. Gallen, $..I. mother general but it is possible in itself and sutticiently practical. ~ Other articles are frequently found in this chapter, for example, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS on respect and love of the Rule and constitutions as the distinctive path to sanctity, the proper motivation in their observance, and se- verity and laxity in granting dispensations. INDEX OF SOURCES When the number of a canon is printed in roman type, the relative article of the typical constitutions is wholly or partly the canon. If the number of the canon is initalics, the relative article has reference to the canon. Article Canon Normae~ Outlinesb Statutes¢ 1 487-8, 1-4°; 593; 42; 44 1-3 2 492, § 3 2 43-5 4 3 3 618, § 2, 1° 46 4 492, § 2; 495, § 2 5 578, 1-2°; 567, 48-50 4-5; 8 § 1;561, §2; 488, 7° 6 578, 3° 217 140 49 7 106; 491 54 7-9 8 I06, I° 8 9 515 9 10 492, § 3 66-9 17-9 26 11 492, § 3; 557 66-9 17-9 26 15 596; 557 16 492, § 3; 618, § 2, 70 1o 17 540, § 2 23 22 18 547, §3"2-3 91; 93 27-8 20 547, § 4 92 27 22 549; 533, § 1, 2°; 94; 125 29 § 2; 2412, 1° 23 550; 535, § 2 94 30; 177 24 548 125 25 551, § 1 95 31 26 570, § 1 82 25 51;55 27 570, § 2 83 56 28 643, § 1 29 538 55-6 1 ! 30 544, § 7 16 31 542, 1°; 2411; 2352 59 15 32 542, 2°; 98; 756; 61 2411 33 80; IIS; 2411 60-1 34 61-2 15 35 544, § 3; 545; 2411 58 36 544, §§ 6-7 57 12 17 37 546 38 63; 192 21 19 ÷ 39 540, § 1 64 ÷ 40 539 65 21 ÷ ~ The Normae o] 1901 referred to in the final paragraph of the Introduction. Constitutions bThe Propagation ol the Faith Constitution Outlines ol 1940 referred to in the final paragraph of the Introduction. VOLUME 25, 1966 ~ The Statutes Ior Extern Sisters oI 1931 referred to in the final paragraph of the Introduction. ,t31 Article Canon Normae Outlines Statutes 43 552; 2412, 2° 80-1; 96 44 543 303 34; 168e) 19 45 541 77-9 46 554, § 1 88-90; 271, 3o; 168 b) 272, 3 47 554, § 2 303 48 564, § 1 85-6 49 554, § 3 86 50 551, § 1, 2°; 34, 72 40 §3, 3° 51 555; 34, § 3, 3° 72; 74 27 52 553; 34, § 3, 3° 71 25 53 555, § 1 72; 74-6 54 556, § ]; 32, § 1 55 556, § 2; 32, § 1 56 556, § 4 57 556, § 3 58 565, § I 73 59 565, § 3 73 33 60-3 74; 76 43 34-6 64 30 66 569 97; 115; 117; 120 67 571, § 1 192; 271, 7° 168 e) 40 68 571, § 2 75 41 41 69 571, § 3 98 42 70-1 48 38 72 574; 34, § 3, 5°; 103-5 50 44 577, § 1 73 543; 575, § 2; 552; 80-1; 96; 303 49; 46; 19-20 2411; 2412, 2° 168 e) 74 572-3; 2352 101 43 75 576, § 1; 586 99-102 54 42; 47 76 576, § 2 107 55 48 78 577 105-6; 108 46 79 574, § 1 47 80 575, § 1 105 81 579 82 113 57 64;70 83 123 60 84 58o, § i 119 58 66 85 580, § 2 126 61 68 86 583, 1 o 119; 121 59 69 a) 87 568 84 39 88 569, § l 97; 114-6 89 569, § 2 124; 114; 116 4, 90 580, § 3 117 67 91 580, § 3 116 92 569, § 3; 583, 2° 120; 122 69 b) 93 594; 2389 127-8 62 ~. F. Gallen, S.]. 94 1058; 2388, § 2 129 63 61 95 132 66 57 96 135 58 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 97 136 68 59 432 98 137 67 Article Canon Normae Outlines Statutes 99 133-4 69 60 101 595, § 1, 30; 566, 138 §1 102 520, § 1 139-41 103 520, § 2 144-5 104 521, § 1 139; 141; 143 105 521, § 2 139; 141; 76 146-7 106 521, § 3; 2414 107 522; 2414; 909-10, 149

108 523; 2414 148; 186 109 882 148; 186 111 526; 524, § 2 142 112 524, § 3 1131 530 79 81 114 595, § 1, 2°; § 2; 158; 151-2 863 116 595, § 3 151-2 117 153 82 118 595, § 1, 2° 156 119 595, § 1, 2° 154 73 84 120 125, 2°; 592; 595, 154; 157; 159 73 85 §1,2° 121 125, 2°; 592 73 122 595, § 1, 1° 155 84; 83 87 123 595, § 1, 2° 108 50 124 595, § 1 163 125 167-9 100 126 166 127 604, §§ 1, 3 170; 172 90-2 128 604, § 1; 598, § 2; 171; 173 91 6OO 129 604, § 2; 599 130 ’ 178 131 605; 604, § 3 172 132 606, § 1; 607 174 97 133 606, § 2 134 179 95 102 135 611 180 137 181 87 95-6 138 181-2 139 554, § 3 86 141 1269, §4; 1271; 317-8 189-90 1306 142 523; 882 186 143 863; 865 187 ÷ 144 865; 944; 882 468; 188 114 110 ÷ 514, § 3 145 864, § 3 146 468 189 114 110 Constitutions 147 567, § 1; 578, 1° 190-1 115-21 111-2 148 644; 2385-6 132 116 VOLUME 25, 1966 149 645 150 2385 132 116 Article Canon Normae Outlines Statutes 151 2386 152 637; 575, § 1 114 153 638-9 154 638; 640 112; 197 56; 122 155 647, § 1 193;271, 7° 156 647, § 2; 34, § 3, 199 3°; 35 157 652, §§ 1, 3 192; 196;271, 7°; 272 158 651, § 1 194-5; 199 159 651, § 2; 650, § 3 160 652, §§ 1, 3 194; 196;271, 131 7°; 272 161 646 162 653 198 120 163 648; 669, § 1 197 128; 132 121 164 643, § 2; 647, § 2, 2OO 123 5°; 652, § 3 165 499, § 1; 218 272 133 166 500, § 1 ; 618-20 202; 204; 272 167 501, § 1; 502 203 134 168 162; 161; 178, 34, 205-9 135-6 §3, 5° 169 210 170 211-2;271,10° 137 171 5O6, § 4 224 172 161; 178 173 162; 161; 178 211 137 174 .164-8 213-6 138-9 175 165 176 208-9 135 177 171, § 1 178 171, §§ 2, 5 227-8 146;150; 158 179 162-3 223 180 164 181 163;168 229-30 182 219 183 507, § 2 141 185 171, §§ 2-3 227 146 186 171, §§ 2, 5 146 187 167; 169-70 147 188 167, § 2; 101, § 1, 1o 189 174; 101, § 1, 1° 218; 229 152 190 174 237 ÷ 191 175-6 ÷ 192 171, § 4 193 ÷ 247-8 151 194 245; 225 142; 153 196 578, 3° 217 140 ]. F. Gallen, S.]. 197 215 0;218-9 138 f); REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 139 201--4 174; 101, § 1, 1° 216 139 206 162 Article Canon Normae Outlines Statutes 207 164-8 220-2; 304 208 171, §§ 1, 5 214 171, §§ 1, 5 226 145 215 295 216 295 143 217 1274, § 1 218 595, § 4 144 219 504 231 148 220 505; 34, § ~ 5° 235-6;207;238 148 221 174; 101, § 1, 1° 232--4 149 222 174 237 223 516, §§ 1-3; 506, 225;245;229; 152-3 4;171, §1 242-3 224 240;285; 300; 154 241 225 246-7 226 101, § 1, 1° 246 157 230 155 231 250 156 232 249 233 501, § 1-502 252-3; 88;271, 159-60; 11°; 272, 11 168 0 234 516, § 3 265 163 235 501, § 1-502 252; 254 159; 103 236 560 271, 6°, 8°; 310 237 501, § 1-502 254 238 51~ § 2 263 160 239 510 262 240 267-8 241 183-92 269-70 164 242 511 255 161 243 511 256;271, 9° 244 161 245 513 246 2413, §1 247 512, § 2, 3°; 513; 259 2413, § 1 248 512, § 2, 3°; 618, 260-1 § 2, 2°; 619; 535, § 3, 2°; 533, § 1, 2-4°;§2 249 1382; 1491 258 250 516, § 1 165 251 274 166 252 516, § 1 279 166 253 276-7 ÷ 255 274 165 ÷ 256 275 167 ÷ 257 105, 3° 258 101, § 1, t° 273 167 259 273 Constitutions 260 285, 300 VOLUME 25~ 1966 261 280 167 262 105, 1° 435 Article Canon Normae Outlines Statutes 263 516, 8 1 271 168 264 516, § 1 265 183-92; 517, § 2 245; 271, 8°, 170; 153; 12° 168d) 266 278 153 267 264 27O 278 170 272 275, 282 167, 171 273 281 171 277 517, § 1 281 516, § 2 285; 304; 313 172, 174 283 516, 8 2 284, 290 172 284 516, § 2 292-3 183 285 516, §8 2-4 291-2 286 516, 8§ 2-4 313 174; 176 287 516, 8 2 293 174 288 531; 1495, § 2 283 173 1499, § 2 289 294 178 291 532, § 2; 1523 292 1523, 6° 286-9 175 293 1522, 2-3° 294 533, § 1 295 533, § 1, 2-3°; § 2; 261;296. 177 535, 8 3, 2°; 549; 550, § 2; 618, §2,1° 296 1514 298 534, § 1; 1530-1; 271, 14-15°; 169 1541, § 2, /o; 272, 15 2347 299 534, § 2 300 536, § 5 301 536, §§ 1-4 302 537 303 1524 304 142, 592, 2380 305 139, § 3; 592 306 137; 592 307 494, 488, 6° 271, 4°; 272, 4; 301-2 309 505 271, 5° 310 504 311. 501, § 1;502 312 501, § 1; 502 313 501, § 1; 502 292-3 315 516, §§ 1-2, 4 271, 5° 318 516, § 1 292, 314 319 516, 8 1 294 320 516, 8 1 ~. F. Gallen, S.~. 321 501, § 1;502 322 501, § I ; 502; 199, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS §l 436 324 516, §§ 1-3 Article Canon Normae Outlines Statutes 325 497-8; 488, 5°; 305-6; 271, 179-80; 99-100; 102 1-2°; 272, 168 a) 1-2 326’ 497, 8 3 327 496, 48~ 5° 307 328 505; 34, § ~ 5° 309-11; 271, 181; 5-6° 168 c) 330 501, § 1; 502 312, 315 331 595, 81; 592; 125, 2° 332 509, 8 2, 2° 334 184 335 516, 8 1; 488, 5° 314 182 336 182 337 516, § 1; 501, 8 1; 5O2 338 516, 81 339 516, 88 2-4 313;293 183 340 559, 81 297-8 185 341 559, 8 2 299 188 342 560; 559, 8 3 271, 5°,8°; 185; 297; 300 168c) 343 561, 81 85 186 344 562 187 345 561, 81 346 563 300 187 347 593 192 348 320 193 125-6 349 501, § 1; 502; 593 194 350 17; 618, 8 2, I°; 251,265 162 501, 8 1; 502 351 618, 8 2, 1° 251,265 162 352 87, 321 195 128 353 509, §§ 1-2, 1° 321 195 127 354 80; 118 355 561 266, 62, 316 162, 182 127 356 201, 8 3

4, ÷ 4"

Constitutions

VOLUME 25, 1966 437 SISTER M. CLAUDELLE MILLER, S.C.L. Attitudes toward Religious Garb and Its Adaptation

People who live together collectively take for granted most of the objects around them as well as the activities in which they are mutually engaged. Many common affairs, such as eating, sleeping, and dressing, therefore, are frequently’observed and commented on but have not’ been explicitly studied. There has been much comment on "modern garb" for sisters from both within and without the religious community itself. Personally convinced that the sisters’ question of "what to wear?" merits thoughtful reflection and serious research, the author sought an objective, frank evaluation of the traditional religious dress. By studying the responses it evoked both within and with- ont the convent she hoped to help determine the appro- priateness of its adaptation. Because religious clothing is more significant than just the material of which it is made, thoughtful consideration of the following aspects of the sisters’ symbolic religious dress may influence future decisions on habit change. The Significance of Clothing as a Symbol Common experience indicates how much one takes 4. the symbolic value of clothing for granted. When one Sister Mary Clau- first meets a stranger he unconsciously adverts to the delle Miller, S.C.L,, style of his clothing. It helps to categorize him tempo- resides at 813-19 rarily until closer acquaintance gives additional criteria North Frances; Madison, Wisconsin for measuring him. 53703. Sociologists and social psych.ologists have studied the tendency for human beings simultaneously to differen- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS tiate themselves from others and to represent their social unity. This differentiation and assimilation is symbolic in character. Clothes very effectively commttni- cate the individual or the group image to the outer world. Clothing is almost a universal means of sym- bolizing roles and social positions. Clothing symbols also provide a basis for common consciousness and a common course of action within the group. Dress can keep the insider separate from the world and the outsider out. In so doing, symbols, including dress, assure the continuation of the grbup. They express social unity in material form. Internal states can only be expressed by means ,of sign, word, gestures, and acts. Symbolic religious dress informs individuals that they are in harmony and makes them conscious of their moral unity. The Link between Symbolic Clothing and Social Re- lations Symbolic clothing is social in character. It presup- poses.an audience and a producer, or rather a wearer and viewers. One of the chief functions of clothing is that it facilitates encounters of strangers and casual acquaintances. It provides a basis for initiating communication. Not only do persons identify one another by appearance but such initial identifications usually establish evaluations which are modified only upon closer acquaintance. Appearance, then, is the phase of social interaction which establishes identifications. Appearance covers various things such as body size and shape, reputation, stance, and facial expression; but clothes tell us at once something of a person’s sex, occupation, and social standing. Thus the social significance of clothing is that it is a "mediating" element in social relations. Clothing as a symbol helps establish the social identity and attitudes of those who come together. The Traditional Religious Dress as Essentially Sym- bolic Clothing One cannot locate the meaning of religious dress in the garment itself because its aspects have meant different things at different times. The origin of sisters’ dress was usually the common dress of some particular class of people in Europe. In the seventeenth century, when the Daughters of ÷ Charity were founded, Saint Vincent de Paul allowed + them to wear the usual dress of girls in Paris at this ÷ time. For motives of uniformity this was adopted by those who came from other parts of the country. As Religious Garb with many things in the Church, the dress of that class changed but religious garb did not and the identifica- VOLUME 25° 1966 tion was soon lost. The formal aspects of the garment 439 persist as their "meanings" are transformed. So the garb became a symbol not of class status but of religious life. In America, distinctive dress is usually taken as a kind of uniform. A uniform is identified with an occupation and efficiency in. that occupation. Perhaps that is why to some modern persons, outdated dress means outdated values and ideas. So sisters are asking: "Should our dress be a sign of what we are, or is it to be a sign of the kind of work we do and an efficient design for doing that kind of work? How much do we want people to know about our dedication and how much do we want to be able to carry out tha~t dedication most effectively?" The Socio-psychological Significance of Symbolic Re- ligious Clothing The wearing of the religious habit is categorized as an example of symbolic clothing. But this means that it is an expression of a reality already present. Religious clothing does not have magical powers but it does have psychological significance. Since sisters by their presence and actions declare spiritual values and the primacy of supernatural realities, they are asking what kind o[ garment is symbolic in the best way of those qualities they intend to convey to contemporary man. If the religiot,s dress of sisters is essentially symbolic, one might say that it is a sign. It~ signifies something. .Examining views from within and without the convent to see just what it does signify to the sisters themselves and to those with whom they interact is enlightening. For symbolic clothing to be meaningful, what it signifies to ’the wearer should coincide at least to some extent with what it signifies to the viewer. Reasons expressed for and against change give one some insight into the meaning of the religious habit today. In summary, a double aspect characterizes all reflective considerations of dress. Clothes are a matter of ,intimate individual concern but they also involve extensive group reactions. Should not Catholic and non-Catholic laymen, as well as sisters, be consulted on what the religious habit signifies to them? Procedure of the Exploratory Study Data were obtained by use of a written questionnaire that sought answers to these questions: (1) Do lay persons like or dislike the traditional religious dress of sisters? (2) Do lay persons and sisters .think the sisters’ Sister M. Claudelle, clothing should be changed? (3) How important is re- S.C.L. ligious clothing to the sisters’ work? Questionnaires were distributed_to a sample of lay REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS personnel, sisters, and students at a local Catholic institution. Members of the sample group covered a range of differences in religion, social distance, education, age, and occupation that the author was seeking. Liking or Disliking Sisters’ Clothing Religion, education, and age were the most important variables affecting attitudes toward liking and disliking sisters’ clothing. Catholics liked the religious habit more than non-Catholics. Those of high educational level expressed more dislike for the traditional dress than those with little formal education. The older group liked the religious garb more than the middle gro.up. Affirmative answers to the question "Do you like the clothes the sisters wear?" gave reasons of familiarity, religious symbolism, and respect. Negative and non- committal replies mentioned lack of comfort and the "medieval look." They also questioned the’sanitariness of skirts that drag on the floor. Much emphasis on being "neat and clean" reflected the fact that Americans are very concerned about these minimum aesthetics. Inter- esting and typical replies were: --Yes. Having been taught by sisters and having contact with them through the years, I’ve gotten used to the nuns’ habits and simply associate that type of dress with nuns. --Yes. I think it gives them a very pious look. --Yes. It distinguishes them from the ordinary woman. It has a way of commanding one’s respect for them. JNo. They look warm, unsamtary, and medieval. --No. Too impractical for modern living. --No. Although they portray religion, self-sacrifice, etc., I don’t think they have to be dull about it. --No. Psychologically the great difference marked by a nun’s habit is not conducive to proper communication between lay pe,ople and the sisters. Many nuns seem to demand respect because o[ their habit. I think they should get respect for what they show they are. They should be judged by their action~, not clothes. --Undecided. Liking or disliking depends on the role they play. During religious services I drink they look dignified. On the street or in public I think they look out o[ place. Aspects of the sisters’ appearance that lay people considered important besides neatness and cleanliness were facial expression and character traits. Specific articles of clothing, such as the veil, were rarely mentioned. Replies included: ÷ --Neatness and cleanliness. It sets a good image. --I would say that her overall .appearance in tune with the times would increase her effectiveness. ÷ --Identity. I personally want to know when I’m addressing a nun. I realize other types of garb could identify a nun--and I Religious Garb could get used to these. I do want sisters to be dressed distinctively. VOLUME 25, 1966 --Their dress seems to make them lose their identity. They seem to be purely religious beings, not man or woman. --Neatness and simplicity. I think these ends can be established in some of today’s basic styles. ---Sisters should look neat and trim, following no extreme in dress. Plain, but sensible. --A simple yet feminine appearance. One not too typical, but very amusing reply was: --Their plain, sallow, pale mystic white complexions add to their whole air of detachment.

Attitudes toward Changing Sisters" Clothing About sixty-five per cent of both sisters and lay persons thought the sisters’ clothing should be changed. Attitudes were affected by the amount of contact with sisters and the religion of the lay person. Those having more contact with sisters desired change more. Protestants desired change more than Catholics. The more highly educated voted for change. Sisters over forty-five years wanted change more than the younger nuns, while lay persons between the ages of twenty-five and forty-four were more eager for change than the older laity. Perhaps this indicates that older religious have lived the religious life and see its spirit undamaged by external change. They also tend to be more practical than the young. Sisters answered this way:

--Yes. The religious habit should be in keeping with the needs of the times. Religious habits that lack simplicity often repel rather than attract others to their ideals. --Yes. I think we should keep abreast with the times; although we have habits that date back several hundred years this is no reason why we should hold on to such outdated customs. --I think we could do a good ~ob in the apostolate with a simpler, yet significant, habit.

Laymen answered: --I would like to see this clothing changed to a mode of dress showing womanly humanness and morality, rather than the present mode which appears to show an ecclesiastical or canonical rigidity. ~ After all, they really are human beings and can be just as holy in any clothing. Why hide in the robes? --Yes. For their own comfort. I feel that the sisters probably have plenty of self-denials without the burden of heavy and stiff ÷ clothing, especially in warm weather. --No. They would be just another civilian if out of their present ÷ clothing. We must set nuns apart. They serve a higher function. ÷ Sister M. Claudelle, There seems to be a tension expressed in reasons for S.C.L. and against change between practicality on one side and religious symbolism on the other. The solution may REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS lie in a practical, modern, yet distinctively religious 442 dress. Meaningfulness of the Symbolic Traditional Religious Garb Toda7 When asked, "Why do you think they wear these clothes?" the lay persons mentioned custom and tradition most often. Others saw the dress as a symbol of unworldliness or thought the sisters were trying to set themselves apart. Mentioned less often were protection, utility, group identification, and hiding identity. This was interesting because when the sisters were asked, "Why do you wear these clothes?" they stressed identification with their particular community, tradition, and religious symbolism. Typical answers of lay people were: --I’m sure they wear this clothing to isolate themselves from other women, to gain the respect a uniform gives, and in another way, to follow the simple way of life they’ve chosen. --Tradition probably plays an important part. The fact that this is one of many things that distinguishes them as a particular group of people probably plays a part also. Being a part of this group in an outward showing ’more easily identifies the individual in the group with .proper outlooks, behavior, etc. Likewise, those outside the group respond to all those in the group in a similar way. The dress identifies the individual sister with a group to whom certain behavior is expected. --To deemphasize their womanhood. Also to make them s.epa- rate and distinct from us. --They dress this way because they are told to and have not kept up with the times. They are a different breed these days, active and socialized. A vague but honest reply was: --I believe I was told at some time they represent something or someone. Three answers of sisters to the question "Why do you dress this,,way?" were: --I freely chose’to be a sister and to adopt and wear this dress. It is inexpensive, time saving. I need never worry about fashions and always know what to wear. It is a symbol of my dedication. --As a member of a religious order, I dress this way because the present dress is that adopted by our congregation. --Because I am a member of a group set apart. I want to be known as belonging to this group. The way I dress lets everyone know to what group I belong and I am proud to let them know. Sisteks thought that others judge them on their clothing because of the importance of initial appearance in ÷ social relations. They felt that religious clothing is im- ÷ portant to their work for these reasons: ÷ --The correct’attire for whatever work the sister does will facili- Religio~.s Garb tate the work and increase efficiency. The importance depends to some extent on the specific type of work she does. VOLUME 25, 1966 --It shows her dedication to the cause of Christ,s Church. What. security would the world have if they took policemen out of uni- 445 form? Or in a hospital who would a patient call to for help if nurses wore street clothes? Lay persons answered: --Important. General appearance presents one with an immediate impression. Current dress seerris to remove sisters from the activity of the society the~ are hoping to serve. --Important. It could still have religious aspects and be practical. In summary, the general consensus on change was expressed this way: --I believe ~nuch needs to be done to modernize the habits worn by women in religious orders. Many of the older styles served well for the times in which they were designed. Today they are too ornate and cumbersome. However,. they shouldn’t abandon the idea of religious attire but rather modernize it along simple, becoming, functional, and dignified lines. Recommendations Whatever the ultimate change of sisters’ clothing will be, it seems evident from this study that the religious symbolism of the habit is so deeply ingrained in the consciousness of people who identify the religious with their special clothing, that during a transition period a modern adaptation of the g~rb which will still convey the sense of a consecrated person is necessary. Change cannot be made abruptly, especially in the sacred areas of society. Whether or not the habit originally had within itself a religiously symbolic function, it has taken on this symbolism for many people. At present, then, the question would seem to be: How far can an adaptation go and still retain its religious symbolic function? Another significant question arising from the symbolism of clothes is: How effectively does the traditional religious habit communicate the meaning of the religious life to the modern world?’Even if centuries of tradition are cited in favor of a distinctive dress, one must consider that what might be appropriate for a Christian society is not necessarily so for a pluralistic one, The clergy in America recognized this by adopting the custom of wearing suits in public. The cassock or religious habit is honored for its symbolism in the monas~ ÷ tery; but in public where "skirts" are apt to draw deri- ÷ sion the black suit and-Roman collar are worn. Where ÷ further adaptation is desirable, ordinary clothes replace $i~terM. C~udel~, even this. Perhaps a similar adaptation would be an $.C~. appropriate one for sisters. Suggestions for further exploratory study to aid in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS determining the appropriate degree of change of the traditional religious dress are: 1. To study the significance of the habit to the religious herself. Since one aspect of the psychological effect of clothing is that directed inward to the wearer, does the traditional garb smother the sense of individuality, resulting therefore in a lack of self-identity, over- dependence on the group, lack of initiative, and failure to realize or accept personal responsibility? " 2. To determine the values that sisters want in their clothing, how the value pattern may be changed, how to help them identify their wants, and how to balance values that are in conflict. How can those resisting change be motivated to change their clothing behavior? Are values in religious symbolic clothing definable as characteristics of comfort, safety, convenience? 3. To interpret the habit used as a material object for socialization into a new community--the religious society. 4. To determine the relationship between the habit and the rdles the sister plays in her social groups. What concept do sisters have of themselves and their clothing as an expression of their role? 5. To examine the religious clothing as a tangible and effective means of control in social situations. Woukl the role of the religious in the world today be as effective without the distinctive garb? How much does the religious garb contribute to the image of religious? Is it important for the religious today to have a public image? 6. What limits of variability in adaptation can be explored without causing a sense of anxiety or insecurity? 7. To examine the interworkings of continuity and change applied to the religious dress. 8. To analyze the change, seeing what it is that the sisters will lose as they make a change. If the loss is significant, some means of replacing it should be considered. What degree of change would retain positive values of the present garb while answering practical needs of religious and possibly increasing their effectiveness? 9. To examine pros and cons of a habit adapted to the varied activities that sisters engage in. 10. To examine the form, meaning, use, and function of the religious habit to understand its total significance. This would include historical research on the habit. How did the social period and the aims of the particular ÷ institute influence the form the clothing took? ÷ I1. To examine motives for resisting change. Ad- ÷ herence to tradition might be the most understandable, but economy and convenience are criteria to be Religious Garb ~" "" taken seriously because they have direct implications f6r the sisters’ apostolate in terms of time and money. ~VOLUME .25, 1966 This project was a descriptive, exploratory study of 445 attitudes, toward th~ religious h~bit and its adaptation. Many questions remain to be answered. Ideally, as the pro, per attire is designed and adopted, the clothing question will recede into the background. Appropriate dress will serve largely as an agreeable stage setting for the sister’s effectiveness in Church and society.

S.(~.

REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ’t’t6 GUY DE BROGLIE, S.J. Charity: An Essay towards a Doctrinal Synthesis

Charity* is the fundamental act of the will, uniting the supernaturalized soul to God and directing it toward its final end. An act such as this totally surpasses human understanding by reason of the infinite excellence of the twofold goal to which the will is directed: God and our own supernatural beatitude. It is not strange, therefore, that of all the virtues, charity should be the most mysterious, the one for which it is most difficult to formulate a theory which is both reasonable and, in some sense, complete. To accomplish this task, we must steer between two reefs. On one side there is an oversimplification of concepts which would pretend to give an adequate definition of the movement of charity, thus representing a divine object by a precise, univocal concept; on the other side is found an anti-conceptual oversimplification which re- duces charity to an ineffable impulse defying all hope of description or analysis. The only way we have of following a middle course between these contrary fallacies is to list, in as logical an order as possible, the multiple aspects by which the act of charity can be characterized-~either from a metaphysical point of view or a psychological and moral viewpoint. We will group our considerations under Guy de Broglie, three principal headings, studying first the love which Sd., is professor of dogmatic theology residing at 42 rue * This article is taken from the Dictionnaire de Spiritualitd-- de Grenelle; Paris Ascdtique et Mystique, Tome II, I~re pattie, col. 661-691. Beauchesne, (VII) France. Editeurs h Paris, 1953. Grateful acknowledgement is made to the pub- lishers for their permission to publish this English translation. The VOLUME 25, 1966 translation was made by James w. Sauve, s.J.; Woodstock College; Woodstock, Maryland 21163. 447 man has for God because of his human nature, and then examining those additional, more excellent modalities which add a supernatural character .to our love of God. Finally, we shall look at those qualities introduced by the doctrines of Christianity. A fourth section will try to illuminate some auxiliary questions, those in particular which have to do with spiritual detachment. I. THE NATURAL LOVE OF MAN FOR Gob A. The Virtue of Love in Souls Created [or God: Meta- physical Principles One of the fundamental axioms of the thomistic philosophy of the appetite is that every created inclination is by its very nature in more intimate union with God than it is with the participated good which it immediately desires. (For the principal texts, see P. Rousse- lot, Pour l’histoire du probl~me de l’amour au Moyen Age, Miinster: Aschendorff, 19.08.) In fact, since no object is "good" except through participation in the divine model, it :follows that an appetite can desire something as lovable only because of this participation; further, the goodness must be recognized precisely under this aspect, since it is the property of every appetite that it terminate in things as they really are (I, %16, a.l; De vet. q.1, a.2). Thus a certain fundamental union with God is an essential presupposition in every created love of whatever type. This law is verified in a special way in the acts of the will. For, since it is the nature of the will to grasp, objects which have been perceived by the intellect, the will must always, with greater or lesser awareness, be in union with the Good Who is at every moment the supreme object of thought and the universal prototype .of every individual thought. Some sort of conscious love of God, considered under this aspect of "prototype common to every object of thought," must therefore be found in each act of the will, even in those acts which are morally perverted. But love determined in this way still reaches God only under an intellectual aspect of the vaguest sort, under the title of supreme and indistinct prototype of every object of love: "in quantum est bonum commune om- nium" (I, q:60, a:5, ad 5). Is it true that we are created 4. to love God only in this indeterminate way? Or is it 4. rather that our will is ordained to offer Him an affection which is richer and more definite, which grasps the Guy d~ Broglie, S.]. divine essence according to its original and incommuni- cable nature, "prout est ab aliis distincta" (ibid.)? REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS The reply is immediate, at least for anyone who ad- 448 mits with St. Thomas that it is of the very nature of every spiritual being to desire that specifically divine good which is the beatific vision (even though this desire be imperfect, inefficacious, arid in no way necessitating). If it is true that the intellect is perfectly exercised only in this supreme act, then it necessarily follows that the will can be perfectly employed only to the extent that it succeeds in loving God not merely as the universal prototype of all good, but also and above all because of that which is characteristic Of, and immutably unique in, His essence. We can see already that a created will acts according to itg nature only to the extent that it applies itself to the best of its ability to the attainment of union with that good which is specifically divine. A difficulty arises immediately: how can such love be possible for one who does not now see God, for whom, as a result, any direct perception of’ what is proper to the Creator is impossible? We must admit that the difficulty seems to be insurmouritable within the confines of a purely Aristotelian philosophy. And Aristotle very logically concludes that our moral goodness must ultimately be reduced to a wise love for mankind: it has in it no special love for a divine being as such. But if, with St. Augustine and St. Thomas, we admit the presence in a spiritual being of a 16asic aptitude for, and a necessary inclination toward, the beatific vision; if we grant, in other words, that every intelligent being necessarily has, for its ideal of goodness, a good which is specifically identical witk the goodness of God Himself, then we are in a position to construct a moral philosophy in which divine love has its proper piace.. For in this case it becomes clear that each spiritual being has, by its very nature, a special affinity with God which makes of him a living image; or, if you prefer, a shadow of that which is characteristic of God Himself, of that which constitutes Him as the possessor of supreme and absolute beatitude. (On the notion of the divine image, see St. Augustine, De Trin. 14, 8, 11 [P.L. 42, 1044]; and St. Thomas, De vet. q.22; a.2, obj.5; I, q.93, a.2, c et ad 3; I-II, q.l13, a.10, c; III, q.9, a.2, c.) Once this fact has been granted, the impossibility of the will loving God under any title more precise than that of "universal prototype of good" has been removed. For it is a principle, many times enunciated by St. Thomas, ttiat love for an image, considered as such, is only love for its model (II-II, q.81, a.3, ad 3; %8, a.3, ad 3, and so forth). The spiritual creature, therefore, does not need to see God in order to love Him in His unique character; to love Him not only under the indeterminate aspect of subsistent good, but also under the richer aspect of subsistent beatitude--as the prototype, the center, and the VOLUME 25, 1966 summit of the spiritual world--it is sufficient to perceive 449 Him and desire Him through an image found in the spiritual world. The concrete .spiritual image to be used as the symbol through which our virtuous love will reach the divinity remains to be determined. But here the solution is immediate. For it is quite evident that among all created spiritual realities there is for each of us only one being holding the primordial, necessary, unique place in our love: it is oneself. Therefore, each spiritual being will himself be the substantial and fundamental image with which he must be in union, in order to find complaisance~- in the subsistent beatitude of God. With these considerations, we become immediately aware of the errors contained in the anthropomorphic deception which seeks to oppose love of God and love of self as two diametrically opposed attitudes. Love of the spiritual self and love of God ought rather to be conceived of as two complementary aspects of a single virtuous act. St. Augustine emphasized the profound and mysterious identity of these loves over and over again: "Nescio quo.., inexplicabili modo quisquis Deum, non seipsum, amat, ipse se amat" (In Joh., tr. ~124, n. 5 [P.L. 35, 1968]). "Non opus erat ut, dato de Dei dilectione praecepto, etiam seipsum homo diligere juberetur: cure in eo diligat seipsum quod diligit Deum" (Epist. 155, n. 15 [P,L. 33, 672-3]). Furthermore, it is clear that for a spiritual being who has not yet arrived at the end of his journey love of self really means pursuing, as efficaciously as possible, his own beatitude. To say that love of God and love of the spiritual self coincide is then only to identify love of God with the active tendency of a spiritual being for its destined end. This too is an idea which is known to be fundamental to St. Augustine and St. Thomas. Effi- cacious love for the spiritual self coincides fully with sovereign complaisance in our divine prototype. This, then, is the philosophical notion of the love of God which will serve as the basis for our present study. The natural characteristics of this love of man for God will become more precise, however, if we deduce from this general concept of love two of its fundamental psychological features: its mysterious complexity on the one hand; its supreme attachment to moral good on the other. We shall then conclude the study of this love by considering four secondary tendencies which it produces in the heart of man.

Guy de Broglie, $4. 3~There is no English equivalent of the French "complaisance" (Latin complacentia): the state of soul resulting from amor benevo- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS lentiae. Complaisance is also an English word but does not really have this meaning. It will, however, be used in this sense throughout 45O the article. B. Psychological Features o[ the Love o[ God. a. Mysterious complexity. When a child adorns a statue of the Mother of God with lights "and flowers, he is really showing love for the person of Mary by means of her image. It would be absurd to try to discover two distinct actions here: one performed for the i~mage, and one for the person represented. "Idem est motum in. imaginem, in quantum est imago, et in rem" (III, q:8, a.3, ad 3). - But this Single act of the will does nevertheless tend in a very ~onscious manner toward two goods, which th~ subject distinguishes even while he unites them in his affections: the real good of the person represented and the symbolic good of the image. In an act of this kind, the affective attitude of complaisance un!ting’us to the first of these goods is, in a sense, the soul of the efficacious movement of the will which commands us tO perform the second act. This centrality of a primary act of the ~vill which expresses itself and is reflected in a second act is surely not foreign to a being in whom thought itself must make use of symbols iand images. But even so; symbolism introduces into our affective life a certain mysteri6us complexity which cannot easily be reduced to a simple formula. If the love of a created spirit for God must always (so long as it does not possess the beatific vision) employ the subject itself as ~n image of its supreme object, then philosophical reflection cannot but find such a love complex and mysterious. Two other considerations must be joined to the preceding: they further complicate the mystery in our earthly love for God. First of all, the fundamental image of God which we are to use and love is a spiritual one--very different, therefore, from the material images with which we normally deal. These latter never have more than an exterior, phenomenal resemblance to their model so that, in loving material things insofar as they are images, we are indifferent to their individual, substantial nature: rock, or cloth, or paper. But a spiritual image is an image in its very essence. It is to be loved because of its own proper and unique worth, as a true end, and yet at the same time as an end which is not final, since all its worth is derived from its uniquely faithful participa- + tion in a good which surpasses it. Nothing is more disturb- + ing to our reflection, so poor and so simple in any case, 4. than a recognition of a value of this kind: at once substantial in itself and substantially related to a superior ex- emplar. The difficulty is further compounded when we stop to VOLUME 2S, 1966 consider that, among men (unlike the case of the angels), the spiritual image Which we are to love in our own person is not itself the object of our perception. We know the spiritual self only through its activity, by means of the objects toward which it is drawn. This means that the mysterious complexity which is always present in an act of love of God ~ppears, in the case of human beings, in its fullest measure. For we have not only to discover and love the infinite wbrth of God by means of a created symbol which represents Him to us; we must also discoverand love the goodness of this spiritual subject through the particular objects which, in their turn, represent this symbol to us in an imperfect, indirect, and symbolic manner. It is surely true to say, then, that if our love for God is to be directed toward its object solely by means of theoretical and speculative data, the task is completely beyond our capacity. But, as we are about to see, practical reason through the voice of our moral sense gives us a clear indication of the affective attitude which will enable us to be united to the supreme good without fear of error and without hesitation. b. Supreme attachment to the moral goodness o] our actions. ~qe begin with a threefold moral truth, whose proof we shall here take for granted. 1. Man possesses within himself a moral sense, whose point of departure is the "synderesis": that is to say, we have a spontaneous ability to discover certain general rules of conduct with respect to those objects o~ the will which are either suitable or totally unsuitable for

2. Our concrete acts are ultimately "good" or "bad" in a moral sense only insofar as they are or are not in conformity with the human ideal of action which this moral sense proposes to us. 3~ The philosophical explanation for the presence of this moral sense within us is that man must be able to direct himself toward his proper end; and to do this it is absolutely necessary that he possess the power of discerning, in the diverse objects which attract his will, values which are widely divergent when related to this end. These simple considerations are sufficient to free us from one of the difficulties which sometimes hinders our practice of the love of God. We wanted to know how a man could have a proper love for his spiritual self when it" is impossible for him to see it. We can now find the Guy de Brogi~e, S:i: answer: it is sufficient that his moral sense show him which individual objects are to be willed or not in order kE’I.IGIOI~S REVIEW FOR to perform a virtuous act and consequently to serve the cause of his true happiness. These are precisely the acts of the will which enable us to achieve effective union with our spiritual self. But this explanation solves only one aspect of the problem concerning love of God--and the less difficult aspect at that. For we have still to discover how the "good" objects toward which our moral sense directs us come to be loved by us in such a way that our love is an authentic love for our divine prototype: even though we love our spiritual self through these good objects, this self is not loved as an absolute and final end but only because it is a special image of God. As we will now show, a necessary and sufficient condition that this be so is that the good act be willed not simply in a spirit of self-centered spiritual utility but because of a dominant and supreme complaisance in its intrinsic and absolute value as a morally good act. First, then, it is not enough that a spirit of self- centered spiritual utility produce the morally good act. In other words, we must reject as deceptive any theory in which the good act of the will receives its value, its basic supreme desirability, from its usefulness in attain- ing personal spiritual happiness. It is one thing to say that every morally good act is of genuine utility in obtaining spiritual happiness for the person performing it; it is quite another thing to maintain that the moral goodness of the act is defined by that utility. The first assertion is incontestable; the second, on the contrary, is untenable, and the human conscience spontaneously protests against it. The more noble a soul is, the more repugnance it experiences in basing the value of its will acts on the value of the good effects-~even spiritual ones--which flow from these acts. This, moreover, is what causes the saints to detest the fact of evil itself and not merely all the pains which flow from evil, to declare that th.ey serve God for His own sake and the sake of His law rather than because of the rewards which they will receive for their fidelity. This is a doctrine clearly presumed by St. Thomas when, in explaining to us how the love of virtue is an "honest good" (bonum honestum) rather than a "useful good" (bonum utile), he gives the following reason: an act of virtue obtains merit for the person willing it even though (per impossibile) it be absolutely useless (In 1 Sent., d.1, q.2, a.1, ad 3; II-II, q.145, a.1, ad 1). ÷ Among all the doctors, though, St. Augustine is unques- ÷ tionably the one who most insists on this necessity of ÷ loving the good act absolutely, because o[~ the quality proper to it. To justify this preeminent worth of moral Charity good, he appeals to the fundamental identity which exists between our love for our own moral perfection VOLUME 25, 1966 and our love for God Himself, an assertion which ex- 453 emplifi.es the" platonic idea that God, Who is subsistent "Justice," is loved in this life through our-participated "justice" (Serm. 159, 3 [P.L. 38, 869]; Epist. 145, nn. 5 and 6 [P.L. 33, 594-5]). This thesis so dominates the whole of Augustine’s theory of morality that he does not hesitate to repeat incessantly that the most basic moral property of an act done through charity is that it be performed "for love of justice," "out of a taste for justice"; "~x dilectione et delectationd justitiae" (See In Psalm. 118, serm. 22, n. 7 and serm. 25, n. 7 [P.L, 37, 1566 and 1576]; Serm. 156, 13 [P.L, 38, 857]; In ]oh. tr. 41, n. 10 [P.L. 35, 1698]; De spir. et litt, 14, n. 26; and 29 and 30, nn. 51 and 52 [P.L. 44~ 217 and 233]). He even defines the wholly upright will as that will which is supremely in love with its own rectitude (De lib. arb., bk. 1, 13, nn. 27-8 [P.L. 32, 1236]). Are we not contradicting ourselves when we maintain that to love the moral goodness of our act out of love for God, and to love God purely and absolutely for Himself, are the same thing? No. At least it is not such a contradiction as first appears. For the principle developed above, according to which we must love ourselves precisely because the self is the spiritual image the will needs in: order to love God,-resolves the apparent contradiction. Once we admit that the supreme object of the human will’ is "subsistent beatitude; that we find complaisance in Him through.a love of self; and that, on the other hand, the spiritual self plays a secondary and symbolic role when compared to this primary object, then it is clear that a will is right-ordered only when it is concerned, absolutely and before all else, and in each one of i~s acts, with the task of giving to its love that direction which alone allows it to be in present union with its supreme object. Thus the will’s’ concern is precisely with the supreme excellence of this object. But the only way in which we can be in union with God is to strive, as far as we are able, to attain our own spiritual end by the practice of what is morally good; the result is that our love of God drives us to’ seek our own spiritual profit in each of our actions. But it does not follow that an actual achievement of that personal profit can be, or should even seem to be, the primary motive in our activity. If this were the case, the self and its good would no longer be seen and evaluated .as objects of a love which is symbolic and whose value lies primarily in the fa~t that it allows our hearts to fix themselves on God. Guy de Broglle, $.~. In the light of these facts, it is now possible to understand the true meaning of the injunction which our REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS moral sense addresses to us, telling us to "do good and 454 avoid evil," but giving no reason for this except the absolute goodness of the first- and the absolute malice of the second. By urging us to love virtuous activity as an absolute good, our moral sense is simply demanding that we fix our wills, as completely as possible, on their ultimate end; in obtaining this end, our own personal spiritual well-being is used as a secondary object of the will. In short, the moral precept which sums up and forms the basis for all the others is the command to love God. This command always involves some element of obscurity and mystery, since God does not present l~-Iimself to us directly but appears only in the anonymous conceptual traits of the "moral good of our actions"; however, it remains absolutely true that He is the one whose supi:eme lovableness leads us to the moral good, just as He and He alone is offended by sin when the moral good is rejected. Thus the love of God and the love of the moral good as such are not really two loves but one. For this reason, the most essential attribute which love for God imprints in our hearts is an overwhe!ming desire for moral goodness in our actions. Nothing better illustrates the full sense of Christ’s words: "He who keeps my commands and guards them, he it is who loves me" (Jn 14:24). Simi- larly, nothing points up more sharply the abyss of error found in certain extreme forms of quietism which maintain that the perfect love of God will make us indifferent to the morality of our actsl Although it is most important to establish this basic identity between love and our concern always to act perfectly (for this is the basis of all doctrinal reasoning about love of God), the doctrine must be complemented by certain other considerations. For among all the objects presented for our desire and our complaisance, some reflect the divine goodness in so special a way that we must look upon our affection for these objects as something which is essential and is directly inspired by love of God (although it is still subordinated to this love). A more explicit consideration of these attitudes appears especially suitable when we recall that it is within the realm of these secondary aspects of love that our temperament, education, and state of life (to say nothing of the movements of grace) give so much legitimate diversity of thought and feeling to our varying 4. mores, laying the foundation for what are called, in 4. ascetical language, different "spiritualities." 4. Our next task will be to show, then, how the love of God gives rise to four particular tendencies in the Charity human heart: a relish for divine contemplation, a love for one’s neighbor, complaisance in the order of the uni- VOLUME 25~ 1966 verse, and zeal for the glory of God. G. Tendencies Which FollSw from the Love o[ God. a. Relish for conte~mpiati.on. The "contemplation" we are speaking about here is not something which belongs ess.entially to the supernatural order; at this point we are still considering that love of God which is on the plane of pure nature. We are only concerned for the present with establishing the fact that a man cannot love God without by that very act being drawn to fix his gaze, as far as he is ab!e, on the infinite perfections of Him whom he loves. That this relish for contemplation is an immediate corollary of love of God, that it is, in a sense, the principal touchstone (II,II, q.182, a.2, ad 1) follows from two considerations, In the first place, it is a universal psychological fact that when one person loves another he finds his joy in thinking about the other and about his happiness. Secondly, since our love of God cannot be separated from a sincere love for the image of God which is the self, it is impossible to separate our love of God from a desire for our own beatitude. If we admit, along with St. Augustine and St. Thomas, that the beatitude proper to a spiritual being lies in the knowledge it has of the supreme object to which its intellect can lead it, then it is clear that love of God cannot be present in us without eliciting a desire for contemplation of God to the best of our ability. Moreover, this desire for contemplation of God must be twofold: primarily and principally for the future contemplation which will constitute the definitive reward of all earthly virtue but also, secondarily, for the more humble intellectual acts by which a soul has, even in this life, some foretaste of the happiness which is to come. To have a proper understanding of this contemplation of God toward which the love of God is leading us, it is essential that we see it as something inspired primarily by the love itself; our joy, therefore, is to be found in the objective perfections which our intellect discovers in Him whom we love rather than in the subjective perfection which this love brings to us (II-II, q.180, a.7). In other words, we must never lose sight of the fact that even though the formal cause of our con- ÷ tentment and beatification is intellection (and intellec- ÷ tion, therefore, constitutes our final end), still this "end" ÷ is to bring contentment and beatification to our love; and such as it beatifies, such it is: which is to say that Guy de Broglie, S.], the "end" satisfies our love of God through the dazzling spectacle of His objective perfection infinitely more than REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS it satisfies our love bf self by obtaining our own sub- 456 jective perfection. When we see this quality of love which divine contemplation must have, we can realize how truly empty are all the classical objections against thomistic "intellectualism" in the name of .the "primacy of love." The latter, correctly understood, is precisely the doctrine that St. Thomas subscribes to. (See I, q.82, a.3; De Vet., q.22, a.ll.) b. Love of one’s neighbor. A relish for contemplation follows immediately from love of God and of our spiritual self. But there are many divine images to be found outside of the self; and since, unlike material goods, spiritual goods do not exclude one another, it must follow that our love for God will be sincere and full only when we can also have affection [or these other spiritual beings. This applies especially to "other men, for they are the only spiritual creatures who enter, in some fashion at least, into our concrete experience: nature itself seems to draw us toward a friendly association with them. Thus we can now assert that love for one’s neighbor is a second essential corollary to, and another touchstone for, genuine love of God. Even in a purely natural economy, it would have been true to say with St..John: "If one does not love his brother whom he sees, how can he love God whom he does not see?" (1 Jn 4:20). ¯ If it is to be authentic, love for one’s neighbor must possess three basic characteristics. Above all, it must be spiritual, for it is the spiritual image of God as inscribed in the neighbor which motivates this love. It must, therefore, focus primarily on the spiritual posses- sions of the neighbor. In the second place, it must be a universal love: it must embrace everyone in whom a resemblance to the divine can be found. Finally, the love must be devoted. The love we have for one who is in actual need is measured chiefly by the effort we are prepared to make in order to help him. In the final section of this article, we shall return to these three properties of love for one’s neighbor; we will then make certain aspects of this love more precise, for we will show that while the love must be primarily spiritual it need not be exclusively such; that it need not be actually the same toward everyone in order to be universal; that, to be devoted, it is not exempt from an ordering of charity which will rule and limit its sacri- 4, fices. For the present, it will su~ice if we merely lay + down these general principles. But it might be useful to 4- add that this devoted love for one’s neighbor is, in some respects, contrary to the taste for contemplation ~Jmrity which we have already declared to be the primary reflection and sign of an authentic love of God. For while VOLUME 25, 1966 one of these impulses turns love toward exterior ac- 457 tivity, the second leads it to silence and meditation. Thus we see already that the true sign of an authentic divine love will be the establishment of a sort of concrete (though also variable) equilibrium between these two tendencies. This is so true, that a clear sign of illusory love is to pretend to one of the tendencies to the exclusion of the other. c. Complaisance in the order of the universe. It may appear as though the only natural and fundamental images of God, the only objects which divine love com- pels us to interest ourselves in, are oneself and other men. But there is another image; in a certain sense it is the primary one. It is the universe--that assembly of all creatures, spiritual and material, which (as is well known) holds the central place in the theological thought of a St. Augustine or a St. Thomas. It is impossible to develop a comprehensive theory of love of God without considering the affective attitude which we must have toward this great divine work. Before we can make this study, we must first clarify our idea of this universe and of its eminent value--and this is a concept which does not seem to receive the place it deserves among contemporary theologians. We will therefore begin by listing the principal thomistic theses relevant to the question. 1. The created good having primacy in the intention of the Creator is the perfection and harmony of creation as a whole. "Bonum universi praeeminet bono cujuslibet creaturae particularis, sicut bonum totius praeeminet bono partis" (De pot., q.3, a.18). "Post bonitatem divi- num, quae est finis a rebus separatus, principale bonum in ipsis rebus existens est perfectio universi" (I, q.22, a.4, c). "Forma quam principaliter Deus intendit ir; rebus creatis est bonum ordinis universi" (I, q.49, a.2, c). 2. This "perfection of the whole" is simply the objective manifestation of all of the divine perfections in the work of God, in other words, of that "extrinsic glory" of God which, according to Vatican Council I, is the supreme created end of all creation (Denzinger-Sch6n- metzer, 3002, 3025). 3. This "perfection of the whole," this "extrinsic glory" of God, is also and indivisibly a work of pure love exe- cuted by God on behalf of those for whom He created all ÷ things, that is, on behalf of the society of the elect. ÷ For, since He is Love, it is His own liberality which He ÷ wishes to glorify above all in His work. He desires in other words that His beloved ones should forever rejoice Guy de Broglie, 8.$. in the perfection of His work, that they should bless Him eternally for the joy which He has given to them. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 4. The eternal, all-inclusive will act by which God 458 decrees the harmony which He will bring into being among all His creatures cannot be frustrated: it is sovereign and includes all the details in the order of providence. 5. The good realized by this will act is within its own order a perIect good and a perfect glorification of God. This clearly does not mean that God could not have created a more perfect world had He so chosen, one made up of more divine, more excellent beings. But since He exhausts all of the active forces which He has put into His work with an infinitely judicious wisdom, it is simply inadmissible to think that he could have employed these same resources in a better way. In this sense it is necessary that in one way or another God extracts a maximum of glory from the world He has instituted. This is a consideration which allows St. Thomas to say: "Deus et natura et quodcumque agens facit quod melius est in toto, sed non in unaquaque parte" (I, qA8, a.2, ad 3; see I, q.25, a.6, ad 3; C. gent., 3, 94), 6. It is always in the light of this relative optimism that St. Thomas (in this a disciple of St. Augustine) solves the problem of evil. God cannot allow sin, he believes, unless it is for the greater good of the whole-- whether this be that the sin of one provides better opportunity for virtue in others or that it provides conditions in which certain of the divine perfections shine forth more brilliantly, more totally: the mercy which pardons or the justice which punishes. (See In 2 Sent., d.29, q.1, a.3, ad 4; I, q.22, a.2, ad 2; I-II, q.79, aA, ad 1.) When we understand this fundamental place that the universe and its perfection has in the divine plan, it becomes abundantly clear that a soul cannot love God without at the same time loving not only the particular created images of God but also the great collective image in which the eternal will finds the ultimate created object of its complaisance. We now turn to the psychological attitudes which this love ought to induce. Two can be discerned, it seems; they are in no sense contradictory--rather, the second presumes a contemplation which is more attentive to the designs of God while the first seems to be something snited also to less enlightened souls as they first come to believe in God and in His providence. (1) The attitude o[ a confident abandonment to providence. This attitude is based on the fact that the order which is concretely realized in the universe has its origin in the providence of God. For souls who love God, this Charity fact makes the order itself worthy of a twofold love: because it is a work which is pleasing to Him whom VOLUME 25, 1966 they love above all and because, aware of the fact that 459 they are loved by God, they cannot doubt that everything is directed by Him for their own good. The resuh is an attitude of loving submission and affectionate abaridon- merit to divine providence present in every circumstance but, as we shall see, requiring no elaborated theory concerning the proper end of the universe or of the general rules governing it. (2) The attitude of exultant optimism. This second attitude supposes insights that are more developed either through reason or through t~aith. It is based on a realization of the total Self-glorification which God has achieved through the universe: a realization which is a source of joy for every loving soul, a source of peace and of consolation in the face of all the vicissitudes of earthly life. Whichever of these two forms it assumes, complaisance in the order of the universe is not by its nature a direct inducement toward exterior activity. The goods which lead to this complaisance are goods which flow infallibly and necessarily from the will of God; they have no dependence on us. This tendency of our love of God is, therefore, in some sense analogous to the taste for contemplation which was discussed above. It is distinct from it, however, in that it induces us to derive the immediate motive for our joy directly from the created good rather than from the necessary perfection of the Creator. d. Zeal for the divine glory. We truly love someone only when we are in sympathy with his intentions. then, we love God and if God in His creative activity has His own glory as His primary intention then we too must have an active desire for the glory of God. The "divine glory" thus becomes not only a goal which we approve of when God secures it by His providence; it is also an objective which we on our part are anxious to secure by our activity and by our prayers. Note that this consideration leads us directly toward a contradiction. For if providence gives complete assur- ance of the glorification of the Creator in the universe so that the divine glory will be fully manifested with complete certainty independently of what we are able to do, how can we sincerely view that glory as an end to be secured by our own efforts? This would clearly + suppose that it. is in jeopardy unless we have concern 4. for it. 4. The problem would be insoluble if the "divine glory" which providence achieves and that which we have the Guy de Broglie, S.]. task of securing were one and the same. But such is not the case. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS A principle of St. Thomas will guide us here, the principle that each agent must propose to itself an end proportionate to its state of being (C. gent. 3, 94). It follows that there cannot be full identification between the "glory of God" which is the final cause of the rule of providence and the "glory of God" which is the final cause of our own humble efforts. As a matter of fact, the first of these "glories" is, as we have already said, the objective and universal manifestation of the divine perfection in the whole of creation--a manifestation which (to stress only two of its aspects here) implies on the one hand the well-ordered government of all created rihture and, on the other, the permission of moral evil precisely as a condition for the full glorification of the divine mercy and the divine justice. But the "divine glory" which constitutes the objective of our efforts is not nearly so complete. We are poor human beings, endowed by nature with a special sympathy for our fellowman and powerless in any effective promotion of a higher good; therefore the "glory of God" which we must work for will be wholly limited to those goods which unite all men more spiritually to God through the bonds of knowledge and love. In short, it is a glory which is identical with the spiritual perfection of all members of the human race. Thus we see that for God to allow the blindness and the sins of men is something which is independent of our activity or our prayers. It is the express intention of God that these evils should become an occasion for a greater glorification of His justice or His mercy. Our role, is rather to do everything within our power that, so. far as is possible, no individual sins be committed. And yet we must admit at the same time that the total objective divine glory, by which God regulates His ac-. tivity and also permits sins, constitutes a good which in itself is more excellent than the objective glorification given to God by all of the men toward whom we direct our efforts. (On this difference of viewpoint between God and ourselves, see the principles of solution formu- lated by St. Thomas, I-II, q.19, a.1.) Once we are aware of this distinction between the "glory" of which God is absolutely assured by His sovereign providence and that which is to be identified with the spiritual good of mankind, we can easily ÷ understand why the second can and must be the proper ÷ object of our zeal even though the first is not. For the ÷ l~otal objective glorification of God ifl the universe can be brought about by providence alone and in an infinite ~harity variety of ways. But nothing prevents the degree of objective glory given to God by men from depending on VOLUME 25, 1966 us--and this especially in those spheres of activity which 46] are our particular concern and our more special occupation. For we must never forget that, although the "glorification" of God which we are to further is specified and essentially determined by the fact that we are human creatures, it is also proportional to our individuality and our concrete situation. In other words, "zeal for the glory of God" should never be pictured as something Which demands an identical concern on the part of each one of us so that the acts which give God glory are precisely the same for all men. On the contrary, each man should clearly concern himself with the glorification of God in those areas in which he is most involved: those in which his affection most keenly leads him to a well-ordered charity. We shall return to this question of the ordering of charity later; let us merely emphasize here that in virtue of this last principle the "divine glory" which ought to be uppermost in our minds is that activity which is constantly concerned with the task of giving the highest possible honor to God in ourselves and through our present activity. This zeal for the divine glory is the one which is most fundamental and most sovereign in judging the morality of our acts, and the morality of our actions is the source of all true love of God. No further statement is necessary to refute the classic sophistry which equates the maxim "Ad majorem Dei gloriam" with "The end justifies the means"--as if we should be ready to commit personal sin whenever it appears useful in preventing greater sins on the part of othersI (See St. Thomas, In 4 Sent., d.38, %2, a.4, q.1, ad 2; Suarez, De car., disp. 9, s.1, n.3.) Finally, let us remember that, just as love for one’s neighbor serves as a sort of counterbalance to the desire for contemplation, so also zeal for the divine glory will counter our confident abandonment to providence. For just as devotion to the living image of God found in our brothers is an invaluable touchstone for determining the attaction which the infinite perfection of God has for us, so also genuine complaisance in the "glory" which God is assured of by His providential rule must be verified by the active sympathy we give to the "divine glory" proper to our own activity. This having been ÷ said, the fact remains that zeal for the divine glory, as ÷ with any of the tendencies which are the result of a love for God, can hold an importance which is more or less (entral, depending on the psychological make-up of different persons. The basic unity of the divine love ac- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS commodates itself in this way to the different psycho- ,/62 logical emphases which define various "spiritualities." ]I. THE SPECIAL CHARACTER OF SUPERNATURAL LOVE FOR GOD

A. Dogmatic Principles. Up to this point we have been considering the characteristics of the love of God which refer directly to the natural order. But there is no reason why these same characteristics should not be found in each one of the forms, including the supernatural, which our love of God can assume in this life. Grace does not destroy nature; and this principle ought to be verified most acutely when we are in the realm of the most perfect act of which the will is capable: love of the supreme good. Therefore, in studying the supernatural aspects which divine love assumes, we wish to examine only the additional higher properties which the supernatural quality of this love adds to the natural characteristics already considered. To understand these properties, we must begin by considering what it is that constitutes the supernatural order. We take for granted here that the future beatitude for which God has destined us from the beginning of time is not merely the relative and imperfect beatitude demanded by nature which consists in a contemplation of God through the mirror of our own essence and the essence of the universe. Rather, by a gratuitous and supremely beneficent design the Greator has prepared for us a supreme and specifically divine beatitude, consisting in the contemplation of God, face to face, with a clear and direct vision of what He is. 0 No creature could ever merit such a good as this through his own capacities; the destiny cannot be realized unless God Himself comes, even in this present life, to dwell within the soul (by sanctifying grace) and to inspire its actions (by actual grace). With these fundamental principles in mind, we can easily derive four basic characteristics necessarily found in our love of God as the result of our supernatural elevation.

B. Characteristics Proper to In/used Charity. a. A concern /or the mystical quality of our activity. If it is true that, as we stated in the beginning of this + article, the virtuous love of man for God must always 4. make use of the lover himself as the spiritual image 4. through which the supreme object is reached, it is easy to see that the image of God which we find within ourselves must have been transformed in some way by the presence there of divine grace; this transformation VOLUME 25, 1966 demands that we love the image in a new way. For the 463 divine mbdel whose traits are reflected in this image does not merely preside over the working out of our destiny from afar. He resides within us; He is associated with us; He is the directing principle in our lives. How would it be possible, under these circumstances, to love ourselves sincerely--that is, because of the divine element we discover in ourselves--unless we be in whole-hearted and all-embracing harmony with the divine principle of direction and of life? And how are we to be in harmony with Him, except by a vigilant effort to be docile in yielding to His impulses and His guidance? In the supernatural order, therefore, just as in the natural, the perfection of our love of God consists in uniting ourselves to the best of our ability with the divine image inscribed within us; in this way we fix our heart on Him whom the image represents. It is still true that an overwhelming love for the internal quality of these acts, "ex~ dilectione et delectatione justitiae," prompts our activity.’ However, in the economy of grace, both the nature of the divine image and the quality present in our acts have been modified and sublimated. What we love as the internal perfection of our act is no longer anything positive that we ourselves perform; it is what God has deigned to introduce into the act. To love the supernatural moral goodness of our act is to love the act itself--not merely because God is the supreme object but in this new case because He is also the specific and principal cause. In short, if a supernatural act is worth performing, this is primarily because it proceeds from faculties which have become the animated instrumental causes of God Himself. Our role is to find perfect complaisance in an actual surrender to" this divine initiative not merely as the true cause of the results we hope to achieve but because we see that the surrender of our powers to the God who guides them is the only way we have of being in harmony with the actualization of the divine image in us, the only way of fixing our heart on God Himself whom this image represents to us. The first characteristic peculiar to a supernatural love of God is, then, that we have love not merely for the moral goodness of our activity (that is, its conformity with the universal norm of right reason), but also that we love, simultaneously and even primarily, its mystical quality (that is, its conformity with the mysterious impulses by which the living guidance of God is expressed Guy de B~ogl~e, S.]. in us). In a supernatural economy, this tendency toward a " REVIEW FOR R~LIG[OUS type of mystical activity must permeate our whole way 464 of acting. But it goes without saying that the tendency possesses a greater or lesser degree of preciseness and intensity according as our souls are more or less enlightened, more or less perfected. In the theology of St. Thomas, this tendency is ordinarily joined to the exercise of the "gifts" of the Holy Spirit; these acquire a dominant influence in our life, which grows as we grow in divine love. (See I-II, q.68.) b. Renunciation of spiritual independence. This second characteristic of supernatural love is intimately bound up with the first. For, in itself, independence is a perfection. But once a spiritual being is willing to allow itself to be directed by an interior supernatural influence of God (which means accepting the presence of another), a certain degree of self-denial, a certain humility, a certain spiritual sacrifice must be present. (The one exception to this is the beatific vision. To choose the actual immediate possessi6n of the supreme good rather than some created good is only to prefer total beatitude to partial beatitude. This could in no sense be described as a form of "renunciation.") But how do we manifest this abnegation? What are the basic psychological attitudes pertaining to this quality, so essential to our life of supernatural merit? It is not difficult to find the answer: the basic form of spiritual abnegation which charity demands of us in this life consists essentially in the exercise of faith and of hope. For the first of these virtues is a guide which leads us to accept as the directing principle of our life not our own ideas but those of the first truth; the second leads us to regard as the vital force on which we depend not our own energies but those of the divine omnipotence. Charity, then, dictates an attitude of spiritual renunciation by leading us to the emptying of ourselves in order to subject ourselves to God in the way proper to faith and hope. At the same time, this attitude must clearly be one which is suffused with love, with an overwhelming desire to unite ourselves to God as totally as possi- b~e in all our activity. c. God seen as Friend and Father. The two notions of friendship and divine sonship are among the most traditional ways of describing the life of grace. But it is worth our while to take note of the fact that this double .relationship of the creature to God and the special type,of love which it implies are properties unique ÷ to infused charity. ÷ "Friendship" (to begin with this notion) implies some- ÷ thing more than "complaisance" or "mutual goodwill." A slave may love his master and be loved in return; Charity but we would never dare to suggest that they are friends. This type of mutual love assumes only that each party VOLUME 25, 1966 wishes for the other the good which is proper to that 465 other. But friendship demands that each party long to see in his friend another self, so that the two come to desire the same goods, one for the other: they wish to enjoy them together. Briefly, then, friendship is the aspiration in each of two persons that they be united in the joint possession of a single happiness. Such an aspiration would surely be impossible in a love by which God would destine us toward a merely natural beatitude; neither would it be possible in the natural love by which we would respond to such a destiny. But in a supernatural economy the good to which God invites us and around which all our desires are to be oriented is precisely the same good which God himself enjoys; this is what He wishes us to enjoy with Him. In this way, and only in this way, the convergence of aspirations is realized between God and His creatures: two "friends" longing to be united in a "single joy. We can be even more explicit. In our love of charity, the divine Friend need not be seen as someone absent and far away. As we h’ave already said, it is precisely through His present intimate influence that we are to tend toward the full union which He of His own goodness has prepared for us. Thus, for the "friends" whom charity brings into contact with God, it is a case of the present "heart to heart" as a prelude to the eternal "face to face." Again, the truth that God is our "Father" is not something which flows immediately from our considerations above. For God surely does not appear to be a Father when we consider our own nature: in its proper sense, paternity demands a communication from one subjectto another of a life specifically the same; and surely our natural life is not of the same species as the life of God. But by giving Himself to us through the life of grace, thus preparing .us for the divine union, God does truly begin to communicate to us something of His own nature and of His own specific life. By this act, He makes Himself our Father. It is of the nature of infused charity, then, never to regard God as only a Master (however liberal and benevolent) but to see Him as Friend and Father whose society we enjoy even now in some mysterious way. This affective view of God so alters the quality of our spirit of prayer, our abandonment to providence, our confidence and our zeal, that it can be truly said that our love of God has been entirely transfigured. d. Intimate and fraternal union with all of creation. Guy de Broglie, S.]. The supernatural life is a totally new bond uniting us with the Creator. It follows as an immediate corollary REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS that this new life should also unite each of us in a new 466 way with all other creatures. This is especially evident when we consider the case of spiritual creatures. These, because ’of their divine adop- tion, have contracted a new bond of fraternity with us--a particularly intimate bond, since it is the result of the real but mysterious presence of an invisible divine Guest, living even now in each just man and waiting to reveal Himself as the single indivisible object of the common beatitude of all men. Even the angels, who could in no sense be called our brothers in a natural economy, now become part of the divine family, watch- ing over us with a special care which demands a response of affectionate and confident devotion. But this is not sufficient. It is one of the proper effects of a supernatural economy that material nature also, in its own way, join with the children of God in paying reverence to the Creator in return for the new intimacy they have with Him. It is fitting, in other words, that God should so regulate the laws of the material world itself that nothing can occur which would materially afflict those whom He deigns to make His friends and His children. We know that this was actually the case before the sin of Adam. It will again be the case when nature, freed at last from the slavery of sin, will have achieved that state of union toward which, according to St. Paul (Rom 8:19-23), it is striving. Thus, if we prescind from the exceptional and temporary conditions imposed on our lives by sin and redemption, we may say that in principle at least infused charity produces an attitude of confident abandonment even within the realm of material nature. Through a special act of Providence, it too becomes man’s completely trustworthy friend. From this consideration we may deduce the type of self-denial that divine charity calls for in a human nature which is innocent and whole. In the section above, we gave strong emphasis to the fact that the supernatural order introduces an element of spiritual self-denial into our lives--a self-denial of a type which a purely natural virtue would not have required. It is now time to add that this sacrifice in the spiritual order produces a corresponding beneficent effect in this life: the practice of natural virtue will be marvelously facili- tated, since it no longer depends on self-denial of the senses. For man no longer needs to carry on an anxious struggle against badly-governed sense desires; he does not have to maintain a courageous stand against ever- menacing evil. The element of abnegation, without which a life of merit is inconceivable, will have been elevated from the sensible to the purely spiritual plane. VOLUME 25, 1966 Finally, except for this practical suppression of sensi- 467 ble self-denial (something which cannot occur in an economy of grace which is based on the redemption), each of these more special properties which we hhve discovered in infused charity must surely be present also in a charity that is specifically Christian. We will now give more particular attention to this charity which Christ has brought into the world. What new properties does it have, of a higher nature, which distinguish it from the simply infused charity that was realized in Adam and that we have been describing? III. THE UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS PROPER TO CHRISTIAN LOVE OF GOD ,4. Dogmatic Principles. If we are to discover the properties specific to Christian charity, we must first recall that humanity in its present state, so long as it relies only on its natural abilities, can exercise neither of the two forms of divine love we have so far analyzed. For the sin of the first man has not only resulted in the loss of the free gift of grace; it has also made us slaves to sin (Rom 6:20) so that we can no longer by our own strength rule our lives according to the dictates of pure reason. St. Augustine and St. Thomas interpret this statement to mean that to love God above all things (even if He be considered only as the author of nature) is an act which is no longer possible to the spiritual powers left to us and guaranteed us in our present state of human existence. A fortiori, we°are unable, when left to ourselves, to have any sort of all-pervading love of the supernatural moral good. The only way in which we can offer to God and to the moral good the sovereign place they deserve in our affection is to submit to the peculiarly sublime laws of thought and action which have been imposed on us by the grace of Christ which has been poured into our hearts. Our present task, then, is to try to determine the characteristics which these laws add to the already sublime laws of infused charity. To do this, we begin with a doctrinal consideration of Christ as Redeemer. We know, of course, that Christ is the Word made flesh, that He died for us on the cross, and that He now ÷ reigns in heaven at the right hand of the Father ÷ whence He bestows on us all graces. ÷ But this is not sufficient; we can admit all of this and still have only a very deformed notion of Christ. So long Guy de Broglie, S.$. as we restrict ourselves to a declaration of the various truths concerning His excellence as an individual and REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS about the spiritual power of His actions, we have not ,t68 yet understood what He is. We must go fi,rther and acknowledge the mysterious union that exists between Christ and the rest of the human race in virtue of which He is the Head of the Mystical Body. How can we represent this union? Perhaps the best way is to recall that Christ Himself has compared the bond uniting His own with Himself with the bond that unites Him to His Father On 17:21-2). Now the element proper to the trinitarian unity lies precisely in the fact that the irreducible uniqueness of each Person (who is also a subject possessing the good) is not destroyed even though there is in God an all-embracing unity by reason of this good which is possessed by all three persons--for this good belongs totally to each of the Persons. To understand the unity of the Mystical Body~ then, we must understand how and why everything that is Christ’s must also be fully ours; while, conversely, all that we have is not only ours but also His. A good way of explaining this mystery of joint possession and mutual belonging is to begin with the essentially incomplete finality which the Word Incarnate has when He is considered in the abstract without reference to the created persons who are the indispensable recipients of His mercy. For the Incarnation is of no benefit to the divine Person who assumes the created nature; an Incarnation which would not benefit someone other than Him who became incarnate would benefit no one and could not be a divine initiative dictated by love; it could only be an inconceivable fantasy of God! But if the Incarnation necessarily requires someone other than Himself for whom God chooses to abase Himself, than it is clear that Christ finds His specific finality in us; in this sense Christ exists purely for the good of His fellow men. It follows that all His created good is given to Him entirely for our sake, and thus it is ours as much as His. We clo not mean to imply by this conclusion that we are not totally His, in the sense that we are totally and irrevocably ordained to His glory; on the contrary. Whether it is because the Creator (whose glory is the end of all things) cannot enter the universe without becoming the center around which everything else is ordered, or because the ultimate glory of a "Sav- ior" is that he "save," the fact that we are destined to salvation--once we acknowledge that Christ exists--is identified with the fact that we are destined to glorify Him through whom alone the way to salvation has been opened to us. Over and over again, Scripture repeats the truth that God has given us to Christ (Jn 17:6), that He has given Christ to us (Jn 4:16), and that, with Him, He has given us all good things (Rom 8: 32). Therefore, to represent Jesus Christ and other men VOLUME 25, 1966 as if they were creatures with distinct finalities and with 469 destinies which are only parallel would be utterly false and contrary to any true idea of Christianity---even if we admit that His good influence is to be~ exercised on our behalf. Rather, we must look upon Christ as a .being whose essential finality cannot be achieved with- ’out at the same time obtaining the ends proper to each of His brothers; we must realize that men have no finality which does not coincide with the glorification within themselves of Christ the Redeemer. This statement, together with the principle that unity in finality is a clear sign of ontological nnity, shows ns that the key to the whole of Christian theology lies in this one idea: that all the faithful, together with Christ, form a single grand entity, consecrated by its very nature to a single unified growth. And there is nothing more deserving of our concern than the cause of this total being, whose good is at once the good of Christ and the good of all the redeemed. This, then, is the fundamental principle, without which it is impossible to give an accurate doctrinal presentation of a charity that is specifically Christian. B. The Special Properties o] Christian Charity. a. Love of self in Christ. As we said at the very beginning of this article, love of God is possible for us in this life only to the extent that it coincides with a love for the image of God---our own spiritual self. But one of the results of original sin is that the true value of this image has been in some way distorted (or, what is the same, our intellect has been darkened and our will weakened to the extent that the natural moral good no longer exercises its proper attraction). God, however,. has willed to heal this sickness with a wonderfully appropriate medicine. Surely He could have produced the result by a purely interior healing: restoring our sense of and taste for spiritual good. Or He could have offered an additional exterior image of Himself in order to draw us to Him- self. As a matter of fact, He has chosen still another way: our healing takes the form of a progressive spiritual reeducation. It was not God’s will that Christ should only obtain merits for us, conferring on each of us the spiritual goods that we lack. He willed instead "that + Christ should become a necessary object of love whose + attraction makes up in some way for that which is lack- 4. ing in our individual personal moral ideal. He has willed, in other words, that the "image of God" which Guy de Broglie, SJ. man can no longer find clearly in his own spiritual self should shine forth fully and completely in Him who has REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS become "the likeness of the invisible God" (Col 1 : 15). 470 This fact must be carefully understood. There is no question here of an "image" of God--Christ--substitu- ting Himself for the more or less obscure image of God presented by our spiritual self, as if our Christian love of God will find its supreme object only when it interests itself exclusively with the lovableness of Christ, disassoci- ating itself from our own person. The laws of grace may not violate those of nature in this way; and it is part of our nature that we are able to love moral good only by an actual union with our spiritual self and its destiny. This is a truth that we have already seen; the question of the fundamental image of God to be used in Christian love, then, has a complete solution only in the light of the dogmatic principle developed above. Christ and the self cannot be seen or loved as two beings with separate destinies, as two juxtaposed images of God. They must be seen as forming a single total being, a single complete image of God, in the unity of the Mystical Body. Therefore, Christian love exists only to the extent that a union exists between the spirituality of Christ and our own spiritual self; we wish to live only for His glory, even as we find peace in the thought that He lives only for our common good. This condition of our being is a very mysterious one: onr love is founded on two persons totally different, yet associated in the union of one great collective human Body. We still maintain, though, that this is the only correct view; it is the only one in full accord with the doctrine of the Incarnation. The first quality of Christian love of God, then, is that its activity and its cause, for our own spiritual being and for the formal glorification of Christ, are united indivisibly in ourselves. ~Ve are united directly with a multipersonal image of God, and our desire must be to perfect this in ourselves to the best of our ability; at the same time we must realize that our concern is not to be an attempt to obtain concrete results so much as it is to be a simple exercise of the act itself. This is the basic means we have of loving the divine Trinity, since the Trinity is best represented to us in this mysterious image. In other words, we have a proper love for the specifically Christian moral good, and as a result we love God in a way that is Christian, to the exact measure that we have an absolute and overwhelming desire of perform- ÷ ing an act which is not only homage rendered to the infinite goodness of the divine object (this is characteris- ÷ tic of every naturally good act), or even homage to the object perceived with the help of an intimate and ~:har~ty special influence of God (characteristic of every super- naturally good act); the homage rendered to this object VOLUME 25, 1966 must take place through an activity which reproduces 471 Christ in us in a vital way, which is totally oriented to the task of making Christ shine forth in our own person. To act always out of an overwhelming heartfelt desire of this type is to act "ex delectatione justitiae Christianae"; this is the most fundamental way in which Christian love of God can be exercised in our hearts. b. A desire for complete renunciation of temporal things. The absolute desire to live the very life of Christ as totally as possible will immediately produce .the determination to reproduce and continue in ourselves the same type of life that He lived while He was on earth. But Christ’s life did not consist merely in the prac.tice of all the virtues proper to our humanity or even to our supernatural vocation. His primary mission on earth was very well defined: to redeem the human race and to redeem it by a sorrowful atonement: to offer a total sacrifice. If, then, Christian love of God consists in an unconditioned desire that we reproduce Christ in ourselves, of necessity this desire will mean that we associate ourselves with His suffering--not just to discharge the debt we owe because of our sins, not just to insure against failure in the future, but in order to enlist ourselves in the same universal cause that was Christ’s, in order that, so far as is possible, our activity may be one with His. From this determination comes the saying of St. Paul: "Qui autem sunt Christi, carnem suam crucifixerunt cum vitiis et concupiscentiis" (Gal 5:24). From this determination comes the boundless desire for suffering that appears so often in the lives of the saints, and the call to a most profound renunciation sounded by the masters of the spiritual life--a St. Ignatius of Loyola, or a St. John of the Cross. From this determination come the evangelical counsels, and the high esteem the Church has always had for the grace of martyrdom. There is nothing that more typifies Christianity; and there is nothing which is, at first glance, more disturbing to our human, carnal sense than the "folly of the cross." The great esteem that sacrifice enjoys, the positive attraction which it exercises on souls, these would have no raison d’etre in a purely natural economy, to say nothing of an economy of grace undisturbed by sin. As we said above, rennnciation of sensible things would have no place in such a state; it would be replaced by an abnegation which is purely spiritual. But through the unique fact that is Christianity, all imaginable forms of Guy de Broglle, S.]. abnegation are at once joined together through the pressure of a love so strong that it finds a holy joy even in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS sufferingS--because of Christ, whose Passion we must 472 continue in ourselves (Col 1:24). c. ,4 love for each one of the divine Persons. Does the supernatural life of a soul in the state of grace always demand a relation with each of the divine .Persons separately? Or must we rather deny any theory of this sort, explaining the traditional formulas which seem to imply such relations by the theory of appropriation? Or, finally, should we allow a special relationship with each of the divine Persons, but only because of the Incarnation of the Word? We h~ve no intention of discussing such delicate theological questions in this article; but we do wish to emphasize two points. The first is that a mere elevation to a supernatural destiny does not seem to demand, at least in this life, that man be instructed in the doctrine of the Trinity. There is no reason to suppose that Adam, in the state of innocence, knew this divine mystery, The intimacy with God resulting from his supernatural nature appears to have drawn him to the Creator only in the unity of his nature, not in the Trinity of His person. On the other hand, and this is the second point we wish to emphasize, knowledge of the Incarnation and Redemption does demand a revelation of the Trinity, and this for many reasons. In the first place, we must know who He is who has come to save us: we must know His role, His state of soul in the eyes of God. Secondly, our incorporation into Christ has been traditionally represented as the foundation for a union in His personal attributes; our sanctification must therefore be regarded as an entry, in some fashion, into the Trinity itself, because of the relationships with the three Persons which are implanted in us through this incorporation. Our filiation through grace cannot truly be understood until we realize that we ar~ joined to the Father by an extension of the privileges of Him who is Son by His nature; similarly, we must look upon the presence of the Holy Spirit within us as the fruit of our incorporation in Him who is, with the Father, the principle of the Spirit, viewing this presence as a Gift of the Son and the Father. Finally, as we have already indicated, the unity of the Mystical Body is a created image of the unity .within the Trinity. It would be difficult to understand why God should offer such a mysterious image of Himself as the object of our love, unless this image is a + means of entering into and enjoying the mystery which ÷ it represents. + Whatever further theories ~ve may develop in explaining the ontological relationships existing between Charity the soul and the three divine Persons, we can be sure that the affective relationship established between that VOLUME 25~ 1966 soul and each of these Persons is a fundamental and 473 special property of Christian charity. We are to love the Word not only as God, but also as the Head of that Body of which we are the members; we must love His Father as One who has adopted us in Jesus Christ; and the Holy Spirit is to be loved as the living sign which Christ and His Father have given to us to help us to live their Life. d. Christian love of neighbor. Just as the Christian is to love himself and seek after his own spiritual good in Christ, so also it is in Christ that he is to love all his brothers. This means, in the first place, that the spiritual benefit he desires for them must ever be that they put on Christ and glorify Him in themselves. The goal of fraternal charity in this life, then, will be the union of all men in Christ by faith and charity, in the visible union of the Church. In the final analysis, our zeal for God’s glory is summed up by our devotion to the Church and its well-being. But the Incarnation and Redemption not only specify and elevate the goal which our fraternal charity and zeal are to aim at. Christ has also provided us with a totally new means of furthering His cause--and this is not only the particular and tangible means of the Mass and the sacraments. Fie has furnished us also with the universal, uniquely mysterious means revealed to us in the doctrine of the Communion of Saints. In the Adamic economy, each man’s virtuous acts fur- thered, the salvation of that man alone. In the Christian economy, on the other hand, each of our good acts, while it is our own personal work, is at the same the work of Christ in us. Because of this, our good acts must have a part in the universal transforming activity .of Christ, manifested in the grace showered upon the entire human community. The conclusion must be that a Chris- tian life demands not only an affective disposition of universal good will toward all other men; we must also be prepared to work for the effective promotion of the spiritual good of everyone in every act of every man, because of the mystical value each of these acts has for the good of the entire human race. And this mystical value must become something especially valuable, to us when we come to realize that its growth is as unbounded as the ÷ growth of our own .perfection in love. ÷ We do not mean to imply by this assertion (is there need of emphasizing it?) that, in Christian life, the mystical and universal aspect of our good acts is the only Guy de Broglie, S.]. part involved in fraternal charity. Here, as always, grace has not destroyed nature; our good activity must still in- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS clnde a wide variety of particular temporal or spiritual ends which depend on the particular circumstances. These objectives will motivate and specify our acts. But in each act our foremost care must be for the mystical value included. XYe must be very precise here: to be concerned with the mystical value of our acts does not mean that we are careful about some precise amount of value as though we were. presumptuous enough to .believe that each work was of great merit in the universal salvation of man. What we must attend to is the fact that this mystical value--whether it be great or small--is intimately related to the moral good; and it is this moral good which, out of a love for God, we primarily and absolutely desire for our neighbor. To love our neighbor in Christ, then, is to act out of a love which takes into account all of these considerations concerning the proper end of Christian love of neighbor and which, at the same time, considers the precise kind of act that will achieve a particular end. e. Love of the entire universe in Christ. Christ is not only Head and Savior of mankind; He is also the center and final end of the universe. God could surely have created the universe without introducing Christ into it; but once Christ does take up residence in the universe, He immediately takes the universe into His hands, receiving it as His possession. Putting this another way, the objective total glorification of God has always been the final end of the universe; but once God has become incarnate, glorification of God becomes identified with glorification of the incarnate God. This fact can furnish new insights; as they grow more precise and more meaningful, our confident love of divine providence ought to take them into account. For God’s design in the universe could have been something known only in a faint, abstract way; but now it has been revealed to us in a way which is at once more concrete and more sublime. Under this new form, it shows us the close bond which our incorporation into Christ has established between each one of us and the divine center ol~ all creation. To love the universe in Christ, then, means finding complaisance in the providential order of the world precisely as it has been revealed to us in this new light: to us who realize that, in the Person of our Head, we already sit en- throried in heaven (Eph 2:6).

SUPPLEMENTARY ’QO~ST~ONS A. Charity and the Temporal Good of Our Neighbor. We have already pointed out that love for our neigh- Charit~ bor consists primarily in a desire to devote ourselves to his spiritual good. It follows at once that this inclination VOLUME 25, 1966 by its very nature obliges us to see that he also obtains 475 certain temporal .goods: those which can be of use in furthering his spiritual well-being; for example, the material means o.. living an upright life without undue hardships. But has the last word been said on the subject of fraternal charity when we assert that we must look upon the temporal good of the neighbor as a means of assuring his eternal beatitude as far as we can i.nlluence this? Surely not. This would be to forget that charity demands a love for men, not merely for souls; and men are material composites who desire, while on this earth, a certain degree of material happiness. Who would dare to propose such a narrow concept of charity? Who would be rash enough to believe that we can be indifferent to the temporal sufferings endured by our neighbor as long as we are sure that the trial will bring his soul profit? Or that an occasion for giving pleasure without any obvious spiritual detriment or benefit should, of itself, exercise no influence on our charity? Does anyone deny that it is in conformity with Christian charity to look after those who are insane even from their birth? ~Ve alleviate their sufferings, even though this care is not of the slightest value in promot- ing their spiritual well-being. And who does not praise a nurse who devotes herself to healing a sick man, even though we may believe that he will receive more scientific treatment if he is committed to a hospital? The temporal good of our neighbor is of concern to charity, therefore, not only as a means--in proportion to the spiritual good which it may provide--but also as a true end. The end is secondary, to be sure, but it is something which is in itself capable of rousing us to action. To give a rational explanation for these feelings is easy enough when we recall that it is of the essence of our composite nature to make use of images and symbols: through the medium of such images and symbols we "love God whom we do not see" by loving our brothers "whom we do see" (1 Jn 4:20). Is it not merely a further application of the same principle to add that "we cannot sincerely value the goods of the neighbor which we do not see (that is, his spiritual goods) unless we begin by having a regard for those which we do see," ÷ that is, the things which bring him temporal comfort’t ÷ We have fallen into a complete delusion if we imagine ÷ that our love for our neighbor is more perfect when we care only for his spiritual well-being, having no use for ~uy ~ ~oglie, SJ. the more lowly but still legitimate satisfactions which bring him temporal happiness. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS But why are we speaking only of the good of others? 476 Can we not apply the same principle to our own tern- poral happiness and conclude that a well-ordered charity should give us the right to derive all possible legitimate pleasure from this life? For a man whose human nature is completely sound, wholly immune to the disorders of unbridled self-love, this line of reasoning would be valid. But if we see ourselves as we really are, the most elementary concern for our spiritual well-being will compel us to restrain our sensible desires; moreover, as a result of the Redemption, voluntary abnegation has. become something which is eminently desirable and marvelously efficacious. Under these circumstances, our own temporal happiness can no longer be considered as an end which charity, of its nature, leads us to. But the same principle does not apply to our neighbor; it is not our business to impose on him all the disagreeable things we can think of. Our objective must rather be (unless there is good reason for the contrary) to obtain for him all the legitimate satisfactions he is capable of enjoying. B. The Ordering of Charity. Charity concerns itself with many good things, things which are diverse and of unequal worth. For this reason, theologians have taken great pains to draw up a priority list---either as a means of more precise speculativeexpo- sition, or else, on the practical level, to help men to make a choice when there is danger of conflict because many interests are present at the same time. Let us set down, then, a brief list, ranking the various ends to which charity can draw us. a. Thedivine good, considered in itself, must surely come before all else. And since we are united with Him in love primarily by willing that our own activity be perfect, this absolute primacy of the divine good is a sufficient explanation of the fact that we can never turn our hearts away from this good to any sin whatever, even when a sin might be the cause of tremendous spiritual benefits. (See St. Thomas, In 4 Sent., d.38, q.2, a.4; q.1, ad 2.) b. Next to our love for the divine good must come our love for the universe; in the present economy, this latter coincides with the objective total glorification of Christ and His saints. For a part must love the whole to which it is ordained more than to itself. But it is important to ÷ note here that the success of this grand collective cause ÷ has been assured absolutely by providence and that He ÷ can accomplish this in an infinite variety of ways. As a result, there can be no antecedent conflict of interest between the requirements of the universal good and those of the particular spiritual good of any individual candi- VOLUME 25, 1966 date for salvation. This remark is more important than 477 may appear at first sight; it helps to explain why an absolute sovereign devotion to the glorification of Christ in the universe will never hinder or condition the desire we must also have for our own personal sanctification and that of each of our brothers. c. Our own spiritual beatitude--our own last end-- comes in the third place. Our very nature demands that we love this end with a privileged love, that we desire it with an unconditioned desire; We have already noted these facts; and we must also remember that in the economy God has established this beatitude is to be identified with the total formal glorification of Christ in ourselves. Our love for Him is not distinct from the love through which we hope to be reunited with Christ in heaven. d. Finally comes the good of our brothers in Christ. Here the "ordering of charity" will lead to further and more complex subdivisions, which can be reduced to three basic rules: we must prefer the spiritual good of the neighbor to his temporal good; we must prefer the good of the community as a whole to that of any of its members; and, finally, we must give precedence to those more closely related to us over those who are less so. (See II-II, q.26.) In the abstract, these three rules appear to be simple; in practice, however, the problem of precedence in charity is often quite a difficult one. Even the statement (so clear in principle) that each one must prefer his own. spiritual good to the spiritual good of his neighbor can cause hesitation when there is question not of deliberat- ing over sinful acts but only of accepting, 6ut of love for the neighbor, a situation which produces less favorable conditions for our own spiritual life. And the difficulty is further compounded when we are obliged to choose from among varying interests of many neighbors, where the same persons may be more closely related to us under one aspect, less so under another; or where an act of a more temporal nature can have repercussions which are more extensive, or indirect effects which are more fruit-" ful, than some other, act which is purely, or more highly, spiritual. Here, as elsewhere, the virtue of charity is very rich and very full of nuances. It demands such refined attitudes of soul that it would be a mistake to think our own intellectual abilities (especially wounded as they are ÷ by sin) are sufficient to direct us in its exercise. In this ÷ matter, nothing can take the place of the living influence ÷ of the Master dwelling within us. C. Spiritual Indifference and Detachment: A General View of the Relevant Problems. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Charity creates in us an affection for a great variety of 478 objects; in some cases, at least, a choice is possible. How- ¯ ever, we must also remember that, with regard to some of the objects we are drawn to, charity may impose a relative "detachment," a willingness to sacrifice when sacrifice is necessary. When our own good is in question, this "detachment" is called "indifference." We now wish to consider some of the more difficult problems associated with this "indifference" or "detachment" allowed, or even required, by perfect charity. Let us first restrict the problem. There are two objective goods which are to be loved with perfect charity; and concerning these there can be no question of indifference or detachment; the infinite perfection of God, first of all, and the total objective perfection of the universe which (in the present economy) coincides with the providential and assured glorification of Christ in the whole of creation. Clearly, charity can never limit the concern we must have for these two goods, one absolutely, the other relatively, supreme. Charity can never impose a love of some higher good. There is a third good--this one particular and interior-which is also outside the scope of indifference: it is the moral goodness of the present act. If it is true that we love God primarily by a "here and now" conformity with the requirements of perfect moral goodness, then charity can never ask us to be indifferent to the moral goodness of our present activity since it can never induce us to detach ourselves from God Himself. On the other hand, there is an area in which indifference and detachment are unquestionably imposed: the domain of temporal and sensible satisfactions. In this area, we must be prepared to deny ourselves and to refuse our neighbor when it is for the sake of moral perfection and out of love for a higher spiritual good. This form of "indifference" and "detachment" is so simple and so dear that it causes no serious difficulty. What does present a problem is the case in which indifference or detachment is concerned with particular spiritual goods, distinct from the integrity of present activity. This may involve the salvation and moral perfection of our neighbor, or our own salvation, or our own past or future moral perfection. Charity surely produces affection for these goods and demands that we value them. And yet a delicate problem may be present along with the affection: we must try to discover in what sense and to what extent charity can lead us to accept sacrifices in this area out of a love for goods which we have 4, a greater esteem for. Three separate problems can be singled out: actual sacrifice within the spiritual order; resignation to spiritual evils permitted by God; and, finally, acceptance of VOLUME 25, 1966 chimerical spiritual evil. 479 a. The problem of actual spiritual sacrifice. Some sort of actual sacrifice of a spiritual good is involved each time that we deliberately omit an act which might promote, directly or indirectly, the spiritual good of someone. Charity can indeed demand this type of sacrifice: we may be called upon to give up certain undeniable s]~iritual advantages precisely out of respect for the divine law of charity. The ultimate explanation for this is found in the principle we have already enunciated several times: our primary directive must be the attraction of the virtuous act itself independently of any subsequent spiritual good which may result. Everything, without exception or reserve, must b’e sacrificed to the intrinsic quality of the act. This truth is hardly irritating or hateful for a truly Christian soul; it becomes rather the dearest of all. Because of it, a Christian is capable of demonstrating by his actions how much more precious God is to him than any created reality, even if this reality be in the spiritual order, even if it be something for his own benefit. This is the reason why, for example, we must avoid even the slightest falsehood, even if that lie would remove from us a multitude of’occasions of mortal sin, even if that lie were the only means of bringing the grace of baptism to a dying infant. "Non sunt facienda mala ut eveniant bona." b. The problem of resignation to the spiritual evils permitted by God. To make the sense of this question more precise, let us suppose that a certain sin, or a certain series of sins, has actually been committed; or let us suppose that a saint, by a revelation, learns of the damnation of someone who has died, or of the future crimes of some child. Does not our love of God compel us to give express approval to the fact that God has allowed these evils for His supreme and total glory? Must we not declare that, in union with the design of God, we whole- heartedly resign ourselves to these evils, yielding up any affection for the opposite goods~ The same problem may arise even though we do not know precisely which spiritual evils God will permit or not permit. It may happen that this child will grow up to lead a blameworthy life; it may happen that some of our fellow-men will be damned .... But is it not certain that, if these things happen, they will have been allowed by God who, in His sovereign wisdom, had more excellent ends of His providence in view? And should Guy de Brogl~e, S.]. we not even now practice acts of resignation--hypo- thetical at least, if not absolute? Should we not respond, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS "Lord, if You have decided to allow these evils, then I am 480 conformed to this wise disposition; I bless it with all my heart. I wish this to be my resolution, and I do so now resolve"? An answer to this question can be contained, we believe, in four assertions: 1. It is certain that such explicit acts of resignation to the spiritual evils which God has allowed, or may allow, are not in themselves immoral. In the final analysis, they pay homage to a particular facet of the excellent designs of God. Besides, does not the Church itself invite us to consider the sin of Adam as a "felix culpa"? 2. ’Explicit acts approving God’s permission of some particular evil are, on the other hand, in no sense oblig- atory. Submission to providence demands that we approve the divine plan as a whole; it does not require of us the clearly impossible task of giving express, specific approval to each providential disposition which God has made or might make. 3. Acts of explicit resignation to particular spiritual evils can easily become dangerous; they can cause deceptive illusions. We must be on our guard lest, while seeming to practice a more perfect "resignation," our attitude of approval is actually based on a progressively diminishing esteem for spiritual good in general rather than on the excellence of the goods which God is obtaining by allowing the spiritual evil. These latter goods may be far beyond our comprehension. The danger involved is even more serious when the evil to which we resign ourselves is the result of sins which we have actually committed and must atone for; or sins committed by those around us whose ravages we must repair; or, finally, sins and future spiritual harm which we ourselves must avoid and help others to avoid .... Let us never forget that our weakened human nature is always looking for ingenious pretexts for diminishing its vigilance and spiritual effort; then we will have no trouble in understanding that--speaking generally and prescind- ing from specific cases--it is usually necessary, out of our love for God, to discourage this subtle practice of "resignation" to providence. 4. In any case, the "resignation" in question can never have our own damnation as its object. This is obviously true when there is question of an absolute resignation: such an act would presuppose a completely credible revelation of our own future damnation; and by such4, a revelation God would make hope in Himself impossible,4, even while He commands us to practice hopel But the same is also true for an act of conditional resignation. Such an act has no meaning unless it includes a seriousCharity intention to practice absolute resignation on the day when the irrevocable decree of providence be madeVOLUME 25; 1966 known--that is, on that day on which one is damned,t81 (assuming that this possibility is actually realized). But such an intention is clearly absurd, since we cannot make sincere resolutions when there is no hope of keeping them; and it is impossible to prepare ourselves to perform a virtuous act, accepting our own damnation, at the moment when that damnation has arrivedl There is no sense, then, in which we can speak of "sacrifice" of our salvation or of "resignation" to our final spiritual loss. We can, indeed we must, love God even knowing that He can justly permit our eternal damnation. But we can in no way make an express resolve to approve of the divine decree which will damn 1.IS. ’ c. The problem of accepting chimerical spiritual evil. One of the capacities of the human soul is that it can consider not only what might be but also what it knows can never be. We can even, in a certain sense, look upon these impossibilities with an attitude of affection or dis- taste. Thus we find that even the greatest saints proposed imaginary situations in their writings contrary to the essential order of divine wisdom and justice and then made a decision within the fi’amework of this imaginary world. One of them would write, for example: "If it should please God to damn me, still leaving me the freedom to love Him, I would resign myself to this out of love for Him"; or: "I could wish that He had never created heaven or hell, if this were possible, so that I could serve God with greater indifference"; or, again: "If God would consent to it, I would sacrifice my own eternal happiness for the salvation of my brothersI" Though tliese sacrifices are only in the mind, they are nonetheless truly sacrifices; and they bear the mark of outstandingly heroic spiritual acts. To what extent does charity arouse us to acts such as this? The most important thing to note here is that such statements should never be regarded as if they expressed a rigorous speculative truth or as if the consequence of the hypothesis could ever become fact. The principle, "Posito absnrdo sequitur quodlibet," is a universal one: from a hypothesis contrary to the essential order of things, contradictory conclusions can be deduced with equally faultless logic. To the saint who cries that he would still love God even if he should see himself damned for no reason, the logician could always re- + spond: "But a God capable of such cruelty would be an ÷ unjust God, and therefore you who love justice would justly detest Him .... " Guy de Broglie, SJ. How then are we to interpret such deceptive expressions? Evidently, as figures of speech--as metaphors, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS used to express the purity and intensity of our love o[ 482 God. They are simply a way of expressing the fact that we serve God out of love for Him, "ex dilectione et delectatione justitiae," rather than out of any spiritual self- interest. These formulae give strong emphasis to an eminently real aspect of our psychological and moral attitude, and in this sense they have an irreproachable and strict truth. But then we must consider the extent to which charity should adopt such expressions. Should it acquire the habit of nourishing itself by such metaphors? Here, again, the principles for a solution can be reduced to four. 1. Even the purest forrn of charity has no strict need for metaphors of this type; they are always, in some sense, incorrect. Also, they are more attractive to those with affective temperaments, notably less so to those souls drawn to intellectual exactitude. 2. Such metaphors are practically immune from any danger of illusion precisely because they express what we know to be purely chimerical. Because the supposi- tions cannot become reality, there is no need for the formulation of ]~ractical rules of action. This type of resignation, therefore, offers less danger than an act of the type we spoke about above, in which we resign ourselves to real or possible spiritual evils. 3. Even these expressions can be abused, however; this would happen were they to cause us to lose sight of the essentials of the love of God and Christian perfection, and instead to make anxious examinations of involved spiritual attitudes--or even to lose ourselves in a maze of religious fancy. 4. In the final analysis, the thing that makes these metaphors meritorious and worthy of our esteem is the vehemence of the love of God which they express. And therefore the same formula which deserves our unre- stricted praise as "holy folly" on the lips of a great servant of God can be rejected as simply "folly" when used by someone of weaker mind or when it becomes the central theme of a work destined for the spiritual formation of the faithful. Thus we see that the expressions of certain persons, declaring that they would have no interest in their eternal beatitude if, per impossib~le, this would be pleasing to God, can give no justification for a doctrine of indifference which would seek to compel souls to find their spiritual nourishment in such fanciful suppo- sitions, And it is fat worse when such a doctrine proposes that we actually adopt a practical attitude of indifference ahd callousness toward the prospect o~ our Charity own eternal damnation. In the light of such considerations, we can easily understand why the Church has VOLUME 25, 1966 condemned the empty subtleties of Fenelonian quietism. 485 ANDREW WEIGERT One Art of the Confessor

Man is a gifted animal. He is gifted with true if limited freedom to overcome the-series of boundaries which constrict him in his quest to love and be loved. He seeks to create, that is, to act beyond some boundary in a manner which reproduces something of himself or evolves something which lies hidden in another. All of this entails risk, however; and man often reneges on his gift by choosing security within present boundaries. The experienced tension which manifests his dilemma is perhaps summed up by the phrase "sense of responsibility." Educators perennially have extolled the development of responsibility in the mature person. Today the word responsibility has become a rallying point for religious educators, even within the walls of seminaries and convents, as well as for the layman and laywoman. And Well it might, for if there is anything the life of Christ teaches us, it is the need and grandeur of each individual to prayerfully confront the sometimes ex- cruciating demands of our own sense of responsibility, even as He did in prayer to His Father on the mountain, in the Supper chamber, in the garden, and on the cross. How can such reflections permeate the attitudes of the confessor? The confessor is traditionally described as "judge" and "physician." That the former task is the crucial one is seen from the requirements for the valid reception of the sacrament: formal integrity, which includes all mortal sins in the present consciousness of the penitent; and the proper disposition of sorrow and pur- 4" pose of amendment. The role of judge is invariably and unconditionally present whenever the sacrament is con- Andrew Weiger t ferred. The judge~confessor evaluates the subjective sins is doing research at and disposition as presented by the penitent, and ab- the University of solves or denies absolution in the name of the Trinity. Minnesota; Family Study Center; Min- My present concern is to elaborate one attitude con- neapolis, Minne- tained within the concept of "physician." Presuming that sota 55455. most confessors are not spiritual specialists, let us consider only the general practitioner. His routine of weekly REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS "consultations" requires competence in two main areas: 484 preventive medicine and curative medicine. No good doctor merely heals; he also instructs in the avoidance of illness and suggests ways in which good health may be enjoyed. In a true sense, a doctor tries to render himself unnecessary. That he can never succeed should be due to man’s weakness and nature’s vagaries, not to his lack of effort. This same may be said of the confessor as physician: he must see himself also as a practitioner of preventive medicine who tries to render himself, as physician, unnecessary. This is another way of saying what all confessors know: they must be concerned with the formation of mature and creative consciences. The physician-confessor has three principal aims: (1) to assuage emotional guilt (the judge-confessor has already removed theological guilt) in order to unleash man’s gift of freedom for loving creation. This unleash- ing seems to result from the sacramental grace and the natural release of psychological pressure and channeling of creative tension. The physician-confessor also has (2) to teach a proper understanding of sin and the removal of sin. Sin essentially is not social control, not custom, not a "thing," not even an act. It is primarily a condition of interpersonal relationship between a person and his God. It is a relationship of man’s hate and denial of God, or at least a refusal of full love or service. Actions which bring about this type of relationship are called "sins." But attention is focused on the act because of the resultant relationship with our God. It is not a clear and distinct idea which is easily seen to constitute a boundary for the "good Catholic." It is a relationship of alienation and estrangement from the Person who most loves us and seeks our love. Whether we are "in sin" or "out of sin," we always exist in an interrelationship with God. Sin is "removed" when we reenter the friendship and love which was denied or reaffirm one which was strained. Sin must be thought of by the penitent in terms of friendship and love, not merely in terms of acts and species. We come now to the most demanding task of the physician-confessor: (3) to elicit a mature Christian conscience capable of overcoming boundaries and of un- leashing man’s creative gifts in the full flush and agony of adult responsibility. Here is the creative art of the confessional. In the continual confrontation of Christianity and culture, it is in this area that individuals need the + light to make their creative contributions to the moral + development of society. A reason for the breakdown of ÷ the traditional scientific approach to moral analysis at this point is found in the role of the preeminently non- objective virtue which must nevertheless illuminate every virtuous act: the virtue of prudence. Theories of the VOLUME 25, 1966" virtues have recognized the illuminative role of prudence 485 from the time of Aristotle. Prudence is recta ratio agibilium; it is a moral virtue; it is concerned with the proper relationship of ,means to an end and of circumstances to an act. While charity remains supreme as the prime goal and motivation of Christian .life, the infinite intricacies of real situations and the need to evaluate morally the non-objectifiable affections and tendencies of man make prudence an indispensable element of a good act. The deepest of lovers can injure each other through an imprudent lack of awareness. Such imprudence may alienate a friend in spite of the best of objective acts, Such imprudence may even be an act of sin and lead to a state of sin. For it is prudence that guides the formation of that last normative moral judgment which we call conscience. We know that our judg- ments of conscience are not always followed. Yet here in the realm of conscience lies the autonomy of the human person as the present Vatican Council reaffirmed. Here lies the struggle and anxiety of one’s own responsibility which ought not be allayed from without unless the individual is ill. To the extent that he is healthy, he should live with the creative anxiety of his own responsibility. It is here that the person breaks boundaries and creates himself and others. No healthy adult may "morally" accept the tranquilizer of another’s decision in the place of his own conscience and freedom. And so it should be with the physician-confessor and his penitent. The reasoning behind this position is found in an analysis of the moral situation as a person to Person relationship which cannot be exhausted by a scientific, deductive process. The attempt to delineate an existentialist (not "situational") ethic is a complement to the traditional approach. This is not to say that general principles and concepts are to be dismissed; it is merely to insist that they are not an adequate source of obligation for the Christian. The thomistic doctrine of the role of connatural knowledge in moral situations and of the genesis of recta ratio with the he.lp of conative powers previously (in some sense) ordered to the good serves to underline the fact that pure reason is not the complete source of moral obligation. To exemplify this art of the confessqr, let us consider a typical seminary "case." A middle-aged man comes into 4" the confessional and’ asks if he has an obligation binding 4" under serious sin to declare his full income on tax forms. 4" A’iad if not, how much of his income may he omit? This case is analysed under the virtue of justice or social justice. To the direct question of serious obligation, the confessor must answer that there is no certain, and thus REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS no serious, assignable obligation to pay a given legal ~86 amount of taxes, either because of the dispute over purely penal law or because of the difficulty of estimating proportionate natural law obligations on individuals. The field of social justice, racial justice, and business ethics seems especially replete with such minimal solutions. Nor does there appear to be a way out of the minimalist cul de sac through further analysis with the traditional tools of conceptual categories. But there is one person who has much more than a conceptual grasp of the confessional situation: the penitent. If he asks advice, it is because he is savoring the anxiousness of his own creative responsibility. His situation is further il- luminated by his own prudence. It would seem that the physician-confessor does the penitent and society a dis- service if he offers only a minimalist answer. Ought he not also elaborate as best he can the possible ramifica- tions of the penitent’s decision? Ought he not remind the penitent of the civic functions of adult citizens, of the risk of legal prosecution and possible imprudent danger to himself and his family, of the real though often unrat- able obligations of natural law, social justice, and so forth? True, the confessor must indicate when there is no certain, serious, natural law obligation to pay a legally given amount of taxes; and that there is uncertainty regarding the moral binding force of civil law as such. But this does not eliminate all sources of adult Christian responsibility. Ought not the confessor also state that only the penitent can know what God’s friendship invites him to do here and now; only his own informed prudence can tell the penitent what he qua individual should do. He may not sin against justice by evading taxation, but is it not possible that he may fail his own awareness of his responsibility and be untrue to himself? The physician-confessor may offer probabilities and clarify obligations, but he must sometimes leave the healthy penitent with the agonizing responsibility of his own free choice even though it is no longer a question of serious sin. Here lies the penitent’s power to create, to project himself meaningfully and rightfully into the lives of others and into the fuller development of society. His dignity as a moral adult before God demands nothing less. Thus the confessor teaches, exhorts, advises, but does not always decide. If this course is followed to the extent of the healthy penitent’s ability, would he not eventually develop a more mature, independent, engaged, clear, and creative conscience capable of deeper love and friendship with God under the artful impulses of the physician-confessor? Would not the failure to pursue such a course lead to the evisceration of Christian responsibility in the myriad shifting aspects of modern life by reducing ~dult morality to traditional categories?VOLUME 25, 1966 It is our impression that part of the failure of Catholic,~87 leadership in such complex and critical areas of social justice is traceable in part to the effects of over-rational- ized moral science on the understanding of Christian responsibility. A word of caution may be in order here. We are not claiming that a penitent would sin by following the minimalist solution. Probabilism must be allowed in practice. Nor are we saying that the mature, autonomous penitent has no further need of the priest-confessor. A judge-physician-confessor relationship ought to permeate the spiritual life of both confessor and penitent as both together strive to discern God’s love. We merely emphasize one aspect of a relationship that runs the danger of becoming too mechanical and authoritarian. Nor are we trying to settle the hotly discussed questions of positive imperfections and of the best philosophico-theological ’ description of sin. We are simply using acurrent emphasis on person and interpersonal reli~tions to underline one creative art of the confessor as physician faced with a penitent qua healthy in a somewhat undefined moral situation. We recognize the gap that exists between the science of moral theology and the concrete confrontation between .a free adult and an inviting God. To us, a human person acts and chooses and "becomes" some- where between the two poles of "obligation originates only from universal law or precept" and "obligation originates always from the perfect course in every given concrete moral situation." This brief discussion aims merely at inviting the Christian adult to stride a length or two away from the first pole. Finally, we make no attempt to deal with the practical problems of long confessional lines and of the infinite variety of personalities. Since the task of the preventive physician is creative persuasion, it is always an art which will confound any prior set of rules. Nor will preventive medicine heal those who come already sickl The sick as such must be healed and consoled. Preventive medicine is effective only to the extent that the patient has sufficient health to use it. The state of the penitent’s moral health is therefore one of the first decisions the physician- confessor-artist must make. All of this will tax the talent of the confessor to the utmost. But a program of hints and queries aimed at the liberation of creative: responsibility could bear great fruit in the mature adult and emphasize his role in God’s mission in the world through his own divinizing dignity as a baptized and confirmed apostle. Andrew Weigert

488 SISTER M. CUTHBERT HELLWIG, S.C.M.M. Spiritual Preparation of a General Chapter

None of us needs to be convinced of the importance of prayer as a preparation for a general chapter, and most of us would say spontaneously, "prayer and sacrifice." How- ever, it is possible that we should rethink our way of praying and sacrificing. Prayer is more authentic to the degree that it is more organically integrated into our. lives; it must be our effort to pray according to the exigen- cies of the vocation that unfolds itself concretely in our everyday lives and to live according to the aspirations that spring up in and from our prayer. In the same way our sacrifices are more efficacious in our own lives and in the redemption of the world to the extent that they are organically integrated into the paschal mystery of the great redemptive work of Christ, that is, in proportion as they are those sacrifices that God in fact asks of us in accord with His particular calling. In view of this, it seems worthwhile to consider thoughtfully what our spiritual preparation of a general chapter should be and can be in order to be as fully efficacious as possible. 1. What Do We Hope [tom a General Chapter? Sister M. Cuth- In every general chapter we hope for a profound re- bert Hellwig, newal of the life of our institute in accordance with its S.C.M.M., is sta- vocation in the Church, in accordance with the changing tioned at the Movi- mento per un world in which it has to respond to that vocation, and in Mondo Migliore; accordance with the breathing of the Holy Spirit in the Centro Inter- whole Church of our times. Everything else that we hope nazionale Pio XII; Via dei Laghi--km for can only be an outcome or consequence of this basic 10; Rocca di Papa renewal. To work it out in complete honesty and sin- (Roma), Italy. ,cerity may involve a change of constitutions, changes of horarium, change of focus or activities in the apostolate, VOLUME 25~ 1966 change of habit, char~ge of prescribed community prayers, 489 change of organizational and authority structure. But none of these things can be sought for its own sake; they are worthwhile and meaningful in relation to a vital renewal of the institute in the context of the whole Church. At this time of history we can, however, specify a little more precisely what is to be hoped from a general chapter. The Holy Spirit has made himself heard in the Church with the rushing of a mighty wind, and it is quite clear what are the dimensions of the renewal that the whole Church must undertake. Through the various constitutions and decrees of the Second Vatican Council we are given the overall design. In a general chapter that takes place at this time, we must hope and strive with prayer and penance for a profound renewal of the life of our institute that will correspond with enthusiasm and fidelity to the overall design of renewal in the Church.

2. How Can This Be Realized? Such a renewal can certainly be realized if our dispositions are such that God can act among us unhindered; if the capitulars come with a great sense of confidence and liberty, knowing that all the rest of the institute supports them with trust, affection, and prayer in their task; if all come with the quiet conviction that we are seeking the truth and the common good-together, not the particular good of some small section of the institute or the Church; if all come with open minds and open hearts, expecting to learn from the others and to build up a complete vision of the task together; if all come "unarmed" with no intention of defending a position as though it were the absolute truth, and with no intention of ridiculing, condemning, or wounding any other; if all come with full courage to speak their mind, knowing they may be wrong, to present their proposals, knowing they may be rejected. Such a dialog at a general chapter is by no means easy. It requires great trust in oneself and the others. It requires great humility and courage. It also requires long practice in the face of crises, difficulties, and disappoint- ments. If our capitulants are to dialog constructively, in Christ, with the interests of the universal Church at heart, there must be a long and earnest preparation of ÷ this kind of dialog in the institute as a whole. It cannot be wished for at the last moment. The capitulars will Sister M. Cuthbert not be able to do it if the institute at large is not in the Hellwig, S.CJtI.M. habit of acting this way. To pray for this in words without practically orienting Our lives in the same direction REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS with efforts and sacrifice is foolish because it is no true prayer. 3. What Are Our Greatest Obstacles? Probably the first ~nd greatest obstacle is that we are not really accustomed to speak of matters in which we disagree with those who hold differing opinions. More generally we gather in groups of like-minded people and discuss our interests and ideals and desires in such a way that we become more convinced and secure in our own point of view without realizing that it is one-sided. A second obstacle is certainly that in the deepest, most serious things in our lives we ordinarily do not communicate at all. At most we speak about them with a chosen friend or a spiritual director or confessor. We do not, for instance, share our spontaneous prayer or our meditations. We do not readily speak of the insights we h~ive received from our Bible reading or participation in the liturgy, of the understanding of our Christian life that has come to us in prayer. Most of us still find it difficult to have a conversation on any religious topic "in" community," that is, with more than a selected group of friends with whom we feel secure. This is a serious obstacle because if we cannot speak freely and easily about the important things on which we agree, we are lacking the basis for a constructive and open dialog on the lesser things in which we have differing opinions or approaches to the problem. A third obstacle is that we, like most human societies, have among ourselves a history of hurts that have been buried and suppressed. Things that were said and done without any intention(of hurting another and usually without any awareness that this had happened, may have rankled under cover for a long time, heightening sensi- tivity to futnre hurts, setting up a long chain of defensive reactions, and preventing real encounter and dialog between persons. The problem is not that things have happened that hurt someone; this is the normal experience of human life, and indeed the way that God draws closer together in a community of truth and love by increasing our capacity for such exchange. The problem arises because usually these things are not frankly discussed. A community has a better chance where there are occasional violent outbursts and accusations than where a hurt is nursed by never being expressed. The ideal, of course, is to learn a dialog in which a hurt can + be exposed without violence, but this takes a long perservering effort by all, which will certainly not be + uniformly serene and peaceful. ÷

4. The Asceticism o[ Dialog in Christ General Jesus promised His followers that He would give His VOLUME ~5, 1966 Spirit to live in them, and prayed to the Father that in 491 this Spirit we all might be one as He ~nd the Father are one, that in this tangibly evident unity the world might see the great sign of healing of all human woes and might know with existential certainty that the Father had sent Him. This was an important promise and an important charge because humanly speaking a perfect unityof mind and heart in any community is impossible. Humanly speaking, we select those with whom we want to share in our community; we always hold back some treasures, some secrets; once hurt, we do not risk another encounter with the same individual in the same matter. We who are religious are called to realize and witness in an exemplary way the promise made by Jesus on the eve of His death. We are to testify for others that it is possible and to inspire them with hope and courage to strive after it; this is what our relations with one another are meant to show the world and the Church. The asceticism of dialog in Christ, briefly, is this: that we so live as to help one another with every means at our disposal to grow towards the great breadth and depth o[ vision which is the mind of Christ and towards the far-reaching goal and penetrating love which is the heart of Christ. We want to share totally, and by sharing intensify, the most precious thing we have, the truth and love God gives us in the person of Jesus, in whom we are made one being. I1: our community life is to be genuine in Christ, it demands far more than a sharing of material goods, a living under the same roof, doing things together and at the same time, obeying the same superiors and rules. It demands that our sharing find its source and nourishment in the existential depths of the unity we have in Christ in grace and truth. It demands an intensity of sharing of faith, hope, and charity. It also demands that we not only give but receive from "one another at this level of sharing. It means more than a hierarchy of giving in which all the giving descends t~rom person to person, step by step, in one direction, and all the receiving ascends step by step in the other direction. For a true community in Christ, truth and love must be given and received in all directions with frankness and quiet acgeptance. 5. Unity in the Truth We must begin with a great love for Christ and a Sister M. Cuthbert deep longing for the fullest unity with Him who is the H ellwig, S.C.M.M. truth. We need to realize that in this quest for the truth we need one another, because each of us only has the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS .capacity to see one aspect of the truth. The truth is ¯ greater than any of us. No matter how clearl~ I see the answer to any problem or the explanation of any situation, it is the answer from the point of view of my position in the world, in the Church, in the community. If I desire to come close to the vast vision of Jesus who alone can see in a human way what is best or right in relation to the redemption of the world, I must seek that vision in the whole Christ; I must see each situation and problem with the eyes of the others who are also seeking the fullness of truth, from other positions. ~Vith this motivation, there are certain’steps that can bring a group to the common exchange of truth with great security and speed. But it will never be easy. The first step is to believe that every other member of the community has something worthwhile to contribute to my understanding of the truth, and therefore a~lways to listen to the other with this in mind. This means not only to give the other a turn to talk, while waiting for my own opportunity, but to be as receptive as I know how to be when the other speaks. The second step is to be prepared at all times to speak the truth as I see it, with full awareness that I may be wro.ng or one-sided, but with the courage to present what I see at any cost, looking for the best opportunity and the best way of saying it, but presenting my insight into the truth in any case, even when I cannot do it very tact- fully or dispassionately. The third step is to make every effort, with prayer and sacrifice, to judge without passion and with the greatest possible objectivity. This means that I must be willing to face criticism and correction, calmly and gently, from any direction from which it may come, always ready to evaluate it on my own responsibility and as soberly as possible so as to gain each time in objectivity. A fourth step is to be prepared to offer criticism and correction in the spirit of seeking the truth together. It is important to seek the right moment and the right manner in which to offer a criticism in order that it have the best chance to be accepted. But it is even more important really to give criticisms, and to offer them to the persons concerned rather than hold a grumbling session among like-minded persons on matters that we do not have the courage to say to those concerned. The fifth and definite step perhaps is this: to seek ÷ with all one’s heart and mind and at all costs really to ÷ be of one mind in Jesus, believing that almost any ÷ sacrifice is worthwhile in order to arrive at the unity that He desires to see among us, believing that so very often General Chapte~ the things that look to us like absolutes are very closely linked to a particular culture and a particular series of VOLUME 25, 1966 experiences, believing that the truth is so much bigger 493 than any of us and ihat the others possess it and are passionately concerned for it too. 6. Unity in Charity This striving after the truth together is, of course, impossible unless there is a very strong bond of charity in ’the community, that is, unless they are striving to be one in love, in a love that is truly r~utual, given and received. This love must be something that recognizes our nature as God made us; we need the love of others, we need to make love tangible and evident, we need to feel accepted and welcome and appreciated in our community. Any attempt at an "altruistic" love that does not recognize the need we all have of the others, that tries to be independent, is not true love, because it does not support the other but humiliates him. ¯ The first step in the realizing of a true community of love, such as can support and sustain a great and demanding exchange of truth, is to express affection in tangible form and to make it clear to every member of the institute that She is totally accepted. One must be accepted for what she is and not only for what she does. And this must be made clear again and again in all our relations with one another; we all have such great need for reassurance that we are lovable and that we are indeed accepted in the communities in which we live. This is something that cannot be prescribed; we must be creative, inventive in our ways of showing affection and offering support to one another. A second step is to love only in the truth. To love another means to look to his total welfare, to bid him grow and become what in the great providence of God he should be. It means to be willing to meet him where he is and appreciate and accept him, but always with a yearning towards what he can and should become. It is not easy nor peaceful; it almost surely will involve mis- understanding and difficulties, perhaps open quarrels and much suffering, but there is no love that is not prepared to suffer. A third and very important step is to accept this kind of love from others with great trust and gratitude. This is not easy; for most of .us there is more comfort in giving than receiving in these situations. But without ÷ reciprocity we cannot come to the fourth step which is ÷ truly to seek the common good of the group, to open ÷ out the friendship between two in a way that always Sister M.. Cuthbert looks to the good of the community. H ellwig, S.C.M.M. A fifth step is to seek together constantly to renounce every kind of particularism, every seeking after the good REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS of our group, our nation or race or class or interest group, 494 in order to seek for an understanding and furthering of the universal good of the Church and of mankind. This is truly the heart of Christ; this is the love and desire of God, who makes all men brothers, having a common goal in His Son. 7. Practical Steps and Structures What are the practical steps and structures in which these ideas can be realized in a religious community? Briefly they are these: true friendships between two, open- ness in community affairs, the practice of a type of revision de vie, and the gradual evolution of appropriate means of exchanging ideas and proposals on practical issues confronting the group concerned. All of these, of course, will only operate where there is a true community of prayer.

General Chapter

VOLUME 25, 1966 495 JOSEPH B. SIMONS, C.S.C. The Particular Friendship

Anyone who has spent even a short period of time in the religious life need only reflect momentarily to realize that the topic of particular friendship is seldom the subject of a positive discussion. In houses of formation, superiors shy away from the topic except for the usual oblique condemnations. Candidates in such houses will only allude to the particular friendship when it can be introduced in a humorous context; and even the pre- sumably light-hearted reference brings a note of awk- wardness or embarrassment to the atmosphere. Reference to this embarrassed atmosphere would seem sufficient to suggest that the topic has developed its own taboo over the years. Although it seems justifiable to presume that the attitude of most religious toward the particular friendship is negative, there is reason to dwell on the topic in order to discover the causal factors involved in the evolution of such an attitude. For not only is it important to discover these causal factors, but also to what extent reality has been distorted to put these factors in operation. In the constitutions of practically every religious community, there is a monition against particular friendships which always follows the same general format. A typical example might read like: "The religious must guard against the danger of particular friendships since it is this kind of isolated relationship that destroys the spirit of community life." Many will point to such a constitution as forming the basis for .their own negative attitudes. For this reason, one might well note that the constitution does not condemn the particular friendship as such but only the isolated nature of a given friendship. Joseph B. Simons, During the years of formation, a basic source of the C.S.C., is dean of attitudes manifested by any religious is found in the su- students at the Uni- perior’s words and actions. He may transmit emotions, versity of Notre Dame; Notre Dame, ideas, beliefs in a multitude of conscious and uncon- Indiana 46556. scious ways. If a superior manifests strong fears of the particular friendship--to the point of acting irrationally REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS toward those engaged in strong but healthy friendships --he will obviously pass these fears on to the candidates. Even the more "reasonable" actions of a superior which forbid those engaged in a particular friendship to be alone with one another again or warn a house of the dangers of particular friendships without clearly drawing the distinction between strong, healthy friendships and dangerous ones will create an at~mosphere that will make the subjects feel ill at ease discussing the topic either with the superior or one another. The subject is thus drawn into just enough obscurity to make it impossible for the individual to honestly clear up any mis- conceptions that might personally trouble him. And in this soil, personal doubts will grow without counsel until they will be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to root up. If the superior resembles the average father in his attempt to guard his children from forbidden topics by not discussing them, then the candidates resemble children who are afraid to prudently discuss such topics openly. Either they will hide the topic from honest discussion or distort it by casually touching on it in some humorous context. There seems to be little reason for individuals to manifest such overt fear toward particular friendships unless such fear springs from a suspicion of homosexuality. Many claim that it is not fear of homosexuality that precipitates their condemnation of particular friendships; however, more often than not their reactions are too strong to suggest anything else. Since few candidates are immediately asked to leave when a particular friendship is first discovered, the assumption is that any homosexual overtones may be overcome with time. Beginning here, it will be easier to reach conclusions as to which attitudes will be effective and which attitudes not effective in bringing good out of the "evil" of a particular friendship. The attitude of the superior toward candidates engaged in a particular friendship will be crucial in creat- ing an atmosphere such that they may grow out of this debilitating relationship. If the superior’s attitude gen- erates the stereotyped warning, "I don’t want to see you alone with one another again," and no further explana~ tion, then the suspicions and fears of the superior are appropriated by the subjects. The seed of fear and doubt has then been planted and the subject begins to wonder4. if there is something "different" about himself and/or the÷ relationship. ÷ The attitudes of fellow religious then take on a newParticular dimension. If they also display suspicion by their cautionFriendship when the candidates engaged in a particular friendship are present, a vacuum is created around these candidatesVOLUME 25, 1966 making it more difficult than ever to break down the497 isolation that has begun to surround them. At the very time they need help from others in order to draw out of themselves, they are being subtly ignored by all. It is easy to see, then, how the superior, subjects, and the individuals themselves create an atmosphere which forces them to take consolation in one another because no one else "understands." The fear of homosexuality has ironi- cally created an atmosphere in which any hint of homosexuality will readily grow. By an examination of the manner in which married partners normally relate to one another before they reach the maturity of a genuine love relationship, we will be able to gain significant insights into the dynamics of particular friendships. Often the early stages of love between a man and woman are characterized by an accent on self-centered infatuation. The lovers tend to treat one another during this early period as objects of love rather than as persons to be loved. Each tends to focus on his own need for self-gratification by manipula- tion of the other. In an attempt to aid others in the blindness that this period of infatuation brings to the individual, much has been written to aid those attempting to pass through this period and on to a genuine love relationship. Although most of this literature empha- sizes the dangers inherent in such infatuation, the period of self-gratification is generally accepted as a normal, if undesirable, phase of growth. The advice normally high- lights the means one might best use to develop a self- centered love into a love that respects the person of the one loved. For only by such respect for his partner will the married man be able to expand his love into that Christlike love which extends to all men. It seems worth emphasizing again that the accent is on growth through rather than suppression of the initial infatuation. The assumption should be that the normal sex drives are present in those entering the religious life. The problem is created when this normal candidate is surrounded almost exclusively by persons of the same sex during the period when his sex drives are at their height. Given the circumstances, the attraction of one candidate for another with sexual overtones should not be considered so surprising. This leads one to question whether under the given set of circumstances it is unorthodox to suggest that the particular friendship is a normal expression of sexuality. By a use of the marriage analogy, one can more readily gain insight into the meaning of the particular friend- !. B. $imons, C.~.C. ship. For the marriage analogy sheds light on the fact that the particular friendship parallels closely the in- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS fatuation period already discussed. In a genuine sense, 498 then, the particular friendship need not be something to be feared as intrinsically evil, but rather, as a seed from which genuine love might be developed. Rather than suppress such a relationship, the superior might better lead the individuals involved toward the respect .for one another that would expand their vision to all men. While attempts to suppress" lead to fear and doubt, facilitating growth out of the infatuation promotes reassurance. There is a genuine need to warn the individuals of the immaturity displayed in such a friendship; but the accent should be on the potential use of such an attraction to generate the Christian love that extends to all men. Only in this healthy and open atmosphere will all of the candidates have the best chance of reaching their full potential as human beings. At first glance, this attitude might seem out of keeping with the basic traditions of religious communities. How- ever, closer examination reveals that nearly every constitution dealing with the particular friendship points not to the danger of these special friendships in themselves, but rather to their exclusive nature. If a healthy relation may be developed by teaching individuals to grow through their exclusive friendship toward others rather than attempting to destroy such a friendship, then such an attitude would seem to be not only the more human but also more Christian thing to do. This is not to suggest, however, that particular friendships might not suggest an immaturity that would indicate a lack of a genuine vocation. If individuals are not able to grow out of their period of infatuation, either because of latent homosexuality or any other reason, then it becomes obvious that the candidates must be asked to leave the religious life. But the only realistic means of determining this is to grant to these individuals the opportunity for positive growth. If a superior were to merely suppress such inclinations early by forcing the candidates to adhere to a series of "don’ts," the danger lies dormant for the present; but there is no promise that the future will not see the problem emerge in new and more serious forms. On the other hand, direct positive handling of the problem early would be much more likely to result in a correct judgment concerning its real nature. If the nature of the particular friendship is treated openly with all and in a positive manner, there is less + danger that the effects of such a relationship will be 4. damaging. Under these circumstances, there is the great- 4. est possible chance to discover which individuals will Particular find the religious life unhealthy and growth retarding. If Friendship the particular friendship does indeed indicate immaturity so distorted that one could not grow in the special VOLUME 25, 1966 circumstances of a religious community, a superior would 499 ~ery likely not "discover this if he forces candidates to destroy such relationships or keep them hidden. If i~ is true that a particular friendship is a manifestation of a sound sex drive, then the factors which would tend to suppress such a drive could be particularly dangerous to the individual. The religious who is requested to extinguish his relationship with another in the context of it being something abnormal will very likely begin to ’distort his own proper sex identification. We openly profess to be interested in priests and brothers who are "real men" and in sisters who personify the role of "genuine women"; and it is probably that very desire to have candidates who reflect wholeness that makes us compulsive about suppressing anything that would suggest even traces of homosexuality. The end is obviously good, but a close examination of the means should give one pause to reflect. When one recognizes that society as a whole is hushed and embarrassed in the presence of sexual topics, then it might seem normal to expect members of religious communities to avoid discussing the subject also. The only reply serious enough to be extended is that our role in the world demands more. Without this basic kind of maturity, there is little hope that we will be able to lead others in the way of sound religious practice based on a healthy attitude toward life. With the demands growing for religious who must relate openly and honestly to both men and women, the very future ol~ the Church depends on a more honest examination of our attitudes toward human sexuality. This means an honest examination of all the attitudes and practices fostered in the past is absolutely necessary. Religious communities and the individuals within them could find no better place to begin.a genuine examination of conscience than by an honest appraisM of their attitudes toward the danger of particular friendships.

÷ ÷ ÷

]. B. Simon,

REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 500 BROTHER JOACHIM FREDERICK, F.S.C. Charity and/or Human .Love

If love is supposed to make the world go ’round, why does the attempt to seek the perfection of charity sometimes put the freeze on things? Everybody wants to be loved, but why do so many refuse to accept charity? We all want consideration, but why is it humiliating to realize someone may love us "for purely supernatural reasons"? Thomas Merton speaks of a deformation of charity not uncommon among Christians today, in which a person does not love his brother in Christ but by a mental sleight-of-hand substitutes Christ for his brother. Instead of loving his brother he discards him for Christ "inside," as if Christ were in a man the same way a banana is in its peel. I think this happens when charity has become a response to an ideal instead of a response to persons--when we make charity a form of obedience rather than a form of human love. Obedience can be easier than love, because love requires that we see something good to respond to whereas obedience requires only that we take somebody’s word for it and respond on faith. Of course, true obedience depends on love too, but only a partial love. A "good boy" who stops beating his little brother because Morn says good boys don’t do such things may be showing love for Mom but certainly not for little brother. As he grows older, however, and learns that brother is not just an annoying piece of howling furni- ture in his mental world, but a sensitive center of feel- Brother Joachim Frederick, F.S.C., is ings in his own right, the obedient good boy becomes a stationed at St. loving friend--and in so doing obeys more deeply than Joseph’s High when he "was good" only because Morn said so. School; 1840 May- fair; W~stchester., In a similar way, I would distinguish three phases in Illinois, 60156. the development of the supreme virtue of the moral iife, charity: the very imperfect stage, when our love for other VOLUME 25~ 1966 people is for the most part merely human; secondly, the 501 "pure charity" stage, when our love for other people is mostly out of obedience to Christ; and thirdly, the "adult" stage, when charity has made our love for other people so mature that we would want to love them all even if there were no command--in other words, when charity has become truly human and not simply divine. Human love is based on human attractiveness; charity, insofar as it is directed to God, on divine attractiveness; and charity towards our neighbor on human attractiveness with reference to God. Sometimes spiritual writers give the impression of concentrating so much on the "reference to God" aspect of charity that they seem to overlook or disparage the "human attractiveness" angle. It is possible to love "all men" in the abstract while loving very few if any men in the concrete, merely by considering each person "a soul to save"--a "thing" to practice charity on. The attitude, if expressed in words, would be: "It really doesn’t matter who you are; you’ve got a soul to save and I’m going to treat you nice because you carry Christ within you"--seeing Christ in every man as a knight in a suit of armor: you can’t throw bricks at the armor because if you dent the suit you might bruise the Christ inside. It seems to me that a more wholesome expression of charity is: "It does matter who you are; you’ve got a lot to offer and I’m going to treat you nice because you’re you." What happens to God then? Does He get lost in the shuffle? On the contrary, the union between God and every creature is so intimate that every creature exists more in God than it does in itself. We are participated beings: meaning, God has in a way put something of Himself in each of us; and further, in making us members of His Mystical Body He has made this participation even more intimate. That is why fraternal charity without human love is like flattering God rather than praising Him. If you sing for us at an amateur show and you later find out that we suffered through the performance but applauded just to salve your ego, you might feel crushed. You haven’t been fully appreciated unless we like your singing as well as yourself. By analogy, God is not fully appreciated if we respect 4, His creatures just to humor Him. Love for Him as 4, Creator implies that we love what He has created; other- 4, wise we’re in effect saying to Him: "You know, You’ve Brother Joachim got a fine personality but you’re a flimsy artist." Frederick, F.S.C. Love for an artist’s work doesn’t detract from love for the artist but adds to itl If we love everything about REVZEW FOR RELIGIOUS an artist except his works of art, there is a part of him we haven’t accepted. Well might he say to us: "If you really understood me, you would see the beauty in what I have made!" Or in God’s own words from Saint John: "How can a man love God, whom He does not see, if he loves not his brother whom he does see?" The role of charity, then, is not to substitute for human love but to make it universal--universal not in the sense of abstract, but in the sense of "catholic." Spiritual writers do a good job if they make us fear merely human love, provided that what we fear is the merely and not the human. This is why our Lord, in laying down the great commandment, said: "This is my commandment--that you love one another as I have loved you." The love of Christ for you and me is not abstract and idealistic. His love is as concrete and familiar as we are to ourselves, because what He does not love He does not create. God is like a white light, and each of us like one of its component colors refracted in a rainbow. God’s love extends to us all because we each share something of Him. You and I have trouble loving each other perfectly because I’m red and you’re green. I can easily understand all the people who are orange, red-orange, and maroon because they’re very close to my wavelength, but all green people are out in left field as far as my human love is concerned. We just don’t get along. You, on the other hand, get along well with green and blue-green people but the red and yellow ones just don’t strike the right chord with you as far as human love is concerned. What bridges us together? Our common dependence on and attraction for the white light whence we sprang. And now this is how charity develops in us beyond the first phase to its perfection. When we first hear God’s command to love one another, we gulp and proceed to do so with "pure charity"--we keep our gaze fixed upon the white light and cautiously humor one another, all the time wondering if the Great White Light was in its right mind when it chose to be refracted in that horrible hue. This is charity mostly out of obedience. But after a while something wonderful happens. The longer we look at the white light, the more it begins to dawn on us that we share only one aspect of it--and are not very sight- worthy in comparison with its bright full-bodied lucidity. We feel a hunger for some other color besides our own which is getting monotonous. We take another look at ÷ each other, and our differences which at first seemed so ÷ appalling are now a welcomed relief. ÷ Before, I couldn’t stand green; but having seen white Charity and/or and loved it, my red heart welcomes green because it Human Love too captures something of the nature of white. This is adult charity, charity which has awakened human love VOLUME ,25, 1966 and opened its eyes to see. 503 Charity puts the freeze on things when a person feels that we love God instead of him. Charity warms a man’s heart when he feels that we sincerely lo~,e him, thanks’ be to God. Or, to put it a bit more analytically charity, since it is a ore of friendship, rffeans w~lhn~ good to someone. Charity thus involves a twofold movement: first, it opens our eyes to the value of the someone to whom good is willed; and secondly, it inspires us to will him a twofold good--the supernatural good of knowing God, and all the natural goods which God intended for him, not the least of which is the good of our own human love for him.

÷ ÷ ÷ Broth,~r ]oa~him Frederick, F.$.C.

REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS SISTER MARY BONAVENTURE, O.S.F. The Religious Habit: Sense and Non-Sense

During the past decade of renewal of spirit and service in the Church, we have often been reminded that the primary aim of Vatican Council II as it was conceived by Pope John XXIII was to examine and clarify again the fundamental elements of Christian life and worship, Among religious women, especially those who have marched without hesitation into vanguard positions, no phase of renewal has precipitated so much re- examination, appraisal, dialogue, and even heated debate as the question of change or adaptation of the religious habit. That the very idea of change is revolutionary cannot be denied, but it must be remembered that the term revolution takes its logical meaning and value from its lexical context. There is the revolution o~ the wheel that is essential to movement, and the revolution of the seasons which guarantees our food and clothing; but there is also the French Revolution and the Hungarian Revolution of recent memory. Reaction to the idea of revolution can be directed rationally and wisely only after an examination which distinguishes clearly between fundamental absolutes and the incidentals which permit of change and even postulate it. As Father Charles Schleck, C.S.C., pointed outstrongly some time ago,1 when something good is called into question, it ÷ may be a God-sent opportunity to get back to its roots, Sister Mary Bona- venture, O.S.IL, to elucidate and "bring into the light and clarity of the teaches at the Uni- common vision the fundamental and essential meaning" versity of Detroit; 4001 West Mc- of the thing in question and the axioms upon which Nichols Road; De- truth rests. Because there is sometimes only a hair- troit, Michigan breadth division between adaptation and compromise, 48221.

VOLUME 25, 1966 "The Sister in the Church," REWEW VOR RELIelOUS, v, 20 (1961), 9-20. 505 such distinction cannot be made at a glance; it calls for thought, reflection, and sound reasoning. It is regrettably patent that not all the comment and debate expressed in religious circles today on the question of change in religious habits is marked by such careful reflection and sound reasoning. It would seem imperative for us as religious women, lest we throw a sad light on our intellectual acumen, to review briefly but with penetration a few {undamental axioms and concepts which determine the very nature o{ the problem in question and which human experience has proved permanent. With such basic truths clearly in mind, we can hope to think and speak intelligently and cogently about change or adaptation of religious habits when the occasion or obligation arises. The first such principle to be considered is a philosophical one, since it focuses on the nature of man as a social being. It is this: Clothes do not make the man, but clothes have always been used as a symbol and are always read as a silent communication. This is demonstrated equally well by the savage who sticks an eagle feather in his hair or hangs a foxtail at his belt and by the actor on the stage who selects his costume with searching attention to detail. Man has always been prompted to read congruity between a human being and the clothes he wears. We are all quick to note incongruity between clothes and character; it is a standard source of comedy. That our religious habit has always been read as such a means o[ communication each o~ us can attest from our own experience in whatever .grot’lps we move. "Even without speaking to us, you have added so much to our meeting by you[ presence." "Your habit shouts your validity, your criteria, and your sincerity; you have more time for factual teaching." Such reactions attest the same truth. A second principle lies in the area of theology. We accept the truth that a sacrament is a visible sign o[ an invisible grace. Sacramentals are so called because they partake of this same nature in that visible, material objects are blessed so that in virtue of that blessing they may be possible means of grace. Now the Church sol- emnly blesses the habits of religious, giving them a sacramental character, that is, distinguishing them as a visible ÷ sign of invisible realities, a graphic picture, a silent profession of faith that God exists; that He is in this world but not of it; that He is worthy of a complete dedication; Sister Mary that He is a God who loves and can be loved with man’s Bonaventure, O.S.F. whole being. For this the Church blesses the religious habit. Of this message, dictated by the Church, it must REV|EWFOR RELIGIOUS in some way be a graphic picture. O[ this message the 506 religious herself must always be conscious as she dons the habit; for it is the message that has been read consistently by those among whom she has moved in the past centuries. Whence came the message read clearly by the little three-year-old who, on seeing a nun for the first time, stared her almost out of countenance for long minutes, then opened her arms wide and threw herself into the nun’s embrace with the cry, "0, I wish you were my Mommyl" (... that God loves and can be loved .... ) Another ascetical truth is basic to any consideration of the proper habit for religious. By her consecration as a religious, the sister takes on a distinct character marked by a special status, an other-worldness, and a permanence and stability that attests to truth. How much aware of this truth is the religious who argues for radical change of habit, because "our present habit sets us so radically apart that it creates two standards of Christianity and of modesty"? There are not two standards of Christianity, but there are two levels which Christ distinguished clearly by calling some--not all--to follow the counsels of perfection. "You have not chosen me, but I have chosen you." "Let him who can take it, take." All Christians are called to perfection, but some are happily called to take the sharp shortcut of the evangelical counsels. Other-worldness is stamped on the character of the religious by her consecration as a person set apart for God’s use alone, sacred. It is this character of other- worldness that distinguishes religious life, not as a career among careers but as something on a different plane, on the spiritual level--a complete consecration. It is the one mark of character that seals her as a divine paradox: shared by all men through complete self-giving, yet possessed by God alone. Moreover, this other-worldness of a religious character bespeaks the consecrated virgin as the special property of the Church in its .spiritual nature as the Mystical Body of Christ. This is a unique relation, not paralleled by human relations in any worldIy career. The religious is sealed with the seal of the Church, and the violation of this seal takes on the guilt of sacrilege. The third mark of the religious character, the permanence of truth, echoes the truth of Christianity: Christ yesterday, today, and the same forever. The religious is not a person or value of one single period of time, of + thought, or of fashion. + This is the essential character of a religious woman, .I. the character which must be kept in mind if we do not ignore the necessary law of congruence between human Religious Habit beings and clothes. And in clothes, as in other values of life, we may well be reminded of the fact that man ac- VOLUME 25, 1966 cepts time as the test of ti’uth and ok value. The creations 507 of. man which outlast centuries become our "classics" and our "art’ treasures." Oldfashioned things are dis- carded, ignored; antiques are respected, valued. ; The next basic principle which warrants attention is a psychological one: clothes have a psychological effect on the wearer, undeniably. The effect of a new hat or a new dress on a Woman is proverbial. We can observe at close range the difference in reaction stimulated by a period play presented in costume or in modern dress. Actors attest they must put out tremendously more effort to communicate with their audience without the aid of costumes. To spell out the psychological effect of clothes, we might state that the wearing of distinctive clothing stimulates and promotes behavior congruent With such clothing. Did a recent cartoonist, have religious in mind when he presented a message in four wordless pictures? Donald Du~k tries to hit an archery target; he fails despite his best efforts; getting an inspiration he goes to a costume sl~opj dressed as an Indian chief, he hits the bull’s eye easily. Can we religious, whether we count one year or fifty in religious life, deny that we need to remember this basic truth? And can .we deny that we need all the psychological support we can get to raise and keep our behavior consistently on the level of our consecration? Is not this.principle the primary reason for uniforms wherever they are worn and the principle which governs their design? To pass abruptly to another axiom. Science, too, supplies us with an important one to be kept in mind when considering the question of the religious habit. The smaller the area of concentration, the sharper the focus of vision. If the apostolic mission of the religious, her message to the world, is a spiritual one, the less we distract attention with material, physical details the better. But where is spiritual communication between human beings focused? Is it not in the face? The more other details of the body command our attention, the less attention can the mind give to the message that shines from the face and is spoken by the lips. The former draw attention to things of the earth, of the body; the latter, to things of the spirit; The religious whose apostolate requires and occasions personal contact with those whom she would 4" inspire cannot afford to forget this simple scientific axiom. 4" The science of logic can supply us with another simple 4" rule, but one essential to right judgment. However per- suasive it may sound; reasoning must be tested for fal- Sister Mary Bonaventure, O ,S.F. lacies. There is especially the common but not always obvious falhicy of connecting a number of results with REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS one cause before we have ruled out other possible causes: In "recent years we have seen and heard almost every problem or failure in religious lif~ lumped together as one heterogeneous effect of the kind of habit worn by religious. "People are afraid to approach religious." "~Ve are not considered human." "We are not recognized as individuals." "We are. not deemed qualified to understand and teach." "People cannot get close enough to Sisters to appreciate the lesson of their lives." And it is the habit which is responsible for all this. Those who argue look for no other possible cause. Is not the fallacy of cause writ large in such argument? Yet we expect a college freshman to know and recognize the obvious fallacies of argument. A second fallacy is scarcely less frequent: the fallacy of extremes. If we cannot accept one position, the other extreme is the only alternative. This religious habit has some drawbacks; it should be changed entirely--in every respect. We need only apply the test of strict logic to note the enormity of the fallacy: I have a severe headache which I wish to alleviate; I should cut off my head to effect a permanent cure. Some recent dialogues on the change of religious habits reveal a tragic propensity to "throw out the baby with the bath water." A final basic principle that must not be overlooked when we are considering change is the principle of the truth of history. Theory must always be tested by practice, by experiment or experience. The evidence and lessons of history, so seldom heeded, could save us from much trial and error. Two patent examples of this truth are pertinent here. 1) The fact that after e~cery suppression of religious communities in various parts of the world up to the present, when religious were secularized in dress by law and necessity, they resumed their traditional religious habit as soon as it was permitted was not accidental. The decision argues some unchanging fundamental principle. 2) Today, the objection to drastic secularization of religious habits is coming from the laity, the people for whose sake the habit is primarily adopted as a means of communication. Adaptation, some form of change, is advised and indeed advisable for some religious habits. But lay people have definitely expressed in no small numbers (in some communities to the extent of 90%) ÷ their preference for the traditional religious garb, if the ÷ alternative is a secularized uniform. Protestants have approached sisters without introduction to express the .plea: "I hope you are not considering a drastic change of Religious Habit your garb. It gives me a good, an inspiring thought whenever I see it." The facts of historical truth cannot VOLUME 25," 1966 be ignored nor reasoned away. 509 Sound thinking on the question of religious habits and the nature of change or adaptation must rest on a clear perception of such essential principles. The distinct character of a religious and the undeniable power of dress as a means of communication and influence: these we must never forget.

$i~ter Mar~ Bonaventure, O ~J~.

REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS RICHARD M. McKEON, S.J. Searching for Good Managers

This questionnaire on managerial qualities has been drawn up for the world of industry. No reference has been made to religious life. Nevertheless it will enable religious to judge more accurately the administrative ability of those who might assume office. Under some questions will be remarks for clarification. It is suggested that a resumd of the person concerned be given to the interviewer or consultant ahead of time. Introductory notes: "Management is the art and science of preparing, organizing and directing human effort applied to control the forces and to utilize the materials of nature for the benefit of man." Again, "management is the ability to get people to work, to work hard, to work well, and to do so because they want to do so." One summary of a good manager includes these qualities: integrity, intelligence, imagination, mature judgment, emotional lzialance, ability to work with others, capacity for planning, organizing, and taking action. A survey by big business people rated ten success factors in this order: (1) Integrity; (2) Ability to see relationships among concrete functions; (3) Ability to operate. as a generalist; (4) Ability to lead others; (5) Ag- gressiveness; (6) Self-confidence; (7) Imagination and creativity; (8) Ability to delegate; (9) Willingness to work hard; (10) Luck. It is suggested that, where possible, each question + answered should be marked (E) for excellent; (G) for + good; (P) for poor. The totals should give a fair picture 4- of the person’s qualifications. Richard M. Mc- K. eon, S.J., is direc- Personal aspects. tor of the Institute for Industrial Re- Is he a true gentleman? lations at LeMoyne ---one who never offends. College; Syracuse, Has he a pleasing personality? New York 13214. ~ --the sum total of one’s effect on other people. --ability to get along peacefully and happily. VOLUME 25, 1966 How does he rate on courtesy? --courtesy is a distinct business asset. Does he have self-mastery? Is he always neat in appearance?’ Is he punctual? Does he have a good sense of humor? Will he consider his office not so much authority as service?

Prudence. Is he prudent? --"Prudence is right reason applied to practice." Aristotle Does he take counsel? Is he tactful? --tact is the ability to deal with others without giving of- fense. Does he possess empathy? --the capacity to place oneself in the place of another, to feel as he does. Does he resemble "The Ugly American"? --complacency, condescension, insensibility--all allied with lack of tact. Pride and humility. Is he proud? --pride is an exaggerated love and esteem of self. --without reason, irritating his colleagues. Does he know that the master-servant concept of the past is no longer tolerable? Does he realize that many of his subordinates may be more competent? Does he think that everything must center around himself? Is he affected by his office or status symbol? Is he humble? --with true knowledge of self, willing to be treated accordingly. Would he be (onvinced that humility is the basis of a worthwhile career? Is he meek? --meekness is a readiness to yield to others when principle is not at stake. --to recognize situations where "mercy seasons justice." Does he admit it is not humanly possible to know all the facts, or all even of one fact? Business knowledge. Has he any degrees in business administration or allied fields? Would his experience be accepted in lieu of the same? Is he acquainted with the’influence of the behaviorial sciences? Does he have a basic knowledge of human relations in management? Professional attitude. + Is he social~minded, conscious of the needs of the community? As a professional, would he seek to know the "why" as well + as the "what"? ÷ Does he know that laissez-faire, old-style free enterprise is dead? R. M. McKeon, $,]. --the public-be-damned attitude is supplanted by service. Would he seek the balanced best interests of workers, customers, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS shareholders, suppliers, and the affected public? Will he guard himself against personal obsolescence? 512 Would he tend to be paternalistic? Leadership. Is he aware that the new professionalism of managers calls for drastic readjustments in his work area? Does he lead through inspiration rather than by command? Does he possess virtue in the sense of manliness? --manliness makes the exercise of authority a service for others. Would he be conscious of an educational duty? --to give others vision and the ability to perform. IS he an optimist? --acting to make hopes come true. As a manager, would this pe.rs?n prove to be a dry stick? --no ammation, only pass,wty. Would this man "pass the buck"? --giving to others problems he should settle himself. Would he tend to play favorites? Does he realize that failure to act promptly on grievances will . cause workers to lose faith in him? Is he an enterpriser in the acceptance of change as an opportunity? Does he realize that enterprising means finding and using opportunity? Generalist. Is he a generalist? --expert in analyzing situations, classifying problems, and marking out proper courses for others who are:specialists. Does he know that this emphasis, especially in developing man- a~ers who are gen~ralists, make things happen, and are re°suits---and re’~ponsibility---oriented will be a new objective? --"Good management consists of showing average people how to do the work of superior people." John D. Rocke- feller Does he realize that skill in managing human relations creates a competitive advantage for a company? Is he convinced that personal loyalty and interest of the worker in a small concern often compensate for the efficiency of the larger ones? Can he relate "what is’ strategically desirable to what is tech- nically possible with ~he facilities and personnel at hand?" Will he understand that he alone will be responsible for carrying out policies and projects within his jurisdiction? Tangible duties. --planning, assigning, reviewing, evaluating. Is he a good planner? Will he assign the most competent persons to various projects? --giving them all tools and instructions. Does he review the projects assigned? Does he know how to evaluate? ÷ --how results are compared to stan,dards of performance and ÷ planned objectives. ÷ On his past working experience how would he be rated? Intangible du.ties. Good Managers Does he seek cooperation with his subordinates? VOLUME 25, 1066 --a working togetherness. In what degree is he capable of leadership? 513 --interest in subordinates, arousing enthusiasm, commanding respect. Is he capable of developing other managers? Is he alert to fluctuations of morale and ready to act if necessary? Is he truly efficient? ~doing habitually well what has to be done. --a sense of craftsmanship. Does he encourage innovation? Does he show creative initiative? Will he anticipate future manpower and management needs? Decision-making. --Management is a decision-making process. Only the manager who applies foresight and judgment besides re- sourcefulness and courage in making decisions will advance his concern’s prosperity. Can he take a problem, break it down into ahernatives, and then decide on a solution without delay? Does he realize that no decision can be better than the people who have to carry it out? Does he procrastinate? Does he pigeonhole decisions? Does he show apathy, indifference, and antagonism to change? Does he know that every managerial decision involves both risks and costs? Is he a briefbagger? --one who carries work home, a mark of inefficiency. Communication. Does he know his subordinates and what is important to each? Does he keep his subordinates fully informed? Does he ask for their counsel and hel.p? --stimulating upward communicatmn. Does he give directions in terms of suggestions or direct commands? Does he concentrate on the letter of the law and neglect its spirit? Does he criticize or repro.ve in public? Does he give prudent praise as a stimulant to better work? Does he realize that the grapevine exists in eyery concern? --informal channel of communication. Can frustrate managers. Does he accept a fair amount of griping as healthy? Miscellaneous Does he understand the value of good public relations? Is he familiar with group dynamics and the behavorial sciences? How would his emotional stability be rated? Is he over-tense? Is he apathetic? --impassive, conceding failure too soon.

R. M. McKeon, S.].

REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 514 DONALD A. SPOTO, F.S.C.H. Gnosis

GNOSIS With a question-mark face, Pyramus stands and bleeds. Passing through red seas of wars, crowded into promised lands in subways, he knew times of Babylon-depression, and the drinking of occasional renaissance. Now, his collapse in exhaustion is a child’s Saturday genuflection. His face yields to a voiceless Imprimatur. Standing up to full height, with wounds opening anew like a dark, fatal rose, embraced by its thorns, he stares. On a post-war piece of linen, he sees his body dancing on a skull, and accepting the promise of a week-end stillness, slowly relaxes the question-mark into its startled brother.

4. Donald A. Spoto,’ F.S.C.H., resides at All Hallows Insti- tute; 111 East IOith Street; New York, New York 10452.

VOLUME 25, 1966 R. F..SMITH, S.J. Survey of Roman Documents

Three issues of Acta Apostolicae Sedis, those of De- cember 4, 30, and 31, have appeared since the writing of the last "Survey of Roman Documents." The December 31 issue being an index issue, the present survey will provide a summary of the principal documents that appeared in the two earlier December issues. Throughout the survey all page references will be to the 1965 .4cta (v..57). Vatican Council II and Associated Matters On October 21, 1965 (pp. 917-8), Pope Paul VI gave an allocution to the members of a special commission composed of the presidents of the various episcopal con- ferences convened for the purpose of considering the Church’s laws of abstinence and fasting. The Pope urged the members of the Commission to a careful study of a proposed text of changes in these lawsand to contribute their 9xperience to the consideration 6f such changes. On October 28, 1965 (pp. 899-903), the Pontiff delivered a homily at the Mass in St. Peter’s celebrated on the occasion of the promulgation of the three decrees of the Council on bishops, religious life, and the training ¯ of priests and of the Council’s two declarations on Christian education and on relations with non-Christian religions. The homily stressed that the work of the Council is a clear and triumphant sign of the Church’s 4. vitality while this vitality itself is a sign of the Church’s love for Christ her Lord. On November 4, 1965 (pp. 865-71), the Pope issued the apostolic exhortation, Postrema sessio, asking for the prayers of the entire R. F. Smith, S.I. Church for the closing days of Vatican Council II. On November 10, 1965 (pp. 967-70), His Holiness REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS .delivered the allocution, Vos omnes, to a meeting of persons engaged in translating liturgical texts into vernacular languages. He told them that the transla- tions should be couched in language intelligible even to children and to the uneducated but nevertheless worthy of the highest realities. He also remi~aded his listeners of the following matters: Regions with a single language should have only one vernacular translation of liturgical texts; all activity regarding the liturgy should be carried on in dependence on the hierarchy of the region; liturgical texts duly approved and confirmed cannot be changed by individuals; introduction of new things into the liturgy by way of experiment can be done only with permission of the Apostolic See. On November 13, 1965 (pp. 970-3), the Pope gave the allocution, Paterno solacio, to the Polish bishops in attendance at the Council. He praised the fervor of Polish Catholics with regard to the Council and expressed his sincerest wishes for the success of the 1966 celebration of the thousandth anniversary of Christianity in Poland. On November 18, 1965 (pp. 978-84), the Vicar ’of Christ delivered the allocution, Publica haec, on the occasion of the promulgation of the Council’s dogmatic constitution on revelation and of its ~decree on the apostolate 0f the laity. The greater part of the allocution was devoted to a detailing of the things, that the Holy See itself has done in order to carry out the wishes of the Council. At the conclusion ’of the .allocution the, Pope revealed that he had set in motion the canonical process for the beatification andcanonization of Pius XII. and of John XXIII and mentioned a proposaI to construct in Rome as a memorial for the Council a church in honor of the Blessed Virgin, Mother of the Church. On November 20, 1965 (pp. 985-9), in the allocution, Singu" lari, His Holiness spoke to the cardinals and consultors of the Commission for the Revision of Canon Law, stressing the necessity of canon law ’in the Church and the consequent importance of the work of the Commis- sion. On November 23, 1965 (pp. 1010-3), there w.as issued an instruction on the language to be used in the celebration of the Office and the Mass in religious ilastitutes. The instruction was issued through the Sacred Congrega- tion of Rites, but it was jointly signed by Cardinal Giacomo Lercaro, chairman of the Committee for the Implementation of the Constitution on the Liturgy, by Cardinal Hildebrando Antoniutti, prefect Of the Sacred Congregation of Religious, and by Cardinal Arcadio Roman. Documents Larraona, prefect of the Sacred Congregation of Rites. Beca.use of the importance of this document an English VOLUME 25, 1966" . translation of the complete text is given here: 517 AN INSTRUCTION ON THE LANGUAGE TO BE USED IN THE CELEBRATION AMONG RELIGIOUS OF THE DIVINE OFFICE AND OF THE CONVENTUAL OR COMMUNITY MASS In issuing norms regarding the language to be used in the celebration of the Divine Office in choir, in common, or in private, Vatican Council II was concerned both with safeguard- ing the age-old tradition of the Latin Church and with pro- moting the spiritual welfare of all those who are deputed for this prayer or who participate in it. For this latter reason it thought it opportune to grant the use o[ the vernacular in certain circumstances and with regard to well-defined classes of persons. Afterwards many petitions were sent to the Apostolic See asking that the norms of the Council be determined with greater detail and that the use of the vernacular be also granted to clerics even in choral recitation of the Divine Office because of special conditions either of places or of the pastoral activity entrusted to some communities. These petitions were carefully considered; and in order that there might be established a suitable uniformity and that a clearly defined norm might be provided, the Sacred Congrega- tion of Rites, the Sacred Congregation of Religious, and the Committee for the Implementation of the Constitution on the Liturgy have jo!ntly agreed to the following regulations. I. Clerical Institutes Obliged to Choir. 1. Clerical institutes bound to choir are obliged to celebrate the Divine Office in choir in the Latin language according to the norm of article I01, 1 of the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy and of number 85 of the Instruction of September 26, 1964, issued for the correct implementation of the Constitution. 2. Because of the special situation provision will be made that monasteries existing in mission regions and consisting in greater part of native members may use the vernacular according, to the intention of article 40 of the Constitution. 3. The authority competent to give the concession mentioned in the preceding number is the Sacred Congregation of Re- ligious.. II. Clerical Institutes Not Bound to Choir. 4. Clerical religious communities not bound to choir may use the vernacular in the common recitation of those parts of the Divine Office in which, by reason of the constitutions, their lay religious are also bound to participate. 5. The right to decree the use of the vernacular in the parts of the Divine Office mentioned in the preceding number belongs to the general chapter or, after the mind of the members has been investigated, to the general council of the institute. 6. When such a decree changes prescriptions of the constitutions, it must be approved by the Sacred Congregation of Religious in the case of institutes of pontifical right and by local ordinaries in the case of institutes of diocesan right (see the Code of Canon Law, canon 495, 2). IlL Clerical Religious Communities Engaged in the Pastoral It. F. Smith, $.I. Ministry of a Parish, a Shrine, or a Much Frequented Church. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 7. Clerical religious communities, even those bound to choir, 518 who are engaged in the service of a parish, a shrine, or a much frequented church can use the vernacular iu those parts of the Divine Office which for pastoral reasons they celebrate with the people. 8. The decision to grant this faculty will be made by: a) the local ordinary with the consent of the major religious superior and with the approval of the Sacred Congregation o[ Rites in the case of a community bound to choir; b) the local ordinary with the consent of the major religious superior in the case of a community not bound to choir. IV. Nuns. 9. Nuns may ask for permission to use the vernacular in the celebration, even in choir, of the Divine Office. However, in those monasteries in which according to their own traditional custom the Divine Office is celebrated in a solemn way and Gregorian chant is fostered, the Latin language, as ~ar as possible, should be retained. 10. Because of the special situation the concession will be made that the vernacular may be used by monasteries that exist in mission regions and that consist in greater part of native members. 11. When the Latin language is retained in the choral celebration of the Divine Office, permission is granted to read the Lessons in the vernacular. 12. The authority co.mpetent to grant nuns the use of the vernacular in the choral celebration of the Divine Office is the Sacred Congregation of Religious. Petition for this should be made by the chapter of the monastery with the consent of the local ordinary or of the religious superior if the monastery depends on the jurisdiction of an order. 13. Nuns who are not present for the choral recitation may use the vernacular in their private recitation of the Divine Of- rice. V. Lay Religious Institutes. 14. In ~ccord with the norm of article 101, 2, of the Con- stitution of the Sacred Litzirgy, lay communities of institutes of the state of perfection whether of men or of women can be allowed by the competent authority to use the vernacular in the recitation of the Divine Office even in choir. 15. The competent authority is the general chapter or, members of the institute having been duly consulted, the general council. 16. When a decree of this kind changes prescriptions of the constitutions, it must be approved by the Sacred Congregation of Religious in the case of institutes of pontifical right or by local ordinaries in the case of congregations of diocesan right (see the Code of Canon Law, canon 495, 2). VI. The Language to Be Used in the Conventual Mass. 17. In the conventual Mass clerical institutes bound to choir a) are bound to retain the Latin language in the same way as was determined above (numbers 1-2) with regard to the Divine Office; however, the Readings can be made in the vernacula~:; b) may use the vernacular within the limits determined by the competent territorial authority, when a religious community is engaged in the pastoral ministry of a parish, a shrine, Roman Documen~ or a much frequented church and the conventual Mass is celebrated for the benefit of the faithful. VOLUME 25, 1966 18. In accord with what has been determined (numbers 9-I1) with regard to the choral celebration of the Divine Office, nuns m_ay either retain the Latin language or may use the vernacular within the limits determined by the competent territorial authority. ~ VII. The Language to Be Used in the Celebration of the Com- munity Mass by Clerical Institutes Not Bound to Choir and in Lay Institutes of Men and of Women. 19. In the celebration of community ’Mass clerical institutes, besides using Latin, may several times a week (for example, two or three times) use the vernacular within the limits determined by the competent territorial authority. 20. The community Mass of lay institutes of the states of perfection whether of men or of women may be customarily celebrated in the vernacular within the limits determined by the competent territorial authority. Provision, however, should be made that the members of these institutes can also say or sing in the Latin language the parts of the Ordinary or the Proper pertaining to them (see the Constitution, article 54). This instruction, prepared with the joint consent of the Sacred Congregation of Rites, of the Sacred Congregation of Religious, and of the Committee for the Implementation of the Constitution on the Liturgy, was presented-on November 23, 1965~ by His Eminence, Cardinal Arcadio M. Larraona, prefect of the Sacred Congregation of Rites, to the Supreme Pontit[ who graciously, approved it, confirmed it by his authority, and ordered it to be promulgated, stipulating that it should take effect from February 6, 1966, Septuagesima Sunday. Rome, November 23, 1965. On November 26, 1965 (pp. 991-5), the Roman Pon- tiff addressed the journalists who had covered Vatican Council II. He thanked them for their efforts to make the work of the Council known throughout the world, remarked on the great difficulty of, truly understanding the Council and on the consequent need for close study of the documents of the Council, and explained the traditional reserve of the Holy See with regard to news releases. On December 7, 1965 (pp. 945-51), the Holy Father published the apostolic constitution, Mirificus eventus, ~n which he ordered the celebration of a special jubilee of thanksgiving for the Council and of individual, domestic, and public renovation of life to be observed from January 1, 1966 to May 31, 1966. According to the constitution the jubilee should center around the bishop and his cathedral. Special faculties were granted by the Pope to legitimately approved confessors during the jubilee period:(1) the faculty to absolve from ecclesiastical censures and penalties those who knowingly professed in an external way heretical, sctiismatical, or atheistic doctrines; (2) the faculty to absolve from ecclesiastical. R. F..Smith, $.J. censures and penalties those who knowingly read or retained books of apostates, heretics, or schismatics which REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS inculcate apostasy, heresy, or schism; i3) the faculty to 52O absolve from ecclesiastical censures and penaltie~ those who belong to the Masons or other such associations that are opposed to the Church or to legitimate civil authorities; and (4) the faculty to commute to other works of penance or piety all private vows, even those reserved to the Apostolic See, provided such commuta- tion does not harm the rights of others. The Holy Father also granted special indulgences to those who confess, receive Communion, and pray for his intentions: (I) a plenary indulgence whenever they .attend three instructions oh the decrees of Vatican Council II or three ses, sions of a mission or whenever they are present in the cathedral at a Mass celebrated by the bishop in a solemn way;" and (2) a plenary indulgence to be gained once when they visit the cathedral and there renew their profession of faith according to any legitimate formula. Finally, the Pope authorized bishops on the occasion of the chief celebration of the jubilee in their dioceses to imp~ri the papal blessing together with a plenary indulgence for those who receive the blessing. Later, on ,Dectmber 20; 1965 (p. 1018) the Sacred Apostolic Peni- tentiary issued a decree modifying the conditiofis for the jubile~ "indulgences. The text of the decree is as follows in Ehglish translation:

’~DEcREE ON THE JUBILEE ¯INDULGENCES Since man~’ bishops have earnestly asked that the jubilee indulgences granted to the faithful by the apostolic constitution Mirificus eventus might also be gained by those for whom, be~ cause of special circumstan~e~ ~f p!~ce or time, access to the Cathedral is difficult, the Supreme Pontiff, Paul VI, Pope by divine p.rovidence, by thig dec.fee of the Sacred Penitentiary will- ingly grants:all local ordinaries the l~ower--if they judge it help, fulchurches for the of successthe diocese of thein which jubilee--to t.l!.e’ designatefai~ful can one gaifi or t,he more jubilee indulgences. ¯ . Given at Rome, from the ’Sacred Penitehtiary; December 20, 1965. Onl De~ml~er 7, 19~5,:,(ppl 952-5), Paul VI issued the motu proprio apostolic letter, Integrae servandae, in which he qhanged the.title of th~ Sacred Cbngregation of, the Holy Office to that,0f tl~e Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith find l-isted the future responsibifi- ties of the renamed,Coiagregat, ion. Misc’ellaneous Documents, On October 17, 1965 (pp. 913-7)i the Vicar of Christ gave an allocution to those present in Rome ~or the beatification of Blessed James Berthieu o~ the Society of Jesus, pointing out that the li~e of the new Blessed docu- Roman Documents mented the ~act that God’s salvific will is realized only by the ~ree cooperation o~ men ’and that the missionary li~e requires heroism. On December 2, 1965 (pp. 1015-7), the Sacred Congregation of Rites issued a document affirming that it was safe to proceed to the beatification of Charbel Makhlouf (1828-1898), priest-monk of the Maronite Lebanese Order. Accordingly, the Pope on De- cember 7, 1965 (pp. 955-60), issued the apostolic letter, "’Gloria Libani,’" proclaiming his beatification. On September 25, 1965 (pp. 903-5), His Holiness spoke to an international congress on radiology, telling his audience that they were called to a life of charity characterized by respect for sufferers as being in a mysterious way images of Christ; he also remarked on the case of Albert Schweitzer as an example of how a man can accomplish great things when animated by a noble ideal. On September 29, 1965 (pp. 906-7), the Pontiff addressed the International Assembly of the Association of the Atlantic Pact praising their work for peace among all nations. On October 2, 1965 (pp. 907-9) he gave a speech to the International Colloquy on Traffic Morality, emphasizing that morality in this area must be based on the respect due to human life and to the human person. On October 15, 1965 (pp. 909-11), Pope Paul directed an allocution to a number of world youth groups assembled at the invitation of the Food and Agriculture Organization to organize an effective fight against hunger throughout the world; he reminded his listeners of the imperative necessity of assuring all men the first and essential need, that of eating to satisfy hunger and recalled to their minds the words of Christ: "I was hungry and you gave me to eat." On October 16, 1965 (pp. 911-2), the Pope gave an allocution to members of the International Catholic Union of Social Service con- gratulating them on the work they have consistently done since the foundation of their Union. On October 3, 1965 (pp. 923-6), His Holiness spoke to members of the International Union of Notaries telling them that they should have three characteristic qualities: devoted- ness to truth, exactitude, and mindfulness of the divine law and of divine justice. On October 23, 1965 (pp. 919-23), the Holy Father delivered a radio message for the celebration of World Missionary Day; he told his worldwide audience that today!s anxieties among peoples and dangers to peace make missionary activity all the more needful today. On ÷ October 27, 1965 (pp. 962-3), the Pope issued the apos- ÷ tolic letter, Africae genres, establishing an apostolic ÷ nuntiature in Zambia with its legation at Lusaka. On November 13, 1965 (pp. 973-7), Paul VI delivered the !{. F. Smith: $.]. allocution, Las bondadosas palabras, at the dedication of the new building for the Spanish College and Seminary REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS in Rome. He reminded his audience that the specific work of a priest is to communicate the bread of the word and to bestow pardon, grace, and holiness. He also dwelt on the special responsibilites and characteristics of a priest today, ending with remarks on the importance of obedience. On November 28, I965 (pp. 995-7), he addressed the members of the Food and Agriculture Organization on the occasion of that Organi- zation’s twentieth anniversary. He congratulated the organization on the success of its work, describing the organization as one of the best initiatives of the period after World War II. On October 25, 1965 (pp. 918-9) the Pope gave an allocution to Jos~ Guirola Leal, ambassador to the Holy See from Guatemala; on November 22, 1965 (pp. 899- 90), to Guido Bacci di Capaci Grave de Peraha, ambassador from the Republic of Honduras; on November 25, 1966 (pp. 990-1), to Atilano Vicini Perdomo, ambassador of the Dominican Republic; and on December 4, 1965 (pp. 997-8), to Philibert Tsiranana, president of the Republic of Madagascar.

4. 4. 4.

Roman Documents

VOLUME 25, 1966 The Church’s Holiness and Religious Life On April 1, 1966, Ra~vxEw fOR P~taGIOUS published a hardbound edition of The Church’s Holiness and Reli- gious Lile by Gustave Martelet, s.J., theological consultant to African bishops during Vatican Council II. The importance and significance of the book can be seen by its chapter titles: The Church and Holiness; The Church’s Holiness and"Her Spousehood; Marriage and Virginity; Virginity and Eschatology; Religious Life and Preferen- tial Love of Christ; The Love of Christ and the Mystery of the Spirit; The Charismatic Origin of Religious Life and and the Mystery of the Hierarchy; and Religious Life and the Sanctification of the Entire Church. The book has vi + 124 pages, costs $2.50, and should be ordered from: P~EVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS St. Mary’s College St. Marys, Kansas 66536 Summer Program for Religious Dominican College; San Rafael, California, is offering as part of its regular summer session six courses in religion. Three will run daily for six weeks, and three will be short two-week courses. They will include ascetical-mystical theology, the dogmas of creation and of grace, the sacraments, developments in the liturgy, new approaches to teaching Scripture, suggested changes in canon law as related to religious women. The summer session begins on June 27 and closes on August 3. The summer session offers programs leading to the B.A. and the M.A. degrees and to California teaching credentials. Residence is available for sisters and lay women on campus. ,The college cafeteria and cultural, religious, and recreational facilities are open to men and women. For further information write: Sister M. Martin, O.P.; Do- minican College of San Rafael; San Rafael, California 94901.

+ Fordham University Summer Programs The Sixteenth Annual Institute on Religious and + Sacerdotal Vocations will be held on the campus of Ford- Views, News, ham University on July 13 and July 14, 1966. From July Pre~,ws 18 to July 22 inclusive Fordham University will sponsor a Workshop for Mistresses of Novices, Postulants, and REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Junior Professed. From July 25 to July 29 inclusive, 524 there will be a Workshop for Local Superiors. Speakers at both of these workshops will be: the Reverend Eugene C. Kennedy, M.M.; Mother Kathryn Sullivan, R.S.C.J., and the Reverend Dominic Maruca, S.J. For further information write: The Reverend John F. Gilson, S.J..; School of Education; Fordham University; New York, New York 10007. Ecumenical Summer School of Theology An Ecumenical Summer School of Theology will be sponsored by the Aquinas Institute School of Theology, the Dubuque Theological Seminary, and Wartburg Semi- nary in Dubuque, Iowa, from June 27 to July 15. Regis- tration is open to all; seven courses will be available for graduate credit or continuing education. For details write: The Reverend Kevin D. O’Rourke, O.P.; Aquinas Institute School of Theology; Dubuque, Iowa 52002. Biblical Institute Trinity College; Burlington, Vermont, will open its first annual Biblical Institute June 19-24, 1966, for priests, brothers, sisters, and laymen engaged in the teaching of religion. This year’s institute will emphasize two areas: Old Testament study and biblical archaeology; the relating of insights from contemporary psychology to Christian living. Further information may be obtained from: The Biblical Institute; Trinity College; Burlington, Vermont.

Stonehill College Institutes An Institute for Brother Superiors, Formation Person- nel, and Councilors will .be held at Stone.hill College from July 6 to July 11, 1966. From August 15 to August 20 there will be held at the same College an Institute for Local Superiors of Women Religious. Inquiries about the institutes should b’e sent to: The Reverend William F. Hogan, C.S.C.; Moreau Hall; Stonehill College; North " Easton, Massachusetts 02356. Master of Arts Program in Sacred Doctrine St. Mary’s University; San Antonio, Texas,. offers a master of arts program in sacred doctrine geared to provide a thorough formation in the fields of dogmatic and moral theology, Scripture, and liturgy. During the sum- ÷ mer session of 1966, which runs from June 27 to August 5, ÷ the following courses will be offered: Introduction to ÷ Sacred Theology; Introduction to Sacred Scripture; In- Fiews~ News, troduction to Moral Theology; The Virtues; The Word Previews Incarnate and Redeemer; Readings in Contemporary Theology; Seminar in Contemporary Catechetics; .The VOLUME 25, 1966 Gospels. For further information write: The Reverend George .T. Montague, S.M.; Graduate Advisor in Sacred Doctrine; St. Mary’s University; 2700 Cincinnati Avenue; San Antonio, Texas 78228. Food Service and Management Seminars The Food Research Center for Catholic Institutions of North Easton, Massachusetts, will offer six workshops during the summer of 1966 for sisters, brothers, and laymen engaged in food preparation and management. The workshops will be conducted at the following uni- versities and colleges: Notre Dame University; Notre Dame, Indiana, June 26 to July 2, 1966 (two simultane- ous workshops, one intended expressly for small, convents); Stonehill College; North Easton, Massachusetts, July 24 to July 30; Aquinas College; Grand Rapids, Michigan, August 8 to August 16; Saint Michael’s Col- lege; Toronto, Canada, August 18 to August 26; and Laval University; Quebec City, Quebec (this will be conducted in French only). For further information write: Brother Herman E. Zaccarelli, C.S.C.; Director; Food Research Center for Catholic Institutions; Stone- hill College; North Easton, Massachusetts 02356. Sister Desolata and Sister Ecumenica Sister Agnes Immaculata, S.N.D. de N.; Mount Notre Dame; 701 East Columbia Avenue; Cincinnati, Ohio 45215; has sent to the REVIEW the following reflections in verse form: Sister Desolata 1908-1965 I was not loath to die in nineteen sixty-five (Though I was not yet sixty.) Life was no longer peaceful or secure. Our cloistered fortresses-once strong and safe Were now beset on every side by angry forces, Battering down our walls. What unfamiliar words were those: commitment-- Aggiornamento~ecumenical--avant-garde. And there was endless talk about fulfillment-- Tension~adaptation of the habit. Yes--there was something too about a strange new breed-- But last and worst of all--the Mass in Englishl You will agree, I think--it was a blessed thing For me to die in nineteen sixty-five. Sister Ecumenica 1890-1965 I did not want to die in nineteen sixty-five (Though I had passed my Golden Jubilee.) Views, News, It would have been so wonderful to live just ten years more. Previews A fresh new wind was blowing fair and free Through all the long-sealed windows of the Church. REVIEW FOR REL~GIOUS I sensed the power of those magic words: Aggiornamento~adaptation--liberty-- Commitment and liturgical renewal. I longed to share the agonies of change With all the Christians of the century. I wanted to emerge with them in triumph From all the ghettos Where we’ve dwelt too long-- Aloof and safe--untouched By sufferings of our brothers--not of the Fold. Who knows---I might have joined that brave New Breed-- I might have marched into the Inner City, Singing freedom songs to blast the walls of hate. There was so much to live for when I died-- But I’m remembering in eternity. Reprints of Back Volumes of the REVIEW The first twenty volumes (1942-1961) inclusive of the R~VIEW have been reprinted in twenty clothbound volumes. They are available at $6.50 the volume or ~130.00 for the set o£ twenty (these prices include the cost of postage). Orders for these reprinted volumes should be sent to: REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS St. Mary’s College St. Marys, Kansas 66536 Back Issues of the REVIEW The following is a list o~ the back issues of REVIEW VOR RELIGIOUS that are presently available: 1948: May, November issues 1949: J.uly issue 1950: September, November issues 1951: September issue 1952: March, May, July, September, November issues 1953: January, May issues’ 1954: January issue 1955: March, May, July, September issues 1956: March, May, July, September, November issues 1957: January, May, July, September issues 1958: January, March, May, November issues 1959! March, May, July issues 1960: no issues 1961: January, March, May, July, November issues 1962: March, July, September issues 1963: March, May, July, September issues 1964: March, July issues + 1965: March, May, July, September, November issues ÷ Some of these issues are available only in small num- ÷ bers. The issues cost sixty cents each plus postage and should be ordered from: Views, News, Previews REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS St. Mary,s College VOLUME 25, 1966 St. Marys, Kansas 66536 527 Reprints from the REvIEw The following is a list of the currently available reprints of articles that originally appeared in l~viEw FOR RELIGIOUS: "Femininity and Spirituality" by Joseph F. Gallen, s.J. (20 cents) "Gifts to Religious" by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. (50 cents) "Praying the Office" by Hildebrand Fleischmann, O.S.B. (20 cents) "Meditations on the Rosary" ’by John XXIII (15 cents) "The Teaching Sister in the Church" by Elio Gam- bari, S.M.M.. (20 cents) "The Virtue of Mercy" by Sister Mary Celeste, S.M. (20 cen.ts) "Heterosexual Relationships in Adolescence" by Rich- ard McCormick, S.J. (20 cents) "Understanding in a Superior" by Thomfis Dubay, S.M. (20 cents) "The Theology of the Eucharistic Presence" by Jean Galo~; S,J. (20 cents) "Four Ways of the Cross" by A.-M. Roguet, O.P. (35 cents) "The Meaning of the Religious Sisterhood" by Charles A. Schleck; C.S.C. (i5 cents) "Confession and the Religious Life" by Jean Galot, s.J., together with "Confession: An End-Time Phenome- non" by Angelo P. O’Hagan, O.F.M. (20 cents) "Constitution on the Liturgy" by Vatican Council I1 together with "Apostolic Letter Concerning .the Consti- tution on the Liturgy" by Paul vi (30 cents) "Examination of Conscience for the Religious Woman" by Sister Vincent Ferrer, S.P., and Sister Mary Elizabeth, S.P. (15 cents) "The Nature of Religious Authority" by Lorenzo Boisvert, O.F.M. (20 cents) "The Major Religious Superior and the Meaning of Her Subject’s Vocation" by Charles A. Schleck, C.S.C. (25 cents) "Why Religious Life?" by Jean Galot, S.J. (15 cents) "Dogmatic Constitution on the Church" by Vatican Council II (45 cents) ÷ "Sanctification through Virginity" by Charles A. ÷ Schleck, C.S.C. (35 cents) ÷ "Religious Women and Pastoral Work" by J. M. R. Views, News, Tillard, O.P. (15 cents) Previews "Religious Life in the Mystery of the Church" by J. M. R. Tillard, O.P. (20 cents) REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS "Sanctification through Obedience" by Charles A. Schleck, C.S.C. (45 cents) "Sanctification through Poverty" by Charles A. Schleck, C.S.C; (30 cents) Ready about July 1, 1966: "Typical Constitutions of La~ Religious Congrega- tions" by Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. (45 cents) All prices ,given in the above list include the cost of postage. Orders for the above should be sent to: REVIEW fOR RELIGIOUS St. Mary’s Cgllege St. Marys, Kansas 66536

÷ ÷ ÷

Pre~v~vsViews, News,

VOLUME 25, 1966 [The following answers are given by Father Joseph F. Gallen, S.J., professor of canon law at Woodstock College; Woodstock, Maryland 21163.] R~wEw for RELIOIOUS has published a book entitled Questions on Religious Life consisting of a selection of questions and answers that have appeared in the R~viEw from 1942 to 1961. The volume is arranged according to the order generally "found in constitutions of religious institutes. A general subject and a canon law index is included at the end. The book is clothbound, has three hundred thirty-seven pages and costs $6.00 (postage is included in this price). The book should be ordered from REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS St. Mary’s College St. Marys, Kansas 66536 At the time o[ his entrance, a subject was dispensed Irom the impediment o~ illegitimacy, which is a merely prohibiting impediment to entrance into the noviceship according to our constitutions. Is another dispensation later necessary to appoint or elect him higher superior, since legitimacy or legitimation is Yequired by canon 504 ~or such an offwe? Yes. These are two completely different laws. One is of the particular constitutions, the other is of the Code of Canon Law; the first is for liceity, the second for validity; the first is on entrance into the noviceship, the second on appointment or election as higher superior; the first can be dispensed ordinarily by the superior general, local ordinaries, and bishops, the second only by the Holy See. The two are not even necessarily connected, since not every subject who enters the noviceship is appointed, elected, or even considered for the office of higher superior. Consequently, a notation is to be preserved in the secret files of the institute that the illegitimate subject cannot validly be made a higher superior. This notation is to contain an accurate description of the facts that give rise to the illegitimacy. Exactly the same thing is to be done in the case of abandoned children, those whose parents are unknown, or whose legitimacy is otherwise doubtful. Il- legitimacy is something odious, and a child is therefore to and A~swe~s be presumed legitimate until the contrary is proved with moral certainty. In the cases listed, no dispensation is nec- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS essary from a merely prohibiting entrance impediment of 530 the particular constitutions. However, in the same cases, a precautionary dispensation should be secretly obtained before such religious are appointed higher superiors or when there is any likelihood that they will be elected to the office of higher superior because illegitimacy here, un- lik~ other matters that it touches, renders such an appointment or election invalid (cc. 504; 15; 586, § 3). Cf. Ques- tions on Religious Life, questions 192-4; 196-8. What are the norms of the Holy See itself on the form of the religious habit for women? The remarks of Plus XII on the religious habit were: With regard to the religious habit, choose one that expresses your interior lack of affectation, simplicity, and religious modesty. It will then be edifying to all and also to modern youth. ... To return for a word on the question of dress: the religious habit should always express the consecration to Clirist that is expected and desired by all. In other respects the habit should be appropriate and in keeping with the demands of hygiene. We could not refrain from expressing Our satisfaction at the fact that during the course of the year a few congregations had already taken some practical steps in this matter. To sum up: in things that are not essential make the adaptations counseled by reason and well ordered charity (l~viEw for RELIGIOUS, 14 [1955], 9-1 ~.). The Normae of 1901 stated that the habit in material, form, arrangement, and color should conform to religious dignity, gravity, modesty, and poverty, and that it should exclude any adornment that was apt to provoke adverse comment or ridicule. In its norms for the constitutions of diocesan missionary congregations, the Sacred Congrega- tion for the Propagation of the Faith ’enjoined: "The habit is to be simple, accommodated’to the usages of the people and the climate and not to European customs." In the [1931] Statutes Ior Extern Sisters, the Sacred Congre- gation of Religious commanded that the habit of these sisters was to be suitably adapted to their external work and also to external and local circumstances (ibid., 12 In the later (1961) statutes for the same sisters, article 7 reads: The habit of the Sisters shall be the same as that of the Nuns, but judiciously adapted by the Chapter to the purposes of external service according to circumstances. In Monasteries of the same Federation the Sisters shall as far as possible be dressed in the same way (Bouscaren-O’Connor, Canon Law Digest, 5, 387). ÷ ÷ Vatican Council II stated: . ÷ The religious habit, as a symbol of consecration is to be sim- Questions ple and modest, poor yet becoming, in keeping with the de- and Answers mands of health, and adapted to the circumstances of time and place and to the requirements of the apostolate. The habit of both men and women that does not conform to these norms is VOLUME 25, 1966 to be changed. 53! ¯ We hav~ recently accepted and begun a mission in the Orient; It will be necessc~ry to change not only the color to white but also some other deails of the habit that cannot be ~bser~ed in the climate of the mission. May the mother general authorize such changes on her own authority? Yes. The question has been answered in articles in the REVIEW FOR REL~tOUS: White habit. The Holy See has frequently approved in constitutions an article permitting the use of the white habit to hospital sisters and to thosefor whom such dress is necessitated or counseled by other duties or the climate. This habit is accordingly in use in several institutes in the infirmary, kitchen, in teaching home economics, and. in. similar duties. We can argue safely from the practice of the Holy See that such a use of the white habit is permitted in all institutes of religious women. The white habit should be as similar as possible to the ordinary habit within th~ demands of hospital efficiency, which is its primary use. The ordinary habit does not have to be worn uffder the white habit (REvIEw for RELiGiOUS, 12 [1953], 257). An example of the article on the color as found in constitutions approved by the Holy See is: "The sisters are permitted to wear white habits, veils, cinctures, and rosaries while occupied in duties or in a climate that necessitates or counsels this dress." The change in details of the habit "~or a mission may likewise be authorized by the mother general, although in ’the sensitive matter ’of the habit ’it would be better for her to consult her council. The permission of external au- "thority is necessary 0nly for a permanent, substantial, or general change in the external appearance ofthe religious habit, and the changes proposed in the question are neither substantial nor general. See REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, 18 (1959), 81. Occasionally constitutions manifest that the habit often has to be modified in missions, e.g.: "Sisters on missions in other coumries where the climate is hot wear a modified white habit .... °’ Our constitutions state:’ "A sister superior may be elected for a second term, but not for a third consecu- tively. ~lfter she has served two terms, partial or complete, she shall return to the rank of a simple religious for at least three years." Does the last sentence mean that a local superior at the end of her second term would not be eligible to be appointed mistress of novices, mistress of junior professed, or to some other general office, or does it refer only to the oOice of local superior? Q~sti6ns and Answers It refers only to the office of local superior. This is the sense of the basic law on. the matter, canon 505, o~,articles REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS on the same point in other constitutions, and of the frequent discussions and studies on the topic. It would be quite unheard of that a local superior at the end of her term of office could not be appointed secretary or treasurer general, when these offices are appointive, provincial councilor, secretary, or treasurer, directress of gchools studies, mistress of novices, of postulants, or junior professed, dean, principal,, local councilor, or local treasurer. Cf. REviv.w for R~ZLIGIOUS, 10 (1951), 196-9; 19 (1960), 247; Questions on Religious Li[e, questions 268, 270.

4- 4- + Questions and Answers

VOLUME 25, 1966 533 Book Reviews

[Material for this department should be sent to Book Review Editor; R~wEw fOR RELXGXOUS; Bellarmine School of Theology of Loyola University; 230 South Lincoln Way; North Aurora, Illinois 60542. R~w~w FOR R~LX0iOUS has no book-order service; as a result, no orders should be sent to the R~wrw for books announced or reviewed in this publication.] TENSIONS AND CHANGE: THE PROBLEMS OF RELI. GIOUSORDERS TODAY. By the Most Reverend Gerard Huyghe, Bishop of Arras. Preface by Achille Cardinal Li~nart. Translated by Sister Marie Florette, S.C.H. West- minster: Newman, 1965. Pp. 270. $4.95. In his introduction the author gives a general but clear outline of his work, illuminating the rather vague title. "The book is based," he says, "exclusively on the information gathered by the Sisters, and from these a selection has been made." The work is divided into four parts. The first part, "Heirs of the Past or Apostles of the Present?" intimates the dilemma that some sisters encounter in adapting their community life to the demands of the modern apostolate. The problem is taken up in the second part, called an "Inner Cloister," which develops the solution already offered in Part One. The third part treats of the formation of superiors in the exercise of authority. In this part the author proposes to help congregations to adapt them, selves wisely to the apostolic needs of today’s Church by redis- covering the apostolic intuitions of their founder. The fourth part deals with the communicating of the Good News and shows that evangelization involves the teaching of man the mystery in its totality, the revealing of the total Christian mystery through the witness given by the apostle’s total life, and the gradual discovery by men of the totality of the Christian mystery in their own lives. Introductions and prefaces are frequently the last parts of a book to be read. Bishop Huyghe wisely suggests that a cursory glance at the table of contents will perhaps give the reader an. impression of widely varied subjects. A more careful perusal of the introduction and the conclusion will reveal the link that exists between the various sections of this work. By reading the whole book it is hoped that the reader will derive a satisfying impression of unity. American readers should realize that the practical application of the principles will call for more discernment than is asked of Europeans or, at least, of Continental readers. The institutes of Sister Formation, which have been flourishing in the United States, are a competent answer to most of the practical problems that arise out of the proper adaptation of a particular institute to the modern apostolate. What is particularly to be esteemed in Tensions and Change is its magnificent treatment of the virtues which form the solid foundation of the religious life under whatever aspect it is regarded. This is especially to be found in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Bishop Huyghe’s treatment of the vows and the general conditions of religious life as it is engaged in the virtues of charity and humility, self-denial and obedience. Bishop Huyghe does not allow his religious to forget in the joys of the Resurrection the pain and sorrow of the crucifixion, the terrible reality of’ Calvary. While insisting on the discernment of spirits, he does not overlook the constant need of self-immolation that is universal and enduring as well as positive and smiling. The translation by Sister Marie Florette, S.C.H., is of high quality. W. J. ¥ou~o, s.J. THE CHURCH’S HOLINESS AND RELIGIOUS LIFE. By Gustave Martelet, S.J. Translated by Raymond L. Sulli- vant, s.J. St. Marys, Kansas: Review for Religious, 1966. Pp. vi + 124. $2.50. Gustave Martelet, S.J., is a professor of theolog~ at Lyons, France, and acted during Vatican Cofincil II as theological consultant for African bishops. When his book on religi~o,u_s life, now translated into English under the title, The Church s Ho. li- heSS and Religious Li[e, was first published in France in late 1964, it received a great deal of attention and praise, soon went into its second printing, and was included in the annual selected list of best Catholic books published in France during the cal-_ endar year 1964. Father Martelet’s volume is essentially a theological probing of the questions: Is religious life necessary in the Church; and if so, what is its role? In answer to the first question, Father Martelet distinguishes two essential, equally indispensable, and mutually complementary polarities in the Church: the hierarchical polarity, the sign and effect of Christ’s .never ending protection of the Church; and the charismatic polarity~ the sign and effect of the Spirit s unending and creative presence in the Church. If the Church is viewed only from its hierarchical polarity (and this, as Father Martelet points out, is a one-sided view), then religious life is not an essential part of the Church;. but if, as should be the case, the Church is viewed in its totality as a hierarchiCal-charismatic reality, then religious life appears as a necessary part of the Spirit’driven Church. As to the role of religious life in the Church, Father Martelet’s position is that it is a transparent manifestation of the love of Christ above all things that should mark the attitude of every genuine Christian, a sign of the eschatological values begun with the Resurrection of Christ and to be consummated in the final resurrection of all faithful Christians, and a source of sanctification for the entire Church, hierarchy and non-hierarchy alike. Besides this general theme, Father Martelet supplies numerous insights into other matters pertaining to religious life; for example, the great’ difference between consecrated virginity and,:the consecrated Chas- tity of religious life, exemption as the institutional recognition of the charismatic origin of religious life. Though Father Mar- telet’s style is at times diffmult, his book is an important one that deserves deliberative and prayerful reading by as many religious as possible. R. F. SMtT~, S.J. SPIRITUALITY IN CHURCH AND WORLD. Edited by Christian Duquoc, O.P. New York: Paulist, 1965. Pp. 166.÷ $4.50. ("Concilium," v. 9.) ÷ At the writing of this review, .we now have the first ten volumes of the fifty-volume international publishing venture called ’!Concilium." In a number of quarters the series has met with Book Reviews something less than the enthusiasm its advance publicity would have led us to expectl (see, for example, P. Joseph Cahill, VOLUME 25, 1966 view for KEm6~ous, v. 24, 1965, pp. 816.7, and Daniel Calla- han,. Commonweal, 17 Sept. 1965, pp. 659’60). While inclined to disappointment myself, I would add that perhaps initial ex- pectations were simply too high. How could a few volumes begin to synthesize the theology that has been in the making over the past twenty-five or more years--or on the other hand advance theological thought to any great new horizon? More realistic would have been the hope for a number of stimulating individual essays. With this much "Concilium" has surely provided its readers. The following pieces come immediately to mind: Hermann Tiichle’s "Baroque Christianity: Root of Triumphalism?" in volume 7 (this Church history volume is uniformly excellent); Johannes Metz’s "Unbelief as a Theological Problem" in volume 6; and Edward Schillebeeckx’s title essay in volume 1 and his brief report in volume 5, "The Tridentine Decree on Justification: A New View." These and several others like them would certainly be worthy of publication in the better journals in their respective fields. .Among the latest volumes to appear, Spirituality in Church and World will be of special interest to the readers of REWEW for RE~.~oxous. A good place to begin is the second essay, "Tendencies of Contemporary Spirituality" by Albert-Marie Besnard, O.P. Besnard presents a phenomenology of three tendencies in the spirituality of today: (I) "it is a spirituality that takes as its starting point life lived in the world we know" (italics mine); (2) "it is a spirituality that aspires to real, personal experience"; (3) "it is a spirituality that repudiates indi- vidualism and tends to thrive in small fraternal associations." His analysis of the opportunities and risks inherent in each of these is as provocative as his phenomenology is perceptive. That Besnard is discussing tendencies in the West alone becomes quite clear on perusal of G. Neyrand’s "Christianity. in J.apan" and especially of C. Murray Rogers’ "Hxndu Ashram Heritage: The Gift of God," a moving account of the contemplative life Hindu-style and its possibilities for enrichment of Christian contemplation and eschatological witness. From the concrete perspective of these three essays, Hans Urs von Balthasar’s "The Gospel as Norm and Test of All Spiritual- ity in the Church" seems a bit etherial. Von Balthasar deline- ates three attitudes open to man: (1) Platonic eros or the quest of the absolute (andflight from the world); (2) Aristotelian activism or the drive for self-expression in ordering the world; and (3) Stoic apatheia or resignation in the face of what one cannot (or should not) control. A universally human spirituality, he maintains, would keep all of these in the proper tension or balance. As a matter of fact, however, only in the person of Jesus Christ as revealed to us and recorded in the Gospels do we find such harmony. Thus the Gospels become the norm and test of all spiritualities. Whether this essay is "profound" and "relevant" or just "profound" may be left to the reader to judge. Other essays in this volume like "Spirituality and Spirituali- ties" by Vandenbroucke, "The Three Evangelical Counsels" by Ranwez (whether and in what sense they are three, evangelical, and counsels), and "The Believer and Christian Existence in H story by editor Duquoc present ideas current in the writings of the better known theologians. Two final questions: Why so little attention to the American scene? The sole essay, Agnes Cunningham’s "Complexity and Challenge: The American Catholic Layman," though it addresses a few prodding questions to our front-running laymen, will be most helpful to those unfamiliar with the American REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS milieu. And why, among the eleven contributors to this volume and the fourteen editors for ’the Spirituality section of "Con- cilium," do we find almost none (at best one) of the scholars whose contributions appear regularly in Ghrislus and Revue d’ascdtique el de mystique? GEORCE W. TRAUB, S.J. A SACRAMENTAL SPIRITUALITY. By Bernard H~iring, C.Ss.R. Translated by R. A. Wilson. New York: Sheed and Ward, 1965. Pp. 281. $5.00. In the preface to this book, Father Hiiring calls the contents "meditations." They are meditations, but not formally point by point. They are, rather, essays on the sacraments and the relation of the sacraments to the faithful. The whole subject of the sacraments is approached doctrinally, contemi?latively, and ascetically. Father Hiiring, being a great theologtan, does not hesitate in his explanations of the meaning and operation of the sacraments. At the same time he brings into his discussion a wealth of Scripture references that illuminate it. Finally he applies the doctrine and contemplation to the needs of the Chris- tian soul with the sure touch of a long experienced spiritual director. In the language of current clichd, he makes the sacraments "meaningful." He says he desires "to encourage the growth of spiritual life." For this purpose he wants to help make liturgical devotion "more alive and profound." He explains his use of the meditative manner in his hope "that the basic structure of the law of Christ... and its connection with the great historical acts by which God saved us, will be more clearly understood and joyfully accepted through meditation than through study alone." The first idea Father H~ring would have the Christian grasp is that "our life is more than the mere following of the ten commandments of God." Before the commandments comes the Good News of God’s love for us. Then the commandments, by which we are directed in our returning of our love and thanks to God. The sacraments are the signs by which the Good News is put before us; they are "the essence of the message of salvation and signs of faith." In them we can see all that the provir dence of God has provided for us: His plan of salvation and His love. This meaning of the sacraments teaches us the manner of receiving them: to become "at all times children of God listen- ing faithfully and responding with thanks." This attention to the individual’s reception of the sacraments does not mean that the social aspect is forgotten. For in this personal devotion must be the spirit of fraternal charity. Ecu, menism is simply characteristic of it. Deep personal concern for those without the faith must grow out of the thanksgiving for the undeserved faith given us in baptism and nourished in all the sacraments. Each sacrament has its own direct bearing on our relation with our neighbor. In baptism the Christian is joined with the members of Christ in the MystiCal Body. In penance, he rejoins those from whom he has been separated by sin. In confirmation, he is given the apostolic spirit that moves his action for the welfare of his brethren. In the Eucharist above all, he joins with his brethren in adoration of God. In matri- + mony, the family is bound together for the adoratio.n and serv- + ice of God and the salvation of their souls. In orders, the priest is anointed for the work of serving the members of Christ’s + Body. Extreme unction brings the members of the Body together to help the departing members in the successful final Book Reviews action of his life work. A few points deserve particular mention. The treatment of VOLUME 25, 1966 the Et;~harist as joining the members of the Body together is rather usual, but the treatment of penance gives something not 537 ordinary in’consideration of the sacrament. Father H’:iring calls attention to the fact that in this sacrament, the priest (in the name of the Church) joins with the returning member of Christ in a "common act of p~aise of the justice and mercy of God." The penitent worships God by abandoning his sin and trusting in God; the priest,’by healing the penitent and welcoming him home. Another particularly noteworthy passage is that which treats of the Eucharist and virginity. Chastity is "more than moral categories of modesty and temperance." So virginity must give undivided love to our Lord in "the same direct and warmly human way in which the husband loves his wife .... Virginity is far from being a mere substitute to’fill up the painful gap left by... renunciation of married love." Virginity is a ver.y p.os.itiv.e and active and affective thing. "The true nature of wrg~nlty ~s first revealed when someone is seized by the love of Christ, and seeks to be completely free for this love, to grow in it more and more)’ Virginity is intimately~cbnnected with the Eucharist because in the sacrament the soul experiences the presence of the eUcharistic Lord and joins with Him in the giving of self to God. Accordingly; the Eucharist is a school of the reverence and selflessness that are necessary in any true love of God or of man. Occasionally the theological language is not explained’ in the book as fully as might be desired by the layman; but this is ’not a notable fault.Along the same line, Scripture texts are sometimes left without as much application as they might need for someone less than a scholar, This also is only occasional. In fact, it would take several volumes to explain all the connections thoroughly; These deficiencies, however, rather than mar the book greatly, invite the reader to meditation on the truths expressed. In that, they might be called helps rather than defects. The book is excellent spiritual reading and material for meditation for anyone, priest, religious, or layman, who is interested in injecting more vitality into his or her appreciation of the supernatural life gi~cen us and increased in us by the sacraments. PAUL L. ALLEN, S.J. IS CELIBACY OUTDATED? By Ida Frlederike Gi~rres. West- minster: Newman, 1965. Pp. 95. Paper $.95. The title of this excellent book, catchy as it might be, does not do justice to the book’s contents. The author does not treat celibacy as a fashion that can be dated or as an accidental ~p- pendage to the Christian priesthood. She goes right to the heart of the matter to show’that "even hallowed sacramental marriage is, as a symbol and likeness of union, still insufficient, transient and distracting." Celibacy is not "a paragraph in Canon La~’," nor is it "a particular manifestation of asceticism." The real question is of "a concept of man, requiring celibacy and conditioned by it, a unique concept without parallel, the idea of the virginal priesthood of Christ." The author shows the-reality of this concept by poin.tin.g .to ÷ the history of the Christian concept of dedicated vlrg~mty which has been actualized in the Church since early times. She ÷ points to the Gospel figures of the faithful servant dedicated ÷ ~°ntirely to the master; of the watchman who is not to be dis- tracted by anything in caring for the business of the master; and Book Reviews of the messenger intent only on the message he has to convey. She brings out the idea of the angelic man of Christian asceti- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS cism, pointing out the fact that to the writers of the past "angelic" meant "complete,’" "active," "efficient"--and not merely "bodiless." She lays most stress on the idea that the priest is bound over entirely, as in marriage, to Christ in his Church, to give her members his undivided loyalty, love, devotion. All this is not merely garnished with sayings from old ascetical treatises. The truths from asceticism are set in a context of an intelligible and realistic discussion of the question in the light of modern psychology and faith.. Underlying the whole argument is a positive and discerning attitude toward the real love by which a human being matures. In the second section of the book ("Relations Between Priests and Women"), the author establishes as a basic principle, which she calls a "truism," that the priest should be to women "as a man and a human being and, as such, ~s a ’Man of God.’ " It is, as she says, a truism; but she works out from this starting point with such honest, concrete example and psychological understanding and enlightened faith that the trmsm becomes effective instruction that many a priest might never be able to get from his own reflections on his male experience. A priest will only with difficulty appreciate the woman’s view of the priest unless it is spelled out, as in this book, by a forthright, intelligent woman. A most valuable book for priests and seminarians. All religious will find it helpful in establishing a positive attitude toward the life of celibacy. The book does not furnish direct arguments for the current debates on the subject. It goes beneath the current arguments and tells what celibacy really is and what to do about living it. PAUL L. ALLEN, S.J. THE PRIEST: CELIBATE OR MARRIED. By Pierre Her- mand. Baltimore: Helicon, 1966. Pp. 144. $3.75. Originally published under the title Condition du pr~tre, mariage ou cdlibat? (Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1963), this short book is very candid. Its author, a former French Dominican theologian, who, as he explains, became laicized in order to publish this essay, does not deny that special studies on the topic .are needed. But he believes that someone must "open up the case" and make "an appeal for a facing of the facts, some pointers for a new way of thinking in the Church, especially in the hierarchical Church." Through his past counseling work with priests, Hermand is able to describe many of the "False Situations" as he understands them. After his presentation of the "Roots of the Evil" (Chaper Two) which he considers to be emotional immaturity and the strains of the apostolic life, he discusses the conditions for celibacy laid down by the Church and offers arguments for and against its continuance. Hermand explains how the dignity of marriage has been underestimated in the past, how presence in the world and marriage can be linked together, and, in the final chapter, how marriage will not lessen apostolic activity. Writing from a Frenchman’s viewpoint, especially in his consideration of the priest-worker movement and its mission in France, as well as of the crisis in vocations in that country, the author at times mentions statements of unnamed missionaries, [or example, in Brazil, in Africa, but whether his conclusions could be applied equally everywhere is not clear. His thesis is that celibacy definitely is to be kept in religious orders and congregations and is to be retained as a way of life for those diocesan priests who choose it. Thus celibacy truly has a place of Book Reviews witness in the Church and in the world. But the diocesan priesthood could be diversified in the West, as in some Catholic com- VOLUME 25j 1966 munities in the Eastern Rites. Would such an option manifest a priesthood "more present to the world~" especially in Asia 539 and other continents, and help promote recruiunent? Her- mand’s reply is affirmative. Though one may perhaps not agree with his conclusions which demand more evidence at times, still his is a sober attempt to answer a very delicate question. JOHN W. WITEK, S.J. ALL THINGS TO ALL MEN: PASTORAL THEOLOGY TODAY. Edited by Joseph F. X. Cevetello. New York: Wggner, 1965. Pp. 438. $5.95. This volume makes available a series of essays by a group of priests, each of whom is an expert on his chosen topic. For example, drug addiction is discussed by Father Daniel Egan, S.A., whose work with addicts has earned him the title among them of "Junkie Priest," which is also the name of a recent biography about him. The topics range from teenage sexuality by Father Richard McCormick, S.I., through working with the compulsive gambler by the editor" of the volume, to business ethics by Father Francis J. Connell, C.Ss.R. These and the other topics treated are all most relevant to today’s priest. As Father Andrew Greeley has written, the priest in the course of his work encounters "a tremendous amount of human pathology: the sick, the bereaved, the suffering, ~the unhappy, the guilty, the alco- holic, the neurotic .... Like the psychiatrist, we see people at their worst." All of these subjects and more come up in the course of the bobk. The sound and prudent advice offered by the authors to their fellow priests is exemplified, by the closing remarks of Father McCormick’s essay which illustrate the positive approach to these problems that characterizes for the most part the book as a whole: "Adolescent chastity is a gradual growth process toward a God-glven good and.., the priest’s contribution is a patient unfolding of values fqr one whom he deeply respects" (p. 384). Father John Harvey, O.S.F.S., speaks in a similar vein regarding homosexuality: "Usually the invert is fully aware of the fruitless frustration of purely emotional attachments and is in search of some means of serving God which will prove to himself that he is donating something personal to God" (p. 196). ’ None of these authors would wish to imply, of course, that the priest is expected to be, or should try to be, psychiatrist, medical doctor, and pastor of souls all rolled into one. But while a priest should be careful not to go beyond the Sphere of his own professional competence, the help he is qualified to give cannot be given by anyone else. Speaking of the rehabilitation of the drug addict, Father Egan sa~s: "Rehabilitation is a continuing process. It does,not end w~th detoxification or psycho, therapy. Actually it begins only when he returns to his parish. This is where the zealous priest can do more to help the addict find his way back to normal living than anyprofessional case worker. In the final analysis, helping the, addict back to God, and society must be a very dedicated work’ (p. 105). Some of the articles outline specific plans of action for the priest to implement in helping people help themselves. Father Paul Hayes, for example, in his article on the mass media of communication, suggests a parish program for carrying out the aims of the Legion of Decency (now called the National Cath- olic Office for Motion Pictures), which is well worked out. One ~Book ,Reviews wishes, however, that he might have included some norms for carrying out the Second Vatican Council’s recommendation that REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS film education and appreciation also become a parish project. In general one must congratulate Father Cevetello for invit- ~540 ¯ ing this noted group’ of priests to contribute to this book and [or thus bringing together a selection of essays in a single volume which anyone would have to range through many periodi- cals to match. And once he has read the book, every priest engaged in pastoral work will find many opportunities to refer to its pages in the course of his work for further aid, inspiration, and advice. GENE D. PHILLIPS, S.J. PROCLAIMING GOD’S MESSAGE. By Domenico Grasso, S.J. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame, 1965. Pp. 272. $6.00, text edition $4.00. The subtitle of this book clearly indicates what the reader will find: a study in the theology of preaching. Drawing from Scripture, patristics, dogmatic theology, and personalist philosophy, Father Grasso, professor of pastoral theology at the Gregorian University, gives a thorough treatment to questions raised by the renewed interest in preaching. Where does preaching get its efficacy, what should be the subject and goal of preaching, what is the relationship, between preaching and.the liturgy, how does.a homdy differ from other forms of preaching, does preaching confer grace--these and other interesting questions are treated adequately with a style that is clear and interesting. Father Grasso defines preaching as "the proclamation of the mystery Of salvation made by God Himself through His legitimate representatives, with the goals in view being those of faith and conversion and the deepening of the Christian life" (p. 109). "Efficacy of preaching" is especially interesting since the author gives the various opinions on where preaching derives its force and power. After a study of biblical texts highlighting the fact that preaching communicates grace, Father notes: "It seems that Scripture attributes to the word an efficacy which is direct and not merely indirect. It is God who manifests his power in us (1 Thess. 2:13), and it is the word implanted in us which .brings salvation to our souls (James 1:21)." To the author, there is more than an indirect and occasional connection between word and grace. Of special interest will be the clear exposition of what a homily is. This book offers no handy "do-it-yourself" technique but does provide solid guidelines to structure one’s thought. At the end of the book there are eleven pages of bibliography with books from six languages noted. Most of the recent books on preaching are either a collection of essays or a study of some particular facet of preaching. Father Grasso has made a lasting contribution by his accurate and thorough "study of the theology of preaching." PATRICK J. O’HALLORAN, S.J. FROM PULPIT TO PEOPLE: THOUGHTS ON DYNAMIC PREACHING. By Georges Michonneau and Francois Varillon, S.J. Translated by Edmond J. Bonin. Westmin- ster: Newman, 1965. Pp. 224. $3.95. This book sets out to handle the complexities and problems of communicating God’s word to the people--and these two seasoned preachers treat it in both an up-to-date and sound manner, Georges Michonneau and Francois Varillon both have much experience in the field of parish preaching as well as preaching to the working classes and seem to have distilled their Book Reviews ideas, experiences, and insights into these pages. The book makes easy reading, thanks to the attractive translation of Ed- mond J. Bonin, who, in the way he renders the French into VOLUME 25, 1966 English, gives us a working example of what communication should be. The book is divided into two parts, each of the authors writing one of them. In the first part, "A Pastor Looks at Preaching," Father Michonneau approaches preaching from the parish viewpoint and insists that, for the parishioners, the sermon must not merely be "extra vitamins or a supplement to their diet, but must be their regular food .... " He then presents a gallery of portraits of preachers who do not reach the mark. One would like to call these portraits caricatures, but, hdlas! they are only too true-to-life. Father Michonneau examines every, aspect.of the parish sermon and~ gives insights fresh, frown direct experience. In Part Two, "Thoughts on Preaching," we have what looks like jottings taken by a preacher while reflecting on the sermon he has just given. Incisive flashes of thought hit home as Father Varillon shows the preeminence of preaching and the central role it plays in all priests’ lives. Again, balanced and to the point, he presents many fresh approaches on revitalizing the sermon, along with a wholesome type of "examination of sermon" for the priest. For the time given to the reading--even just a brief’glance at this book---the sincere preacher will be generously repaid. CARL G. MORAVEC, S.J.

THE SONGS OF THE PEOPLE OF GOD. By Charles Hauret. Translated by John F. McDonnell, O.P.. Chicago: Priory, 1965. Pp. 178. $2.95. Canon Hauret, known for his Beginnings, seeks to help us "carry on the canticles of Israel in Christian song and to express the prayer of today in the accents of an older time." His pursuit of this goal leads him to divide his work into two parts, "General Notions" and "The Psalms in Their Literary Types." Six obstacles to modern Christian rise of the Psalms oc- cupy the first eleven pages of Part One, as Hauret ~neets the problem head-on. These obstacles are familiar--but not con- temptible--to the regular reader of the Psalms, whose own experience reinforces the points made, to such a degree, indeed, that as one turns to Chapters Two and Three ("Christian Psalms" and "Our Prayer," respectively) he catches himself saying, "All right now, let’s seeyou get around those." The reply, in brief, is that the Psalms, as inspired prayers, are the choice of the Church, ancient and modern, and this, basically, because they are prayers of, about, and to Christ, the focal point of the Psalms by sensus plenior. Further, practically and, one would think, obviously, one should not concentrate on and linger over abstruse passages, as though only such are to be found in the Psalms. There. is a great deal of assimilable material--"rich, abundant, solid, nourishing substance"--and it is not only essential to recognize that fact; it is also fair. "Our Prayer" expands the notion of the four words which sum up what our personal attitude towards the Psalms should be: assimilation, advancement, substitution, and updating. The Canon is not so sanguine as to suggest that the directives he 4. offers in these eighteen pages will automatically produce wonderful effects. No indeedl It takes work. In sum: "To bring the + Psalms to life, he who prays them must be alive. The Psalter + does not give us ready-made prayers, but offers us prayers to make." Book Reviews Part Two, "The Psalms in Their Literary Types," does what it advertises. This useful.little volume is concluded by a fair- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS sized bibliography (pp. 173-8) of largely, but not exclusively, French entries. JoszrH J. DEV,xu~.T, S.J. MARY IN THE BIBLE. By Jean Cantinat, C.M. Translated by Paul Barrett, O.F,M~Cap. Westminster: Newman, 1965. Pp. 245. $5.50. Mary in the Bible is truly a fine little bbok. Though every one of its unpadded sentences bears witness to Father Cantinat’s thorough and scholarly research, each sentence is also simply enough presented for the most recent of beginners to understand. In a clear and pleasant, flowing style, the author unfolds facts in a novel fashion that makes one eager to pursue his revelations further. Apt quotations and well-selected documentation whet the scientific appetite, while personal touches, at times almost witb the relish of good gossip, constantly refresh the attention. The book begins with a good, brief description of the geog- raphy, climate, natural resources, political divisions, and history of Palestine that plants one firmly in the sensible context out of WhiCh spiritual insights will most surely be born. Father Cantinat then tells more in ,detail about Palestine’s people, religion, and women in particular. Next he develops Mary’s pre-figurement in the Bible, her descent from David, her birth, the Annunciation, her virginal resolve, her faith, and all the biblical ~vents in which she plays a central role. After a fine treatment of the Assumption, he develops interesting ideas about Mary in the Apocalypse, women in Christ’s and in the Apostles’ teaching, tributes to our Lady over the centuries by saints, popes, and respected Catholic authors, and finally good prayers to Mary. As the book jacket indicates:o"The author condenses a vast amount of theology, scripture, history, and psychology into a readable little encyclopedia on everything Marian. Once we have gained insight into the religious, historical, sociological and psychological forces at work in her environment, we ,can then evaluate her actions as presented to us in the New Testa, ment. Etched against this background, her distinctive character and unique destiny stand out in sharp relief." PATRICK HUSSEY,. S.J. THE MYSTERY OF DEATH. By Ladislaus Boros, S.J. Trans- lated by Gregory Bainbridge, O.S.B. New York: Herder and Herder, 1965. Pp. 20L $4.50. Ladislaus Boros, professor of philosophy at the University of Innsbruck, is one of Europe’s dynamic new theologians in the tradition of Marechal and Karl Rahner. In this work he asks himself the age-old question of the significance of death. His response, couched in terms of a personalist philosophy of encounter, is the following: in death man meets Christ fully for the first time. The work consists of three chapters. In the first chapter the ,’,uthor discusses the methodological presuppositions, of a stud. y of death. Through a personal synthesis of the wews of He~deg- get and the application of the transcendental method worked out by Emerich Coreth, S.J., Father Boros seeks to throw light + on death not in its physiological or clinical aspects but in its ÷ fundamental metaphysical structure by tracing the various phe- nomena associated with death, such as fear and the conscious- 4- hess of our own powerlessness, to their transcendental grounds in the living human person. In the second chapter Father Book Reviews Boros undertakes the philosophical elucidation of the ideas which he brought up in the discussion of method. With re- VOLUME 25, 1966 course to the thought of modern philosophers like Blondel, Marechal, Bergson, and Marcel, Father Boros develops the view of man as a subject characterized by desire for fulfillment which is rooted in his being but which, he is capable of satisfying only at the end of his life in the ultimate and climactic act of decision, which is for the author the moment of death. In the final chapter the author applies his philosophy of death based on the moment of final and d~cisive option to various theological questions such as the exact significance of earthly existence conceived as a pilgrimage and period of trial, the nature of the purgative period known as purgatory, the fate of children who die before baptism, and the relation of Christ’s decisive act on Calvary to man’s decision in death. The work handles a fundamental problem in a qualified and rewarding way. This reviewer, however, would have liked to have seen the following question worked out in greater detail: Does the fulfillment man seeks in life actually take place in death? With his recourse to the transcendental method the author seems to have proved only the possibility of this. On the basis of Father Boros’ analysis, therefore, another possibility still remains open: that man’s fulfillment takes place somehow after death. But in any event man’s death, as the end of his earthly existence, is a climactic event. We can be grateful to this young European theologian for focusing attention on this important question. And we also hope that the other books and articles which have issued from this gifted pen will be translated in the near future. WALTER BADO, S.J.

THE MEANING OF MODERN ATHEISM. By Jean Lacroix. ~Translated and introduced by Garret Barden, s.J. New York: Macmillan, 1965. Pp. 115. $2.95. The primary purpose of this collection of essays is not to disprove atheism but rather to understand and describe the mentality which, confronted with the concrete, historical "condition of man," seeks the answer to that condition in terms of a system of living values devoid of any reference to God. "Atheism is a system of living values. One cannot overcome it without understanding these values, without living them as far as is possible without establishing, by living them, that to accept them does not imply the rejection of God" (p. 19). The meaning of modern atheism, according to the author, lies not so much in its calling the existence of God in question as in its appeal to the responsibility of man. For the. Christian, atheism can serve, indirectly at least, as a challenge both to purify his notion of God (in this context Lacroix stresses the need to re- discover the tradition of negative theology with its dialectic that attacks the all too human elements of our notion of God) as well as to show that he, the believer, can also develop a sense of responsibility--of "ultimate concern," we might say with Tillich--in the light of his faith in God. The author’s primary purpose does not prevent him from making some fundamental criticisms of the atheistic mentality in the course of his analysis. Thus, in the first essay on the scientific, political, and ethical forms of atheism, Lacroix makes hse of an existential theory of judgment and of moral obligation to show that any theory of value ultimately implies God and in this way avoids the utter relativism of the skeptic. In the Book Reviews second essay, which concentrates on Hesnard’s psychoanalyti- cally orientated theory of sinless morality, Lacroix examines the contention that human responsibility, already basically incom- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS patible in the eyes of the atheist with the existence of God, is further incompatible with the notion of original sin; for the latter places man in a context of inevitable failure. Hesnard contends--and this Lacroix is prepared to interpret favorably-- that there is no sin of being, no fault of existence, no guilt of destiny; the first principle of all morality as of all education is that one must accept oneself--and that involves the affirmation of something which is fundamentally positive. But, suggests Lacroix, a radical ambiguity pervades Hesnard’s work. He does not bring out clearly enough the idea that sin, while admittedly not before self, is still before G6d. Nor does he do justice to the fact that the central theme of Christianity, and so of Christian humanism, is not sin but the remission of sin. In the final essay, on tradition and rationalism~ especially in the nineteenth century French context, the author defends the Catholic tradition, highlighted in Vatican I, of the importance of intelligence and reason for living an authentic and responsible existence. The traditionalists, for all their justification in criticizing the ex- cesses of rationalism, did man the injustice of surrendering his responsibility to exterior authority, since he was allegedly un- abide to find security except in extrinsic obedience and submission. Such a theory, maintains Lacroix, leads to the worst deformation of the person. Lacroix, himself a Frenchman actively engaged in the French cultural scene (besides being the author of at least fourteen books on philosophical and social subjects, he is the philosophical correspondent of the influential French daily Le Monde and presently professor of philosophy at the Lyc~e du Parc in Lyons), occupies himself chiefly with the thought of fellow countrymen like Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, Hesnard, De Maistre and de Bonald, although he also spends considerable dme on the theories of Marx. But his work involves insights which are valid outside France as well. His essays are basically inspired by ideas which lie presented in a series of articles published in 1941 in the weekly Temps nouveau and which appeared in 1944 under the title: Le’sens de dialogue. His ideas were timely then as the expression of a Christian existentialist. In the light of the Second Vatican Council’s urgent call to Christians to understand and engage in meaningful dialogue with the non- believing world today, this his newest book is more timely than ever. Garret Barden’s translation does justice to the conciseness and clarity of the original. ~V~ALTER L. BAoO, S.J. SIN IN THE BIBLE.,By Albert Gelin and Albert Des’camps. Translated by Charles Schaldenbrand. New York: Desclee, 1965. Pp. 140. $3.75. "Sin in the Old Testament," by A. Gelin, and "Sin in the New Testament,". by A. Descamps,. originall.y appeared with six other articles in Thdologte du pdchd. Gehn in the shorter article (about thirty pages) shows basic aspects of sin in relationship to God’s grace and mercy. He surveys sin in the Old Testament and discusses such particulars as the vocabulary, dis- 4- covery, and mystery of sin. Sin on the supernatural level is the 4- refusal of God, and on the level of conscience, the perversion of man. Man breaks from sin by conversion and pardon, but + this break can only be realized fully in the light of the New Testament. Book Reviews "Sin in the New Testament" by A. Descamps covers most of the book. After a short chapter contrasting biblical method in VOLUME 25, 1%6 theology with dogmatic method, the author devotes chapters to sin in the message of Jesus (the Gospels), sin in primitive Chris- tianity (mainly Acts), and sin in the first six Epistles of St. Paul. Sin in the message of Jesus is defined as all that resists the king- dom. Descamps very clearly brings out the gospel nuances of law in its letter and its spirit and of sin in its material and formal aspegts. Deliverance from sin was seen by the Christian community as the result of Christ’s death-resurrection. Sin in the first six Epistles of St. Paul is viewed as the state over which Christ with his grace is victorious. One of the high points of the book is the clear exegesis of the historical and dialectical concepts of sin, law, and grace from Romans and Galatians. Although the book is technical and concise, its clear logic helps the reader move through difficult ideas. For the reader who knows or will look up the many scriptural references, the book provides rewarding insight into the nature of sin and ultimately into the natures of both God and man.. WILLIAM S. BOYLAN, S.J. JOHN: "THE TRANSITIONAL POPE." By Ernesto Bal- ducci. Translated by Dorothy White. New York: McGraw- Hill, 1965. Pp. 318. $7.50. THE STORY OF GOOD POPE JOHN.. By Walter Diethelm. Westminster: Newman, 1965. Pp. 95. $2.95. Piarist Father Balducci, one of Italy’s esteemed television priests, does not quote from Pope John’s two great social en- cyclicals, Mater et Magistra and Pacem in terris, "because as documents of the official teaching authority of the Church, they were not in their final Latin version, personally written by Pope John," but everything else the Pope wrote or said during his long life (1881-1963) is quoted from and commented on in this volume with much insight and manly love. The result is a very impressive record of Angelo Guiseppe Roncalli’s very simple and sincere effort to serve others as a seminarian, priest, bishop, cardinal, and finally as beloved "transitional pope" to our own era. Pope John did not live to see the ending of the Council on December 8, 1965; this book ends a year earlier with the sermon preached by Pope Paul VI at Bethlehem during his pilgrimage to the Holy Land. So Father Balducci’s books is "transitional" also, and yet of abiding worth as testimonial of our Holy Father’s holiness and as incentive and inspiration to our own "provisional and transitional" varieties. Diethelm’s book recalls the little Italian boy whose letter to Pope John said: "Dear Pope. I do not know what to be when I grow up---a policeman or pope. What do you think?" Good Pope John write back to him, "If you want my advice, then definitely become a policeman. It is far safer. If you ever come to Rome, you must come and visit me. Then we will be able to talk about it again." This story sets the pace for Diethelm’s book, a pleasing true story for the future popes, police, and whamots of our grammar schools. God love them alll PAUL DENT, S.J. ALWAYS THE PRIEST: THE LIFE OF GABRIEL RICH- ARD, S,S. By Sister M. Dolorita Mast, S.S,N.D. Baltimore: Helicon, 1965. Pp. 368. $6.95. "I do the hew .timber, you do the pray, and so we make the Book Ret~ews church." This was said in "the heavily timbered" part of old Detroit at the end of the War of 1812, when P~re Gabriel REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Richard (1767-1832) and his mostly half-French, half-Indian parishioners built Michigan’s first church, Detroit’s old Ste. 5,t6 Anne’s. His story is lovingly told in this painstaking and appropriately titled volume. For this tall, uncomplaining man was "always the priest" and well deserving of the words which Gil- mary Shea, the father of American Catholic history, wrote of him: "the greatest of the Sulpicians." Here is the story bf a tireless, friendly, resourceful; and devoted priest who escapes the guillotine in France, protects Michigan territory’s Catholic Ottawa chiefs from the whiskey of their land-snatchers, co-fathers for the education of the red race and the white race alike "the Catholepistemiad or Univer- sity of Michigan," suffers imprisonment rather than pay a fine for "defamation" when he refuses to give the sacraments to a white parishioner who divorced his wife in order to contract a second "marriage," prints Michigan’s first newspaper and books, and--as the first and only Catholic priest ever to be a member of the House of Representatives (during the presidency of Monroe and in the company of Henry Clay and Daniel Web- ster)--persuades Congress to sponsor a road through the prime- val forest from Detroit to Chicago. Some day someone must write a great book about this good priest, and when he does so, .his endeavor will be greatly helped by Sister Dolorita’s book. But her volume misses greatness on three scores. It loses the reader in uninspired and uninspiring minutiae--lists of names, grandparents, and so forth. Secondly, it has the bad habit of suddenly interrupting objective fact with subjective and emphatic opinionmusually caustic--about so and so, for reasons which the author’s research doubtless justifies to herself but which may seem less justified to the general reader who is expecting history to remain history instead of be- Coming an occasional philippic. A notable example of this in- trusion of the subjective into objective narrative is concerned with the consecration of Detroit’s first bishop, John Frederick Reze or Reese (1791-1870, evidently not the author’s choice. Father Richard, it seems, had actually been appointed; but several things seem to have happened, the most certain of which was his heroic death in the service of Detroit cholera victims a year before. A third defect of the book is its failure to give information which the general reader rightly expects. For instance, we are told (p. 294) that Father Richard prepared "a good essay on the requirements of an historical discourse" for the Michigan Historical Society; and just when we get set for a feast of quotations with which to measure for ourselves the intellectual stature of the man from his own words we are told that the whole discourse "may be read" in Father Pare’s Catho- lic Church in Detroit. We are also told that Bishop Reze became "piteously" ill and had to resign soon after his consecration, and with no more than that a missionary who did much good in his healthier days is simply dismissed. Despite these failures, it is on many scores a good book about a. good priest and about an important .part of. American Catho- hc and secular history, especially Indian h~story from Ponttac to Tecumseh. PaUL DENT, S.J. 4. THE LIFE OF JOHN LANCASTER SPALDING: FIRST BISHOP OF PEORIA, 1840-1916. By David Francis4" Sweeney, O.F.M. New York: Herder and Herder, 1965. Pp.+ 384. $7.50. Father Sweeney’s biography of Bishop John Lancaster Spald- Book Reviews ing deserves a warm welcome. With a deft hand he sketches the youth, education, and ordination of the young Kentuckian. He VOLUME 25, 1966 then .proceeds to chronicle and appraise his varied interests and acuwues as a parish priest and his later organization of the 547 newly created diocese of Peoria. Spalding’s literary clashes with James B. McMaster, editor of the Freeman’s Journal, and with the British historian Froude, are recounted. But, quite properly, there is special emphasis on Spalding’s involvement in the project of a nfitional Catholic university, on his reaction to nationalism in the Church in America, his opposition to the establishment of an apostolic delegation in the United States, his stand on secret societies and imperialism, his attitude towards "Americanism" which agitated Catholic circles, and the "school question", as exemplified in the controversy over Arch- bishop Ireland’s’ Faribault-Stillwater Plan.,’ The author aIso reveals why Spalding’s influence and promi- nence led to his being mentioned for various vacant sees and to his selection as speaker on special ecclesiastical and public occasions. Such was his distinction that President Theodore Roose- velt was prompted to appoint him tothe commision to arbi- trate the anthracite coal strike. Scholarship and impartiality are the hallmarks of this biography. Documentation is abundant and exhaustive. Moreover, while the author stresses Spalding’s ability and achievements he does not fail to record the bishop’s limitations, shortcomings, and failures. Furthermore, we are also offered an insight into current ecclesiastical rivalries and politics, and it is not an edifying tale. The volume is so very well written that it justifies the comment of Monsignor John Tracy Ellis, himself a biog- rapher of Spalding, who declares in the introduction: "What the present writer published on this point four years ago, as well as what others have written about the bishop’s educational theories and activities, have now been superseded by Father Sweeney’s work where all matters are treated with a wealth of documentary evidence avilable to no previous student of Spald- ing’s career." CHARLES H. METZGER, S.J. PETER AND CAESAR: THE CATHOLIC CHURCH AND POLITICAL AUTHORITY. By E. A. Goerner. New York: Herder and Herder, 1965. Pp. 282. $5.95. Dr. Goerner has expanded his University of Chicago doctoral dissertation into a medium-length book tracing the medieval dialectic of Giles of Rome and Marsilius of Padua into the later synthesis of John of Paris and Bellarmine. He then develops a similar dialectic of John Courtney Murray and the canonists, Fenton and Conne11, and a new synthesis, his own. Goerner muses: "Inasmuch as Christ did not get down from th~ cross and strike terror into the hearts of the blasphemers with twelve legions of angels, why must Giles do so?" He answers his own question: "It seems that Giles needs to do what Christ did not do, because his faith is so weak that he is ter- ribly afraid." He feels that Marsilius, "as a first representative of the depths of the disaster that papalist views helped to produce-in the West," had as his object "to secure civil peace against the ever- present clerical interference of the Catholic Church." In the later synthesis he notes: "Jqhn of Paris attempts to ~irovidekely to averta set ofa tyrannicalconstitutional abuse arrangements of authority thatin either will beChurch most or state." The complexity of Bellarmine~s thinking Goerner Bool~ Reviews’ summarizes: "Bellarmine’s pope can depose and appoint kings as well as annul and make laws for civil society .... Any king REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS with some experience of human affairs could not help but notice that baptism in a Church such as Bellarmine articulates 548 would actually involve political castration." In examining the modern canonists, Goerner finds: "The substance of their ’thesis’ is a holy people: peaceful, just, meticu- lous in the performance of their religious obligations, and, especially, obedient to ecclesiastical authority .... The question is whether the canonists’ thesis is not fundamentally heretical by omitting to recognize certain essential elements of the human condition between the Resurrection and the Second Com- ing." John Courtney Murray’s work is dubbed "a Platonic tale" which is "intuitively brilliant" but frag~n, entary. Goerner says Murray’s tale attempts to put democrausts outside democracy since they deny ultimate values outside the democratic process. "Murray’s ’Anglo-Saxon, and basically Catholic, principle of the relativism of political forms’ is on the constitutional level a comprehensive counterpart of the situationalism that he con- demns in narrower contexts." Goerner concludes with an attempt to provide guidelines for what he corisiders to be the proper function of the Church in its political relations, and especially the functional roles and limitations of the hierarchy and the laity. He questions the juris-. diction of the hierarchical priesthood since "every Catholic Christian shares a priesthood by virtue of his baptism and confirmation." He posits another type of priesthood: "the way of personal witness, the way of the saint .... " He calls f0rthree major objectives in clerical reform: (1) in any action affecting the sphere of human action the prior assent of the laity ought to be required; (2) the proclamation of the gospel, administration of sacraments, and power of orders must remain ultimately free of lay control; (3) the institutions for obtaining lay consent must conform to the extra-ecclesiastical structure of the common life of the poeple concerned. Dr. Goerner’s book is a studied presentation in allowing for room for the "prophetic voice" in the Church in contradistinc- tion to ecclesiastical authority aS the solution to Church-State problems. However, he fails in two critical areas: (I) he gives no. norms for establishing the credibility of these prophetic voices when they disagree with the historical hierarchy; (2) he ~ails to recognize that the prophetic voices, if they are truly from God, may actually prophesy a modus agendi of the Church that calls it to exercise the exact type of authority over the State that Giles of Kome outlined. It is difficult to escape the suspicion that Dr. Goerner has elaborated a system that will make his voice "the prophetic voice" and will give him a share of the power that he sees now resting in others’ hands. JAMES C. FLECK, S.J. MAN AND COSMOS: SCIENTIFIC PHENOMENOLOGY IN TEILHARD DE CHARDIN. By Paul Chauchard. New York: Herder and Herder, 1965. Pp. 192. $4.50. Dr. Chauchard, speaking as a "believer" and as a neurophys- iologist, manifests a personal, professional obligation to witness to Teilhard--to join him in hls defense of the phenomen01ogy of mhn in an evolving creation; to corroborate the fact that this ÷ is not a philosophical question, but rather a philosophical as- ÷ pect of scientific work; to show that this does .not contradict traditional philosophical and theological concepts. He holds ÷ that Teilhard has developed an entirely new area of knowledge in an effort to harmonize the scientific and religious conception Book Reviews of man. This "scientific phenomenology" is neither theology nor philosophy but, while truly scientific, it likewise is poetic and VOLUME 25, 1966 mysticalknowledge. The hook is divided into seven chapters treating the nature 549 and meaning of scientific phenomenology, the question of consciousness, biological evolution and human history, a correlation with Thomistic philosophy, the problem of evil and Christian hope, and the resacralization of the profane world. In his initial chapter, Chauchard states that hyperphysics does not become a metaphysics but remains a scientific contemplation of the world. It terminates in a vision of God appearing through His creation like a watermark; it is a scientific vision, so to speak, reserved for the man who knows how to see deeply enough. The second chapter is perhaps the best; its depth of th6ught concerning the complexification and integxation of consciousness is apparent. In the third chapter Chauchard gives a clear defense for evolution; for with this conception man is much more a king of creation than he would be in a fixist view which superimposes him on an inhuman universe. ¯ The chapters concerning religion and philosophy are clearly the weakest and tend to manifest more a wish that all Christian philosophers might synthesize their findings than an explanation of just how they can do so. Chauchard says that scientific phenomenology is in fact only an introduction to traditional cosmology; scientific explanation, he states, must then be matched by a metaphysical explanation which is the work of a traditional philosophical cosmology. No matter how chilling this might sound to. the scientist reader, one must not lose sight of a praiseworthy secondary theme running throughout the book: philosophy must begin in experience which cannot exclude scientific phenomenology. . "Christologists" might find in the final chapter on the question of resacralization of the profane world some very valuable insights. The entire book is well worth recommending to students in the liberal arts and to teachers of college theology. ALBERT J. FRITSCH, S.J. WHO IS MAN? By Abraham J. Heschel. Stanford: Stanford University, 1965. Pp. 119. $3.95. This book comprises in expanded form the Raymond Fred West Memorial Lectures delivered at Stanford University in May, 1963. Its author is an original and highly respected Jewish scholar who recently was appointed the first Jewish Visiting Professor at the Union Theological Seminary in New York. In Who is Man? Dr. Heschel inquires into the "logic of being human" (p. 15). What is meant by being human? In answer to this question, the author first briefly discusses and criticizes as essentially incomplete all those definitions of man--that of Aristotle included--which, in one way or another, rel~te man to the animal. Such answers see man piecemeal and answer, at best, only .the question: "What is man?" The true question, however, regarding man is: "Who is man?" a question involving value, a question which man is not only capable of posing to himself but which man, today more than ever before, is posing with anguished incertitude. In Heschel’s view, anguished and self-questioning modern 4. man is a messenger who has forgotten the message (p. 119). The forgotten message is nothing less than God’s answer to man’s 4. anxious question regarding himself, his meaning, and his value: 4. Viewing man from the biblical perspective he subscribes to, Heschel regards man as a being in travail with God’s dreams Book R~i~ws and designs, with God’s dream of a world redeemed, of recon- ciliation of heaven and earth, of a mankind which is truly God’s REVIEW ~OR RELIGIOUS image, reflecting His wisdom, justice, and compassion. In this sense, submits Heschel, the Bible is not a book about God; it is 550 a book about man. The author writes simply, effectively. One may at times wish to express a certain disagreement, as for example with the es- sentialism that seems to underly his critical metaphysical reflections On being (pp. 71 if:), But in the more important and by far more extensive positive portiofi of his book there shines forth a serene wisdom, nurtured by prayer and tempered by suffering, which will help and enlighten the reader willing to listen. ~ WALTER BADO, s.J.~ THEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. By Karl Rahner and Her- bert Vorgrlmler. Edited by Corellus Ernst, O.P. Translated by Richard Strachan. New York: Herder and Herder, 1965. Pp. 493. $6.50. DICTIONARY OF THEOLOGY. By Louis Bouyer. Trans- .lated by Charles Unde~rhill Quinn. New York: Desclee, 1966. Pp. 488. $9.75. One of the effects of the present-day interest in theology has been ’alvast eXpansion in publication of books and articles on various theological subjects. The decrees of Vatican II and their implications have stimulated inquiry into many fields of theological and philosophical thought. This in turn has produced a need for dictionaries of theology which, while not as comprehensive as~articles in encyclopedias, nevertheless give a succinct account Bf Church doctrine and the main theological elabora- tions, past and present. The two dictionaries we are considering, while both completed before the endof the Council, were written in the spirit of the Council and with a knowledge of at least a few of the decrees emanating from it. It is perhaps unfortunate that one or other did not delay publication until after the final session of Vatican II, :but the need was immediate and addition_s can be inserted in future editions. The Dictionary of Theology by the Oratorian, Louis Bouyer, translated from the French, is far more readable than the Theological Dictionary 0f the Jesuit professors Karl Rahner and H~rbert Vorgrimler, translated, perhaps too literally, from the German. The Bouyer work is thus more suitable for general readers, while Rahner-Vorgrimler is of greater value to seminarians and professional theologians. Both should be on the shelves of ~heoiog!~al libraries whether in colleges or seminaries. Those who have been interested in Father Rahner’s specula- tions in theology wilbfind that some of the dictionary topics are brief summaries of his ~v]ews---for example, the Church, death, sacraments, and so forth. A topical index appended to Bo~uyer, based on the Apostles’ Creed, should be of special interest to catechists and teachers of religion CARL L. FIRSTOS, S.J. IN THE BEGINNING...: GENESIS I-IlL By Jean Dani~- lou. Translated by LL. Randolf. Baltimore: Helicon, 196~. Pp. 106. Paper $1.25. 4. ’ The bo6I~ of Genesis as a key to the understanding of the whole Bible is being emphasized greatly today. This book is a + study 6f the first chapters of Genesis. As the author says in his 4. excellent introduction, the book has’both a negative and a positive purpose. The negative aim of the book is to remove the ob- Book Reviews jections which many people of the atomic age have against the ap.p.arently naive explanation of the Bible regarding human VOLUME 25, 1966 ¯ origin, suffering, multiplicity of nations, and so forth. On the positive side the author tries to show the meaning, and destiny 551 of man and history. In his usual brilliant fashion P~re Danidlou studies the early chapters of Genesis and shows that they are a great theological undertaking ’which analyzes human weakness, sinfulness, the multiplicity of nations and races~ in depth. He shows that only in Jesus Christ can one get.the full meaning of th~se early chapters. The chief merit of the book seems to be its ability to introduce even the uninitiated to the secrets of form criticism, biblical authorship, and so forth without recourse to heavy technical terminology. The general reading public will find this book interesting and instructive. I think it will be of great help to religion ~teactiers especially at the high sch9ol level, A~n appendix provides a handy translation of Genesis, 1-3. ABRAHAM PUTHUMANA, S.J. THE OLD TESTAMENT FROM WITHIN. By Gabriel He- ’ bert, S.S.M. New York: Oxford, 1965. Pp. 153. Paper $1.85. Gabriel Hebert has written a reverendy simple sketch of Old Testament theology and history. This book is not for the careful scholar--it is for the Christian who seeks a bird’s eye view of salvation history; it is for the student wh6 feels that his knowledge of the Old Testament is badly fragmented. Though the book is simple~ many a sister or priest, I am sure,’would be happy to experience Hebert’s "feel" for the persons and places of the Old Testament. The book is refreshingly English. Hebert chides his fellow blokes for a somewhat jaundiced vie~ in past decades of peoples east of the Suez and finds a suitable admonition for them in the pages of Genesis. English also, I feel, is hig dating of the Exodus-history with Rowley as against A1- bright. The easy and constant flow between Old and New Testa- ments may at first strike the reader as somewhat facile. But as one after another Old Testament figure parades.across Hebert’s Middle Eastern stage, the reader finds them remarkably real b_e- cause the author consistently sees these patriarchs, ~ judges, prophets, and kings in the light of Christian persons and themes whose familiar New Testament flavor satisfies the reader’s desire for the meat and potatoes of theological discourse. WILLIA1V[ ~)ODD, S.J. INTRODUCTION TO THE NEW TESTAMENT. By A. Robert and A. Feuillet. Translated by Patrick W. Skehan et al. New York: Desclee, 1965. Pp. 912. $15.75. This outstanding introduction to the New Testament, published in French in 1959, is now happily available to a much wider circle of readers in the English-speaking world. The bibliography has been updated and adapted for the English-speaking reader. Readers familiar with Wik’~nhauser’s Introduction will find the Introduction by Robert-Feuillet even more valua- able, especially for the treatment of theological themes. This volume should be available to all students of college theology and to teachers of religion even in secondary schools, not to ÷ mention parish priests and religious who want a concise, solid, ÷ and current introduction to the study of Scripture. The book is well worth the price and will not be outdated for many years ÷ to come; C. H. GIBLIN, S.J. Book Reviews THE STUDY OF THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELSi NEW AP- ¯ PROACHES AND OUTLOOKS. By Augustin Cardinal REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Bea, S.J. English version edited by Joseph A. Fitzmyer, S.J. New York: Harper and Row, 1965. Pp. 95. $3.50. This short volutne presents a commentary on the April, 1964, instruction of the Pontifical Biblical Commission concerning the historical truth of the synoptic Gospels. Cardihal Bea, a member of the Commission, wrote the text as an aid to some of his fellow Bishops at Vatican II, to afford them "an easily understandable expos~ of the questions raised by Form Criti- cism." Bea’s concise account should also be of value to anyone whose schedule precludes more lengthy treatises on this important topic. The text of the Biblical Commission’s instruction is included. DONALD ]~REZINE, S.J. ARE YOU RUNNING WITH ME, JESUS? By Malcolm Boyd. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965. Pp. 119. $3.95. This brief collection of short, honest/straightforward prayers captures the rhythms of daily speech and the patterns of daily living: the lonely collegian, the assembly-line worker, the Negro anywhere, the sex-saddened unmarried couple, the minister. All share the confusion, anxiety, and uncertainties of living in today’s world, which is yet a world that is daily created by God’s love and in which Jesus Christ moves and dwells with intense intimacy. Malcolm Boyd--having preferred the Episcopalian priesthood to a successful career in films, advertising, and television-speaks the thoughts and heartbeat of little as well as more important men and women in contemporary society. His honest prayers, which are not so much self-reflective as directed to God, reflect his own perplexity and anguish with contemporary social, cultural, moral, and ascetical problems. But he roots his hope in his very perplexity and helplessness by speaking with force and simplicity to Christ. Thi~ is a good book for everyone. Every man is mirrored everywhere in Malcolm Boyd’s own meditative views of Christ in the world rushing all around US. JAMES A. BROWN, s,J. WALK WITH GOD. By Bishop Fulton J. Sheen. New York: Maco, 1965. Pp. 96. Paper $.75. It is a wonder that a man who has written more than fifty books still has so much to say. Bishop Sheen writes about topics we are all familiar with, but he expresses his ideas in a style that is uniquely his own. Walk with God is divided into five sections. The first four describe how we are to turn away from the roads of confusion, misguidance, evil intent, and conceit. The fifth, "The. Way of Blessedness," gives modern expression to the beatitudes, an appropriate conclusion. The first section (confusion) treats subjects like beatniks, hermits, sadness, doubt, holiness, and making up.one’s mind. The second section (misguidance) deals with certam aspects of love, parents, teens, authority, and responsibility. The third section presents for our consideration some facets of temptation, habit, instinct, guilt, violence, and chastity. The fourth section 4. (conceit) provides much food for thought about jealousy, lone- liness, courtesy, forgiveness, and sympathy. Such is Walk with 4. God. Expressed in a style like Bishop Sheen’s, the deeper sig- 4. nificance of these topics is readily understood, PATRICK HUSSEY, S,J. Book Reviews SAINTS AND SANCTITY. By Walter J. Burghardt, S.J. En- glewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965. Pp. 239. $5.50. VOLUME 25, 1966 The editor for patrology Of the New Catholic Encyclopedia and recipient of the Cardinal Spellman Award for outstanding contribution to the field of sacred theology, gives us in this gracious and rewarding book much good food for mental prayer. Most of his twenty chapters are "Catholic Hour" radio addresses on saints of the past whose example helps our "here and now" necessity of striving for sanctity for ourselves and others. The saints proposed here as exemplars in sonie special way or other are Ignatius of Antioch, Anthony the Hermit, Augustine, Jerome, Martin de Porres, Patrick, Thomas Aquinas, Peter Canisius, Christopher, Luke, Francis Xavier, Dismas, Monica, Agnes, Andrew, Nicholas, Lucy, Thomas the Apostle, and Mary Magdalene. Each of these widely differing saints is "a valid way to God, a unique witness of Christian faith, a source of ganctification to others." PAOL DENT, S.J. BELIEF’ IN GOD AND MENTAL HEALTH. By Georg Sieg- mund. Translated by Isabel and Florence McHugh. New York: Desclee, 1965. Pp. 910. $4.50. "For the past one hundred fifty years a thesis, more and more sharply defined, has been declaring that religious faith, more especially faith in terms of belief in a supernatural, personal God, is an illusion which man has invented for himself out of morbid weakness and spiritual frailty." The aim of this book is to investigate and lay out thepeculiar development of this slant on religious faith and to offer a critical evaluation as to whether faith is a man-made illusion which psychology has to unmask or whether it is a reality springing from the depths of man himself. After a brief introduction to the topic, the author takes the reader on a quick trip to the genesis of this problem through the views of Kant, Hegel, Feuerbach, Jung, Jaspers, Nietzsche, and Freud. Bergson’s ideas and solutions as well as those of Albert Camus are also included. No doubt, though, for many readers the most interesting and valuable section in this volume will be the chaapter entitled .... "Human Illness as Inner Disharmony." Other chapters ~nclude: "Unbelief as Spiritual Stres~ Test-- The Illness of August Strindbergi’ "The Confession of the Atheist--The Confession of the Christian," and "Psychoanaly- sis and Confession." In sum, a handy addition for counselors, especially those interested in guilt concepts and for those with an interest in an-. other approach to contemporary atheism by an author possessing a rich background with a doctorate in theology, philosophy, and medicine. DENIS DIR$CHERL, s.J.

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