242 McCORKLE

the size of the plant, because plants sprayed at a hardinggrass, and orchardgrass at rates as high as similar size the following year did not show this 2 lb/acre to control herbaceous range weeds in tolerance. new seedings. Normally spraying would be done Harding-grass and Palestine orchardgrass were at 0.5 to 1.0 lb/acre when the weeds are small. Up not damaged at any of the combinations of rates to 0.5 lb/acre could also be used on rose clover and growth stages tested. There were no differ- grown for forage recognizing that moderate dam- ences in seedling height or other damage symp- age will result to the clover. Moderate damage in toms. The first two applications were followed by the seeding year is preferable to a seeding failure a very wet fog the following night which probably due to weed competition. resulted in some runoff from the sprayed plants to LITERATURE CITED the root zone. Still, no mortality was noted. The results of these trials indicate that 2,4-D KAY, BURGESS L. 1963. Effects of 4-(2,4-DB) and dalapon on three annual trifoliums. Weeds 11: 195-198. may have a much more prominent place in con- KAY, BURGESS L. 1964. Paraquat for selective control of trolling weeds in range seedings than had been range weeds. Weeds 12: 192-194. supposed earlier. The experiments by Williams KAY, BURGESS L. 1967. Bromoxynil on rose clover, sub- and Leonard (1959) showed severe damage to rose clover, hardinggrass and Palestine orchardgrass. Research clover by rates of 2,4-D amine as low as 0.75 lb/ progress report. Western Weed Control Conf., p. 14-15. acre. However, most of their applications were ORMROD, D. P., AND W. A. WILLIAMS. 1960a. Vegetative made at later growth stages to coincide with brush and reproductive growth response of three trifolium spe- control practices rather than control of herbaceous cies to 2,4-D. Agron. J. 52:229-234. weeds. Also the damage they measured using ORMROD, D. P., W. A. WILLIAMS, AND B. L. KAY. 1960b. amine in the 2-inch rosette stage would not pro- Growth responses of three annual clovers to treatments hibit the use of 2,4-D. Ormrod et al. (1960a, with 2,4-D. Parts I and II. California Agr. 14(7 and 8): 7-8, 6-7. 1960b) tested only the less selective ester formula- WILLIAMS, W. A., AND 0. A. LEONARD. 1959. Effect of tion and again sprayed at later growth stages than 2,4-D on growth, seed production, and seed viability of would be used for herbaceous weeds. an annual reseeding clover. Agron. J. 51:383-387. In view of the results reported here it seems safe YATES, W. E., AND F. M. ASHTON. 1966. Logarithmic dos- to use the alkanolamine salt of 2,4-D on subclover, age sprayer. Agr. Eng. 41:436-438, 442.

pastoreo contienen una 6 mas especies de gramineas intro- Ranching in Panama’ ducidas. El combate de arbustivas, el control de las quemas, y el mejoramiento tanto de las plantas forrajeras coma de1 J. S. McCORKLE ganado son de 10s problemas mas importantes. Ecologist, Albuquerque, New Mexico. El ganado se cria y se engorda para el mercado en 10s potreros. Los bajos porcentajes de paricion, las enferme- dades y 10s parasites, el bajo valor nutritivo de 10s forrajes Highlight durante las epocas de sequia, y 10s animales de calidad in- ferior traen coma consecuencia, por lo general, una baja Grass and cattle are an important part of Panama agri- production por vaca. Mayores porcentajes de paricion y culture. Ninety percent of all grassland contains one or aumentos en el rendimiento de came podran lograrse me- more introduced grasses. Brush control, fire control, and diante practicas de pastoreo mejoradas y un manejo ade- improvement in grass and livestock management are major cuado de1 ganado. problems. Cattle are grown and finished for market on grass. Low calf crops, disease and parasites, poor dry sea- La ganaderia en Panama ofrece un buen potential para son feed conditions, and low-quality animals result in a establecer empresas remunerativas. generally low beef production per cow. Improved grazing practices and sound livestock management will result in Panama is best known as the narrow strip of higher calf crops and increased beef yields. Potential exists land which connects the two Americas, and as the for a sound and economically profitable ranching enter- location of the strategic Panama Canal which prise. makes events in this area of worldwide importance. La Ganaderia en Panama Panama is a small country some 400 miles long and 40 to 150 miles wide. It is bisected by a mountain Resumen chain only about 200 ft high at the lowest point, Los pastizales y el ganado son una parte muy importante rising to 11,000 ft at the high point near the Costa de la agricultura de Panama. El 90% de las tierras de Rica boundary. Temperatures are tropical except where elevations act to moderate the heat. Precipi- 1 Information compiled by the author while employed by International Engineering Co., San Francisco, California, tation is from 1,000 to 5,000 mm annually, with a servicing the Agrarian Reform Project in Panama. dry season of 100 to 130 days. Rainfall is adequate PANAMA 243

tree, Curatella americaru?, is the best example, prefer open sun and are resistant to fire, grazing, and other acts of man. These are now apparent dominants in localities where such plants would not occur in the natural vegetation. Precipitation of about 2,500 mm produces tropical forest with a dry season of 100 to 120 days. There appears to be adequate basis for accept- ing Savannah as the natural vegetation on upland soils in the 1,000 to 2,500 mm zone of precipitation where the dry season is severe. The deep alluvial soils have a forest climax in the most arid climate found in Panama. The Savannah vegetation is typical tropical sa- vannah. CurateZla americana is probably the most common scrub tree, often called sandpaper tree be- cause of the large rough leaves, but is called Anacardium occident& or Ca- to abundant in the wet season and drooth is fre- chumico locally. quently severe in the dry season. Precipitation is shew nut, Brysonima cramfolia or name, and a higher on the Atlantic slopes but this discussion is number of other xerophytic species are common. limited to the populated areas along the Pacific Xerophytes are represented in grasses and sedges slopes and the vicinity of the Canal. by one or more species of such genera as Trachy- Muhlenber,qia, Aristida, Andropogon, Pas- Cattle in Panama are grown and finished on grass fiogon, with little or no supplemental feed. Grass is a ma- p&m, Scleria, Bulbostylis, and many others. jor land use but a considerable percentage of it is Seeding of exotics, brush control, and other derived from tropical Savannah and from clearing treatments are applied on grassland regardless of tropical forest. Much of the land is not suited to original plant cover, and most grassland has scrub crops and cultivation but is maintained in satisfac- brush in the cover. Consequently the boundary tory condition in either forest or grass when sup- between true forest and Savannah is essentially of ported by correct practices (Fig. 1). academic interest except as a question of competi- Cattle and grassland not only provide a sound tion of land use arises. The land suitable for culti- land use but also provide employment and subsist- vation is limited, the relative competitive position ence for comparatively large numbers of people, of cropland and other uses is not to be explored as well as an important contribution to the na- here but obviously cultivation is a high priority tional economy. use when soil and topoFaphy are suitable. An ex- The Pacific coast has always been the principal tensive area of Savannah and scrub forest is more area of habitation. The alternating wet and dry useful and productive in grass than in trees except seasons offer a much more pleasant and healthful under intensive treatment not found in current climate and well-adapted to production and har- tree culture practice in Panama. Both forest and vesting of crops. Latin America) is a tall high- land when there is any appreciable loss of the tall yielding grass adapted to shallow soil in all but the grass. When these shrub species gain a foothold most arid situations in Panama (Fig. 2). It is the they usually overtop the grass, and become domi- most widely used grass in the country and is the nant unless checked. These are nurse cover for backbone of the grazing industry. It has problems trees and other shrubs and often eliminate grass. in use but is reasonably good forage. The land reverts to brush of doubtful value al- Pennisetum purpureum though good forest will reclaim favorable sites (elephant grass or Na- pier) is a good performer but requires abundant rapidly. moisture to produce well and is not well adapted Introduced Grasses to the most arid lands in Panama. Questionable value of many native dominants Pennisetum clandestinum (Kikuyu) is the only led to early efforts to improve the forage by intro- sod grass of the exotics. It is adapted to elevations ducing better grasses. Remarkable success has been of 4,000 ft and higher and is the most common achieved and much improvement in forage quality grass in the limited area of high elevation grazing and yields has been obtained from exotics that land. have been established. Earliest introductions date back more than a half century in some localities. Digitaria decumbens (Pangola) is a recent in- Some of the same species are major components of troduction, but is very popular. It is palatable, grasslands in neighboring Costa Rica and may be yields well, and is high in protein. It is demand- the source of the seed. The use of improved seed- ing in its requirements for moisture and fertile ings is more recent in other sections of the country soil and must be regarded as restricted in its adap- and has occurred in the past 25 years. tation. It is essentially a cultivated grass. Melinis minu tif Zora (calingueiro or molasses A number of other grasses are now used in lim- grass), one of the first introductions, thrives in in- ited acreages and in a few localities. Still others termediate elevations and is a dominant on steep are in process of trial and show promise. All those PANAMA 245 in use have important limitations but also have A few more advanced and successful ranchers do decided advantages and may be expected to be in not practice burning. The Department of Agricul- common use for the foreseeable future. ture has started to work on the problem and has It is too early to evaluate exotics in relation to issued regulations which represent progress, al- native grass. Some as faragua, calinguiero, and though these are not nearly adequate for the needs. Kikuyu have demonstrated ability to invade adja- There is need for appraisals of values, detriments, cent native stands under a variety of conditions. alternatives, and a program of research and mass This is of perhaps less importance than in many education to deal with the problem of fire. places because most grassland, whether from natu- Grazing Management ral grassland, Savannah, or developed by clearing Correct use of grass is a problem here as in other forest, has been seeded. Seeding is not difficult areas of the world where range and pasture grazing and stands are normally fairly easy to establish. is applied. Overgrazing is common and sometimes Census reports indicate 90% of the grazing land in severe, although there is much grassland that is use has been seeded to one or more exotic species. not subjected to heavy grazing. There is a sur- The same understory of short and intermediate prisingly good understanding of correct use by the grasses is present, or develops in a short time, on local users including many of the small operators. land seeded to exotics as is found on good condi- Tall grass is very susceptible to depletion by any tion native grassland. A dense stand of exotics is type of misuse. Continuous grazing will require not susceptible to invasion by brush in any quan- maintenance of a height of 20 inches of ungrazed tity and will remain dominant as long as it is given residue. This is conducive to spot use and is diffi- correct use. Brush will invade the more suscepti- cult to maintain when needs for dry season re- ble areas where there is even a brief period of serves and variation in growth rates are considered. overuse. Rotation grazing is a practical solution and the Brush and Fire only one that has been developed to date. Many Natives hacked away at brush and forest and ranchers prefer to permit a height growth of about burned it to make fields for crops for centuries. four ft, followed by grazing the stubble as short as A few years of crops followed by abandonment practical depending on the species. With this sys- brought a return of the forest and a renewal of the tem natural seeding will usually be adequate and soil resources. A much more frequent and inten- the plant vigor is maintained. sive application of cut and burn brings grassland A short grass cover is not only much less produc- and this has occurred in parts of Panama. The tive but is difficult to maintain because when there process is aided by seeding but undesirable brush is adequate light near the ground, invasion of un- species are not destroyed by this process. Top- desirable plants is serious. growth may be killed but rootsprouting follows Grazing lands are productive and carrying ca- and brush maintains its foothold. Recutting is pacity is high. The national census shows an ani- necessary at intervals, followed by fire to destroy mal unit population of a grazing animal on a little the residues. Some brush may be reduced on the less than a hectare (2.48 acres). A cow per hectare surface by fire without cutting but the two proc- is a widely quoted rule of thumb. Normal upland esses are applied together for satisfactory control. tall grass with 80 inches rainfall will support a This is a laborious and expensive operation, but cow/ha with proper grazing use; 1.25 ha may be where brush is a problem; failure to apply control needed on the lowest rainfall and on poor soils. A means that any brush present will overtop the grass sizable acreage of mountain grassland is of no sig- and soon becomes dominant. nificant value for grazing because of rugged ter- Cutting well below the soil surface probably will rain and low quality forage. Wetland in Para grass, eradicate the brush but rocky terrain and lack of fertilized Pangola, and grasses on high rainfall suitable equipment prevent widespread applica- mountain land or irrigated land may support three tion of this method. Chemicals offer the most to four animals/ha. promising results but require much more trial Ranch improvements are usually modest. Fences work to be effective. are nearly always adequate to carry out a rotation Grassland is burned frequently in much of the grazing plan and to permit good livestock manage- country. Whether it is grazed appears to make lit- ment, although not always located to take advan- tle difference and custom must be considered as tage of terrain for good distribution of grazing. the basic reason for much burning. Fire is helpful Cropland is not always fenced and poses a problem in disposing of the residues which accumulate-and in control. The ephemeral nature of cropping some believe it helpful to grass. Organic residues practices in areas of slash and burn and abandon- in burned materials are released and are readily ment in a few years increases the difficulty of pro- used by new growth; they are as readily carried tecting cropland. away by erosion which always take toll after a fire. Many do not have title to the land occupied and 246 McCORKLE

Federal Government and premature slaughter of lightweight unfinished cattle is discouraged by penalty prices. Cattle are predominantly Brahman breeding but the crossbred Santa Gertrudis and Brangus are fairly common. There are a number of good pure- bred herds and the quality is improving rapidly in the commercial herds. There is room for a great deal of further herd improvement but quality is adequate for much better production than is now achieved. Dairy production is locally important in some sections. Brown Swiss, Red Sindi, and Holstein breeding is usual for the dairy cattle. There are FIG. 3. Steers fattening on Pangola grass on alluvial land in the some well-managed dairies and many beef pro- dry season. Moisture is adequate here for good growth of this ducers milk cows to supplement income and to very palatable grass. provide employment for the labor force. Milk trucks have routes along most of the all-weather occasionally conflicts arise. Ownership is a major roads to collect milk. The surplus is processed as problem in many localities where people have oc- evaporated milk. cupied the land’for generations without title. Ef Herd improvement, higher calf crops, disease forts are now being made to correct this situation and parasite control, rigid culling of old and in- to transfer title to legitimate users. ferior animals, and correction of forage and nutri- Livestock water is not a problem in the wet sea- tional deficiencies are some of the needs to achieve son but is a major deficiency in many localities in higher production per breeding cow and effect a the dry season, “often resulting in moving animals needed improvement in the profit margins. considerable distances to find-water. Grazing land Calf crops are usually 50% or less with a few ex- is at a premium along permanent streams and ceptions. Actual death loss varies but is relatively over-,grazinff is a frequent result of scarce water high. Loss from effects of parasites is greater than supplies. In much of the area the solution is in is usually recognized. wells or surface ponds which would be entirely ade- Breeding cows suffer from poor nutrition in the quate for the relatively short period of inadequate dry season and do not breed regularly as a result. stock water. An adequate supply of grass is important but does There is little or no difficulty in distribution of not solve this problem, because the dry grass is grazing on the steep slopes common in Panama. deficient in nutritive qualities. It can be solved by Cattle seem to like the steep hills because of better stored feed as hay or by green forage on irrigated air drainage resulting in lower temperatures and or wet land. Many ranches have no wet lands of less insect pest activity. Soils on steep slopes are consequence for reserves and hay making is not younger and may have a more favorable mineral practiced although it has definite possibilities. A content and there may be other factors. controlled breeding season to drop calves at the Livestock Operations end of the dry season or beginning of the wet sea- The first Spanish settlers introduced cattle in the son and weaning calves early in the dry season to en- savannahs and added grazing acreage by clearing able cows to be carried through the dry season with forests, making use of negro slaves and native slaves the lowest demands on them will do much to cor- as labor. Ranching quickly became the principal rect the problem. agricultural activity. However, ranching was vir- Mineral deficiencies are severe in much of the tually static for centuries and livestock production country. Phosphorous or calcium or both are lack- at the turn of the century was low and quality of ing in most areas with the possible exception of feed and animals was poor. Numbers of cattle some of the mountain grazing lands. Mineral feed- have increased steadily from about 60,000 in 1903 ing is a high-cost cash outlay many hesitate to in- to approximately l,OOO,OOO in 1965. Important cur but is showing excellent results on a few factors in growth of cattle raising are increase in ranches which supply the needed minerals. Sum- market demand, introduction of better forage ming up, adequate grass of the best quality possi- grasses, improvement in breeding animals, and de- ble with reserves for the dry season, controlled velopments in disease and parasite control. breeding seasons, and weaning calves on schedule Cattle are grown and finished on grass (Fig. 3). will result in more regular breeding cows and in- The normal age of marketing is 30 to 36 months creased calf crops. at 900 to 1,100 lb. Prices are controlled by the Protein deficiencies occur but do not prevent PANAMA 247 high production. Imported protein feeds are too the principles of grazing management and are expensive to be feasible for general use. Legumes eager to learn, although handicapped by local fears have not been developed to supply the need and and prejudices. Specialists in grazing management native legumes are generally unpalatable. are one important need that has been overlooked Disease and parasites are virtually always serious thus far. Both the land and its people have a po- problems where there are moist conditions in the tential for a much higher level of production if tropics and the severity of the problem is not al- given correct direction. ways recognized. Death loss is not severe except BIBLIOGRAPHY for outbreaks that occasionally occur. Loss in con- dition and in animal health and well being is less ANDERSON,CHAS. L. 1911. Old Panama and Castillo de1 evident but is probably equally serious. The de- Oro. North River Press. New York. velopment in use of antibiotics and control mea- BENNETT,H. H. 1929. Soil reconnaissance of the Panama Canal Zone and Contiguous Territory. U.S. Dep. Agri. sures for both disease and parasites makes it possi- Tech. Bull. 94. 46 p. ble and feasible to correct problems in animal GUZMAN,LEWIS E. 1956. Farming and farm lands in Pan- health. A few progressive ranchers have demon- ama. Univ. of Chicago Press. Chicago, Ill. strated the advantages of improved sanitation. HOLDRIDGE,L. R., ANDGERARDO BUDOWSKI. 1956. Report The application of improved husbandry prac- of an ecological survey of the Republic of Panama. Carib- tices together with rigid culling and a program of bean Forester 17:92-l 10. herd improvement will undoubtedly increase calf JOHNSON,I. M. 1949. Botany of San Jose Island. Lancas- crops, reduce losses, and result in a much more ter Press, Lancaster, Penn. vigorous and faster gaining herd and better per- LOTHROP,SAMUEL. 1937. Archeology of Central Panama. Peabody Papers, Part 2, Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, formance by animals. The market yields of beef Mass. and milk can be increased tremendously. A pro- MADDOX,THOS. J., JR. 1945. Agriculture in Panama, pres- gram of mechanical and chemical brush control ent and potential. Inst. Interamerican Affairs, U.S. State will greatly reduce the cost of treatment and lead Dep. 45 p. to a reasonably permanent control. QUESADA,LUISA E. Directoria, Censos Nacionales de 1960. Technical aid and sometimes financial help is a Republic of Panama. Panama City. particular deficiency for small ranchers. Too often SERVICIOINTERAMERICANO DE COOPERACIONAGRICOLA EN aid that has been available has been concentrated PANAMA. 1958. Agriculture in Panama. Division Nat- on large operators who are sometimes better able ural Resources, Panama Dept. of Agriculture. STANDLEY,PAUL C. 1928. Flora of the Panama Canal to respond but who also have less need for assist- Zone. U.S. Nat. Herb. Washington, D.C. 416 p. ance. Progress is too often measured by mecha- SWALLEN,JASON R. 1943. Grasses of Panama. Annals of nized operations and criteria suitable for a much the Missouri Bot. Garden. 30(2) St. Louis, MO. 390 p. more advanced agriculture than the present farms STRYKER,M. M. 1952. Soil and land investigation in Pan- of Panama can be expected to handle. Native ama. Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations, U.S. Dep. ranchers have acquired a surprising knowledge of Agri. Washington, D.C. 60 p.

Two New Journal Features

Did you notice our new Journal feature in the The ASRM Board of Directors approved inclu- May issue, p. 185-187? It is called “Viewpoints,” sion of a “Resumen en Espanol” for selected Jour- a section for the statement of individual views on nal papers, starting with this July issue; see p. 242 subjects of interest to range men-statements more and 255. Initial translations prepared by Dr. Mar- complete than a simple letter to the Editor, but tin H. Gonzalez, of the Mexico Section in Chihua- without the formal status of an Editorial. Edito- hua. rial Board member “Hoop” Hooper suggested the idea. Your reactions are solicited. -R. S. Campbell, Editor