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UMI
Text Unity and Cohesion of Dostoevshy' s Writer's Diary
by
Peter Sekirin
A PhD Thesis
Graduate Department of Slavic
University of Toronto
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Text Unity and Cohesion of Dostoevsky's A Writer's Diary
by Peter Sekinn
This is the first rnonographic study of Dostoevsky's Writer's Diary. Fyodor Dostoevsky dedicated ten years of his life to the Diary, which is about 1,200 pages long, and is one of his most important works.
The key problem of its study is the problem of textual unity and cohesion. The writer repeatedly referred to this work as a single text and a unit.;but at the same time the Diary consists of chapters, sections and short stories which are different in style, message and form. In the thesis, 1 make an attempt to solve this problern and to probe that the~iayis a cohesive text, including its concept (Chapter One), references (Chapter Two), structure (Chapter Three) and semantics (Chapter Four).
The first chapter is dedicated to the history of the Diary's creation and major concepts of its organization including early approaches to its general concept; thee treatment of this work as a unity; history of Dostoevsky's taking the work at The Citizen; and the Diary after 1875.
The second chapter investigates reIatedness of reference, including time, space, and narration type.
The th ird chapter presents the analysis of structural coherence, in particular, inter-textual and extra-textual references and links.
The fourth chapter proves the unity ofjoumalism, fact and fiction in A Writer's Diary by F. Dostoevsky.
In the conclusions I argue that Dostoevsky developed in his Diary a genuinely new form in Russian literature which may be identified as fictional journalism. Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION Page CHAPTER 1. CONCEPTUAL COHESION. A HISTORY OF THE DIARY'S 3 CREATION AND MAJOR CONCEPTS OF iTS TEXTUAL ORGANIZATION. 2 1 1.1. Dostoevsky's Work as a Journalis: before the Diary. 21 1.2. Early Approaches to the General Concept of the Diary. 28 1.3. Dostoevsky's Editorship of The Citizen and his Relationship with the 17 Publisher, Prince Meshchersky. 1.4. Several Versions of Dostoevsky's Resignation as Editor of -The Citizen. 7 -5. The Diary After 1875. Some ïntroductory Remarks About the Genre.
CHAPTER 2- REFERENTIAL COHESION - TIME, SPACE AND NARRATION TYPE 2.1. The Concept of Time in A Writer's Diary. 2.2. Time in "The Old People." 2.3. Time as a Category of Cohesion in A Wnter's Diary: Periods of Time and Sequences of Actions; Continuous Time Versus a Single Point in Time; Perfective Versus Non-Perfective Action; Modifiers of Time in the Past, Present and Future; Several Actions Following one Another. 2.4. Space and Cohesion of A Writer's Diary Including Russia (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Russian provincial towns, Russia as a nation); Western Europe; Russia and the Eastern Question Including Distant Locations: USA, China, and Asia. 2.5. Types of Narration as a Factor of Cohesion.
CHAPTER 3. STRUCTURAL COHESION. 3.1. Inter-Textual References: Frames in A Wnter's Diary: Linear - Chain Frame as Linear Cohesion; and General Frame as Overall Cohesion. 3.2. Extra-Textual References to Other Literary Artists, Critics and Other Litcrnry Works: Dostoevsky as a Literary Critic: Dostoevsky's Criticism about George Sand; .Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy; Smoke by Turgenev.
CHAPTER 4. INTELLECTUAL COHESION. THE UNITY OF JOURNALISM, FACT AW FICTION IN A WRITER'S DMYBY F. DOSTOEVSKY. 4.1. The Topic of Children in A Wnter's Diary. 4.2. The Power of Fictional Elements Used in the Journalistic Material. 4.3. The Factual Background of Fiction in the Diaxy. COh~CLUSIONS ADDENDUM. Quotations in the Original Russian. BIBLIOGRAPHY Introduction.
In the following introduction 1 will briefly comment on the problem of treatment of -4 Writer's Diary as a single text and summanse what has been done in the theory of text coherence; outline what has not been done and how my work will contribute to the existing theory; choose a working definition of text cohesion and expand this definition with my own; suggest a new approach combining the achievements of four major studies in this field; and, finally, apply this theory to the study of cohesion of A Writer's Diq, and outline the major issues of the foiir major cllapiers of the dissertation.
1. The Problem of A Writer 's Diam as a Sinde Text. Brief Review of Maior
Works on Text Cohesion. The Working Definitions of Cohesion and the Structure of the
Dissertation.
A Writer's Diary is one of Dostoevsky's major works and the key problem of its study is the problern of its unity and cohesion. The \Miter repeatedly referred to this work as a single text (see below in this chapter) and a unity, but at the same time the Diary consists of chapters, sections and short stones which are different in style, message and forrn. III the following thesis, 1 am going to attcmpt to solve this problem and to prove tliat the Diary is a cohesive text, including its concept (chapter l), references (chapter 2), structure (chapter 3) and semantics (chapter 4).
The problem of text cohesion has attracted the attention of numerous scholars during the last decades. The notion of a cohesive text was at the centre of the linguistic and literary discussions in textual studies throughout the 70s, 80s and 90s. Dunng this tinie. two basic approaches to the problem of text cohesion were developed in the critical literatiire. Several prominent scholars treat cohesion as one of the most important textual characteristics, that which defines and creates textual unity (Gleitman 1965, Lakoff 197 1,
Lang 1976, and van Dijk 1977); another group of researchers (Lotman 1973, Greims
1 975, Pope 1995) argue that cohesion is no more important than other parameters of the tcxt including frame, plot developrnent, narrative voice, narrative types, points of view of the author, reference patterns, etc.
In the foIlowing study, a third, alternative point of view is developed, which is a compromise between the two above-mentioned approaches: the notion of cohesion reinains the key charactenstic of a literary text; at the same time, cohesion is exarnined in the contest of other key text parameters, namely narration type, point of view, space-time relationships, inter- and extra-textual links and semantic connections.
A working definition of text cohesion which 1 accept in this dissertation is that made by N. Enkquist who stressed that "in semantic terms one could suggest that a text is understood to be coherent if its sentences confonn to the picture of a single possible world in the experience or imagination of the receiver" (Enkvist 1977: 126). Thus, one of the major notions of discourse used here is "a single possible world" of a litenry text. As a result, it is this single world as manifested in the forma1 and semantic stmctures which will be investigated below.
The notion of the cohesion of a literary text was onginally developed in the
works of the British linguists, Leech and Short (1971). Their starting point was to
study the forma1 indicators of cohesion of single phrases, sentences and paragraphs.
The nest step was more exciting, and, I would Say, revolutionary.
Leech and Short (1 97 1 : 1 1-57) developed a system of fonnal parameters for the
coliesion of a literq text: it included elernents of structural, referential and semantic
cohesion. I have adapted their classification, using their terms "stmcturaI cohesion"
and "referential cohesion," and have added hvo terrns of my own, "conceptual
cohesion," and ''inteIIectua1 cohesion," because these hvo new terms can also be used to
describe the cohesion of the Diary, that is, the unity of its conception and the unity
between facts and fiction.
The problem of the unity and cohesion of A Writer's Diar). is the key issue in al1
the major studirs dedicated to this work. The Diarys diversity of genres, topics,
issues, types of narration, stylistic and Iiterary devices implies that it (fiorn a purely
formal point of view) rnay be described as an anthology of unconnected stories and
articles. Hoivever, Dostoevsky always treated the Diary as one work, and repeatedly
referred to it as a single creation ("sochinenie"). Therefore, 1 consider the issue of the Diary S cohesion and unity as the major question addressed by my dissertation, and
attempt to prove in the four major chapters of this dissertation (dealing with the Diary's
conceptual, structural, referential, and intellectual cohesion) that the Diary is a unified
work on al1 levels.
Previous studies on text cohesion can be summarized by the following works which represent four major aspects of cohesion and refer to four major chapters of this dissertation: 1 - cohesion though origin, or concept of a literary text (Uspensky 1981); 2 -
cohesion through relatedness (Uspensky 1981, Halliday and Hasan 1976); 3 - cohesion though form and structure (Leech and Short 1981); 4 - cohesion of semantic comections
(Beaugande and Dressler 198 1). On the following pages of the introduction, 1 wili suggest a nrw approach to text cohesion, applying this combined approach to study of -A
Writer's Diaq. The major themes of this introduction will be presented and sumrnarized in Table 1 on page Tof this dissertation. The table shows three major types of cohesive relationships in A Writer's Diqby F. M. Dostoevsky. -
Chapter Type of Cohesion Cohesive Relationships
1 The author's major theme and 1. Conceptual Cohesion intention. histok of creation - -- -- Reference: narration type, space, 2. 1 Referential Cohesion time Structure and substitution: 3. Structural Cohesion fiames. extra-textual links Reîationships between fact and 1 4. 1 Intellectual cohesion fiction in ioumalism
Table 1.
Four Major Types of Cohesive Relationships in Dostoevsky's A Writer's Di-. Critical Review of Scholarship on the Cohesion of the Diay
Among numerous works on Dostoevsky's Diary, there are four major articles
(Sidorov 1925, Tunimanov 19972, Volgin 1978 and Morson 1993) which are dedicated
to different aspects of its unity and cohesion.
Sidorov (1925) made one of the first attempts to study the Diary. According to
Sidorov, numerous "complexities and contradictions" (Sidorov 1925: 1 1 1) in
Dostoevsky's philosophical and artistic outlook lead to the contradictory and complex
structure of the Diary. Arnong other things, Sidorov discusses the relationships of art and joumalism in the Diary. One of the major features of this work, according to
Sidorov, therefore, is that readers have to assume that it was created not by a joumalist, but by an artist.
One of the major issues addressed by Sidorov is that the Diary should be shidied first of al1 not as a journalistic work, but as a source of Dostoevsky's investigations in hurnan psychology. For exarnple, according to Sidorov (1925 : 11 S), European political, social and econornic iife (in Austria, England, and Germany) is not analyzed in the form of a traditional political review, but presented by Dostoevsky as a "study of human psychology." In another example, Dostoevsky's attitude to Belinsky is seen as representative of his attitude to the social processes in Russian society. For these reasons, Sidorov ( 1925 : 1 16) treats Dostoevsky's work as a unique creation, as "a product of poetic, artistic thinking" and not as a purely journalistic work. This tliesis on the Diary 's uniqueness was merdeveloped in a substantial article by Tunimanov (1972) who studied Dostoevsky's dialogue with his readers, the genre of the Diary and its difference fkom the typical diary fonn, arnong other issues.
Tunimanov stresses that Dostoevsky "did not want to impose any thematic or genre limitations" on bis work, and that is led to its rather 'YOOSZ composition." (1972: 166-7).
Dostoevsky's social and artistic views were refiected in the Diary 's structure, at the same time, the Diary was created "as a free and honest dialogue with its readers about the contemporary world and Russia, and not as propaganda of a particular position."
Tunimanov (1 972: 182-1 86) stiidies different types of dialogue, in particular
Dostoevsky's dialogues with himself, with his readers and his correspondents. A dialogue can be a fiiendly convers~tion,a polemical discussion, a conversation with an imaginary person ("Bobok"), or a real person who is engaged in an imaginary dialogue
(Spasovich). Tunimanov concludes that the Diary is "neither a diary, nor a journal"
(1 973 : 205); that it is a complex journalistic work in which Dostoevsky espressed his
"artistic thoughts" (1972: 207); and that the cornplexity of this work should be studied in more detail.
1. Volgin (1978) raises several important issues of the Diary *s unity and coherence, making a detailed textual analysis of the first section of the January 1876 chapter. In this chapter, Dostocvsky starts by characterizing "the contemporary
Khlestakovs" (a pretender, a character fiom Gogol's I~rspectorGencml, often used in Dostoevsky's chapters on literary criticism as a generic noun), then proceeds to the topic of suicides, and fmally rnakes sorne observations on Russian liberalism (PSSP 9 : 145-
147). As Volgin bnefly States it, one of the major features of the Diary is, "the journalistic features are inserted in its artistic structure." (Volgin 1978 : 158) This inter- connectedness of different topics, genres and approaches defines the very cornplex structure of the Diary as an artistic unity, because. first of all, it was designed "as a single artistic work" (1978: 158).
Al1 the major conclusions of the three above-mentioned articles: the relationship of art and journalism in Sidorov (1 925); the dialogue with the readers and the issue of the =S genre in Tunirnanov (1972), and finally, the Diary 's complex structure as a singie, coherent work in Volgin (1978) are further developed in my dissertation in the corresponding chapters on conceptual, structural and intellectual coherence of the Diary.
G.S. .Morson (1993) dedicated a detaiIed scholarly study to A Writer's Diary, and its cohesion, genre and unique place in Russian literature. Morson cornrnents on the
Diq's origins; on tuming joumalism into literature; on treating it as "an encyclopedia of genres;" on stories, semi-fiction, fiction and joumalism; on the Diary 's uniQing principles including presentness, pastness, side-shadowing (incompleteness); on its poetics and ethics. Morson's article (1993) is the most recent detailed work on the
Diary, and, therefore, 1will briefly discuss its conclusions. and compare them with my own research. Speaking about the unifjmg pnnciples of the Diary, Morson (1993:58-60) stresses two major principles: "synchronic structure and fiozen time." These key principIes developed by Dostoevsky helped him to create an artistic whoie as the publication evolved. At the same time, the great diversity of genres (fiction, joumalism, auto-biography, etc.) was a common feature of Dostoevsky's work. Morson (1993: 113) argues that Dostoevsky "attempted to persuade himseif that somehow, despite al1 the changes the work had undergone, the formal unity was undamaged." Morson also notes tlint Dostoevsky's intention was "to make the Diary a new kind of literary form" (1993:
1 13) and mentions Andrew Wachtel's suggestion that 7Xe Brothers Karamazov rnight be rezarded "as a work ernbedded .. . in the Diary." (1 993: 1 13) This complexity of
Dostoevsky's oivn artistic views leads to the complexity of the compositional and thematic structure of the Diary which 1 have analyzed in greater detail.
In Part 1, "Origin of an Anornaly," Morson (1 993: 1-9) comments on
Dostoevsky's attempt to 'Wm a penodical into literature" (Morson 1993: 4). He States that "the periodical format" was one of the main features of the Diary, and explains how
Dostoevsky's concept of the Diary evolved with the passage of time.
In this dissertation, 1 make a much more detailed analysis of the conceptual, historical cohesion, and dedicated a whole chapter (Chapter One) to the history of the creation of the Diarv. Further, Morson treats the Diary as "one of the strangest works of world
Iiterature" (Morson 1993 : l), and attempts to define its place in the Russian literature.
The complexity of the work, according to Morson, was the reason for "a relative neglect of the Diary" by the previous scholars. Further, in the next two small chapters, "Turning
Periodical into Literature" and "Monitoring the Spiritual Life of Russia, Month by
Month," Morson explains how Dostoevsky developed the initial concept of the Diary.
The treatrnent of the Diary as "Encyclopedia of Genres," is supported by pieces belonging to different genres. First of all, it is the announcement in which Dostoevsky promised to tell his readers about al1 that he has "seen, or heard, or read" (Morson 1993:
9- 10). The short stones f?om the Diary are read by Morson "horizontally, vertically and metaphorocally;" he studies their poetics, structure, and plots. In chapter dedicated to auto-biography, (especially "The Peasant Marey") Morson argues that there were deep thoughts about the present day Russian life in al1 pieces representing different genres. In his chapter on Dostoevsky's "prophetic joumalism," Morson (1993: 28-40) studies suicides, trials, and child abuse cases and attempts to prove that these stories were an integral part of the general concept ofthe Diqas a single whole. A11 ofthese issues were a stcvting point for the corresponding chapters and sections of my dissertation.
Morson also stressed that Dostoevshy developed the design of his Diary to
"rnuch more cornplex, much more sophisiticated" one (Morson 1993: 57). Morson stiidied the development of the Diaw's design in time by implying several uniQing principles: synchronie structure and fiozen time (Morson 1993: 58-71), and a series of techniques which investigate "a coherent structure on a series of unpredictable events"
(Morson 1993: 71).
1 hrther developed those part of Morson's work dedicated to auto-biography, semi-fiction and journalism in Chapter Two and Chapter Three of my dissertation, dedicated to the referential and structural cohesion of the Diary.
Morson looks at the Diary as "An Encyclopedia of Genres," trying to show how an anthology of stories and articles became "a generic encyclopedia;" how its parts were
"designed to cohere"; and how Dostoevsky "achieved its wholeness on the bais of utter fragmentation" (Morson 1993: 10). In the next section of his study, which is dedicated to autobiography, semi-fiction and journalism. Morson stresses that though the passages from the Diary "vary considerably", they constitute a single, unified whole. Morson briefly stated the existence of factual references of Dostoevsky's short stories (Morson
1993: 10- 12), and 1 developed this aspect fùrther by tracing the factuai background of
Dostoevsky's short stories under investigation, in particular "The Meek One," "A
Hundred-Year-Old Woman." and "The Dream of a Superfluous Man."
In Parts 3 and Part 4 of his study, "The New Design of the Diary" and "How and Why Dostoevsky Abandoned His Design," Morson studies the development of the concept of the Diary. and concludes that the Diary itself is "a remarkable literary form"
(Morson 1993: 105). In the final part four of his study, Morson analyses present and past time, prophesies, polemics with Tolstoy and concludes about the cohesiveness of this work, stating that "the Diary was itself a remarkable expenment of a new literary form."
(Morson 1993: 105). Morson States that al1 previous scholarly literature dedicated to the
Diary cmbe divided into two groups representing the two main approaches to the study of the Diary (Morson 1993: 72) fiom the methodological point of view. The first approach treats the text as a whole; this approach is used in my dissertation. The second approach, concentrating on the issue of "how the concept of the work changes during its publication" (Morson 1 993 : 72), is used by Morson himself. The difference behveen the two above-mentioned approaches constitute the major methodological difference between Morson's (1993) work and my dissertation.
The semantic, or intellectual cohesion of the Diary is another major aspect of iblorson's work, and I developed this in much more detail in Chapter Four of my dissertation. In particular, Morson's section on how to read the Diary S short stones
"honzontally and vertically" was the starting point of section three of the Iast chapter of my disscrtation, "On the Factual Background of Fiction in the Diary."
In general, the major conclusions of Morson's (1993) study of the Diary 's unity and cohesion (as well as Dostoevsky's o~vncontradictory views on this subject mentioned by Morson) are used as a starting point for this dissertation. My approach is different in two major respects. First, 1 treat the Diary as a unified and cohesive work at al1 stages of rny research (Morson looks at its cohesion as a histoncal process in development); and secondly, 1 suggest a very clear, structural approach to the study of
the Diary $ cohesion, in particular, its conceptual, structural, referential and intellectual
cohesion. These four aspects correspond to the major chapters of my dissertation.
1.1. Cohesion as Relationships of Reference, Time-Space and Point of View in
Uspensky (1981), Halliday and Hasan (1976).
The theoretical fiamework presented in the works on text cohesion by Uspensky
( 198 1 ), Halliday and Hasan (1 976) is used as the theoretical basis of chapter 1 and cliapter 2 of this dissertation.
In particular, Bons Uspensky's pioneenng work Poetics of Composition (198 1,
Russian cdition 1971 ) laid the foundation for the study of the relationships of origin, concept and reference of text cohesion, including the study of points of view and types of narration. Uspensky studied point of view as a major theoretical problern of poetics trcating author, narrator and character as possible vehicles of different viewpoints which contribute to the overall cohesion of the text.
Uspensky's theory can be very fniitfilly applied in the chapter 1 of the thesis, treating A Writer's Diary as a coherent literary text which includes different types of narration. After Uspensky (1981), 1 will study the following aspects of text coherence: 1.1. - phraseology (meaning here, different ways to describe the same person or object);
1.2. - influence of authorial speech on someone else's speech including narrated monologue; narrated dialogue; reported speech; intemal and external authorial positions;
1.3- - presentation of space and tirne in the Diary, including penods of time and sequences of actions; continuous time versus a single point in time; modifiers of time in the past, present and fûture; 1.4. - the author's point of view on space incfuding Russia
(S t. Petersburg, Moscow, Russia as a nation), Western Europe (England, France,
Gemany, etc,), Russia and the Eastern Question including the Slavic World and the
Balkan Peninsula; 1.S. - authonal position in the flow of narration includes unchanging position, moving, plural, or changing position; multiple points of view as presented by the characters.
Al 1 these elements of narration are consistently repeated throughout the Diary, and they contribute to the creation of a single picture, thus making it a cohesive literary work.
Another major work on the theory of text cohesion, a monograph by Halliday and
Hasan (1976) presents a powerful theoreticai approach to the cohesion of reference which is also used in my thesis. As the authors state: "Cohesion plays a special role in the creation of the text. Cohesion expresses the continuity which exists behveen one part of the text and another" (Halliday and Hasan lW6:Zg). The continuity of a text, as its essential feature, is closely connected with such structural relations as type of narration, and space and time. These parameters contribute to the coherence of a literary text which is understood (as it is suggested by Halliday and Hasan) as the unity of textual meaning
manifested in relationships of reference (space and tirne) aqd point of view of the
narrator.
According to Hailiday and Hasan, "the organisation of each segment of a
discourse in terms of its information structure, thematic patterns and the like is also part
of its testure, no less important than the continuity ftom one segment to another" (opcit., p.279). This important conclusion sets a solid foundation for the study of connections
between cohesion of space-time reference, and structural cohesion. To put in other
words, the cohesion of a literary text is manifested in such patterns as narrative voices and space-time relationsb ips, and these patterns are no less important than, Say, linear structriral cohesion between textual seagnents (sentences, sections and chapters) following each other.
2. Structural Approach to Cohesion of Leech and Short (1981).
Cohesion may be also defined in a very simple way through structural, formal rclationsliips as "a string of sentences which are accepted [by the reader] as a coherent text" (Leech and Short 198 1 : 243-5). Taking this approach to the study of cohesion as a major theoretical framework for chapter three of the dissertation, 1 develop the notion of cohesion further; namely, the study of cohesion on several levels, or units of language: the linguistic level of a paragraph, episode, chapter, and entire text as a unified whole. The statement that "the units of a text must be implicitly or explicitly bound together and
they must not be just a random collection of sentences" (Leech and Short 1981 : 243) cm
be considered as another major point in my approach to the study of text cohesion,
because it allows us to move tiom the level of sentences -- which has been done by most
of the previous researchers -- to the level of the text as a whole, that is a cohesive unity
consisting of closely related paragraphs, sections, chapters and issues.
This new approach to the structural cohesion which 1 take includes two major
types of stnictural relationships: intra-textua1 relationships, that is references between
different parts of the text (fiames); and extra-texhial, that is, references to other literary
artists and their works (mostly in chapters on literary criticism).
While Uspensky treats cohesion as the unity of poetics and author's intention, the
approach of Leech and Short is different: they are primarily interested in the purely
forma1 and structural means by which these cohesive connections are signalled. including
cross-reference and linkage; persona1 and indicative pronouns replacing a person or
expression already mentioned; ellipsis, or the omission of elements whose meaning is
understood frorn the context; repetitions, or repeated use of word or a phrase which has
already occurred in the text earlier; coordinating conjunctions (such as and,but, both,
ileirher... rror) and linking adverbials (therefore. hoivever, nleanwlrile.for example)
(Leech and Short 198 1 : 244-5).
According to Leech and Short (1981 : 244-5), cohesion supposes that "some items in the text CO-referto some other expressions in the text." This approach to text cohesion is very fruitful, because it enables a researcher to determine the forma1 elements of text cohesion.
At the same time, this approach (see Leech and Short 198 1) is incomplete because it treats text cohesion only on the level of lexical units (words) or basic grarnmar s tructiires, omitting more complex cases of paraphrase, phrases and macro-text.
Therefore, 1 will develop it fùrther, fiom the level of the sentences to the level of the paragraphs, sections, chapters and text as a whole. 3. The Semantic Approach of R.A. Beau-grande and W. U. Dressler (198 1).
Leech and Short's (198 1) work on cohesion was closeiy connected with another major monograph which helped lay the foundations of the theory of text cohesion, namely, a monograph by R. A. Beaugrande and W. U. Dressler (198 1). One of the major conclusions of this study was that 'me stability of the text as system is upheld via a continui ty of occurrences" (198 1:48-8 1). In addition to the structural text cohesion,
Beaugrande and Dressler developed the notion of semantic cohesion of a literq work. which will be studied in chapter 3 of the dissertation. If cohesion already includes grammatical and stylistic parameters such as parallelism, paraphrase, anaphora and cataphora, ellipsis, tense, and aspect and rnodality, then their new notion of text cohesion was charactensed by "procedural semantics," including "decomposition, plans and scripts and continuity of senses." (op. cit. : 84-1 10). In other words, text cohesion is manifested by formal means of grarnmar which reflect the unity of meaning. 1 will apply these notions when examining the relationships between fact, fiction and joumaiisrn in -A
Writer's Diary.
In the following chapters of the thesis, al1 of the above-mentioned basic theoretical elements of cohesion will be studied in more detail and applied to demonstrate the textual cohesion of A Writer's Diay. Chapter 1. A History of the Diary's Creation and
Maior Concmts of its Textual Oreanization.
Introduction
Dostoevsky's journalistic endeavon and non-fiction texts occupy an important and unsu fficiently studied place in his literary heritage. The writer published hundreds of pages filled with cornrnents on contemporary issues and political passion for the penodicats Time(Vremia), Epoch (Epokha), and The Citizen (Grazhdanin); and at the height of his professional career in the early 1870s, he began to develop A Writer's Diary as an autobiographical social comrnentary, which was unique in the Russian iiterature of that period. This bountifiil activity indicates that the writer was deeply invoived with his journalistic career and that this aspect of his work foms an sigificant part of his Iiterary heri tage.
1.1. Dostoevsky's Work as a Joumalist before the Diop in the 1840s-60s.
Dostoevsky's active and fi-uitful work as a journalist was repeatedly stressed by his contemporaries. Both the critic and philosopher Nikolai Strakhov -- who was
Dostoevsky's persona1 fi-iend -- and Elena Shtakenshneider, the hostess of a St.
Petersburg literary saIon in the 1860s and 70s -- wrote in their memoirs (Strakhov 18 8 1:3 25, Shtakenshneider l931:269) that the writer was remembered by his conternporaries not as a novelist, but as a joumalist; that he worked actively as an editor and journalist for many yean; and that in the late 50s and early 60s (before his major novels were written), afier Dostoevsky's return fiorn Siberia, his journalism was the major reason for his popularity.
Dostoevsky's early journalism was studied in a very detded way by V. Nechaeva
(197% 1976), and 1 will rnake only most general remarks on this subject, rnainly ro summarize his work during this period and briefly show the importance of his early journalism for the Diary.
As early as the 1840s, at the very begiming of his literary career, the young
Dostoevsky clearly expressed his views on contemporary literature (see Dolinin
1923559, Kirpotin 1963) in the fom of his early feuilletons in tiie almanac The
Petersburg Chronicle peterburgskaia ~etopi41.As a joumalist and a feuilleton writer, lie analyzed the major tendencies which existed in Russian literature of the 1840s. He stressed the growing role of literature in Russian social life, indicating the necessity of a detailed and humane exploration of conternporary social issues. The young writer anaIyzed the social processes which had aided the development of literature in Russia, but also noted that art played an important role in social life: "art is a necessary part of social li fe" (Polnoe Sobranie Sochinenii i Pisem, abbreviated throughout the thesis as PSSP 18 : Dostoevsky also noted that the success of any work of art depended to a large
extent upon the writer's artistic talent: "The higher is the artist's talent, the easier for him
it is to present his thought for the public" (PSSP 18: 29).
It is significant that he emphasized the important social role of a literary artist,
later repeatedly stressed in the Diary. in the ISSOS,the miter's literary activity was very
Iimited, but his interest in joumaiism was growing. Almost immediateIy after his return
from Siberia the writer carne up with the idea to start a journal, wnting to his brotlier
Mikhail on November 12, 1859: "we must take a risk and start a literary enterprise, for
example, a joumaf." (PSSP 28, 1 : 376).
During the 1860s, Dostoevsky and his brother went on to found the joumals Time
and Epoch. In the forum which these joumals provided, Dostoevsky developed as a journalist and, in particular, as a Iiterary critic, and published numerous articles. including
Iiterary criticism, book reviews, introductions to novels and stories by other writers, and
literary polemics. These journalistic works have been studied in detail by other scholars
(see Nechaeva 1972, Nechaeva 1975), and, therefore a brief cntical review of his journalistic works of the 1860s will suffice.
At the end of 1858 Mikhail Dostoevsky received permission to publish a political
and literary review called Time. The journal becarne a "thick" monthly covering a wide
range of topics including economics, politics and Iiterature. Ln this journal, Dostoevsky explored his ideas about "pochvennichestvo" ("native soi 1" or
"grass-roots movement").
Dostoevsky's views on pochvennichestvo represent early approaches of what he
did in the Diary on "native soil" and related topics; therefore, 1 will make a brief review
of pochevennichest-vo. This movement emerged during the first half of the 186Os, and
included arnong their members A. Grigoriev, N. Strakhov, M.M. Dostoevsky and F.1M
Dostoevsky as major figures. Their activity was centered about two joumals Vreniia and
Epoklzn, published by the Dostoevsky brothers. The editors of these hvo journals set for
i tsel f the task of reconciling the gap between iritelligentsia and narod (people). On the
one hand, Russian elite was invited to go to the people to learn ftom them; at the same
t ime. intelligentsia were to bring European education to people. The "pochvemi ki"
stated that the process of Europeanization started by Peter the Great had alienated the
educated eIite fkom its Russian heritage, or "native roots;" they repeatedly emphasized
that intelligentsia and iiarod can get along together.
For Dostoevsky, pochvennichestvo (since Dostoevsky used the term "soil" or
"pochva" in its figurative meaning, meaning Russian roots, customs and traditions, and the term is difficult to translate, I have adopted the Russian name) appeared to be an answer to the social reforms of 1861, when serfdom was abolished. Criticizing both serfdoni and the separation of the ruling classes from the people, Dostoevshy made use of this ideology in attempt to avoid both the Slavophile and the capitalistic, industial ways of development. Dostoevsky repeatedly suggested that Russian society had to be united with the "native soil," or "pochva," and that the Russian intelligentsia had to brin= culture and education to the people, as well as learning from the ideas of the people.
Dostoevsky was careful to distance himself fkom the Slavophiles, differing from them on a nurnber of issues. For example, he did not idealize pre-Petrine Russia; the other difference lay in the central place of art for the pochvemiki as compared to its peripheral rope for Slavophiles.
Dostoevsky developed a new direction in Russian literary criticism, when he stressed the notion of "realism in literature" and its comection with the "people's ideals." All these aspects of Dostoevsky's joumalism were later developed in his Diq.
(See section 2 of chapter 3 of this dissertation).
Dostoevsky contributed to contemporary discussions on the nature and purpose of literature in such articles as "A Series of Articles on Russian Literature," "Uspensky's
Stories," and others (PSSP 18: 41-45; 19: 5-56, 178-187). However, in May 1863, Time was closed by govemrnental decree due to the political nature of its articles.
In January 1864, Mikhail got permission to publish a new journal, Epoch. The program of the new journal constituted a move to the right relative to the overall tendency of Time. Social criticism and political articles were not as common as in
Time, except for a few articles, for example, those by Strakhov. There was less commentary on European poli?ics, though there were articles on domestic "politics", for example, the progress of reforms (but fewer than in Time). merMikhail's death in July
1864, Dostoevsky tned to continue Epoch, but the journal was fmally closed in March
1865. The articles published in Time and Epoch developed Dostoevsky's idea that
Russian literature was closely connected with other cultures and literatures. Dostoevsky stressed that the ideal purpose of art was the depiction of beauty, harmony and the moral
\.dues of the people. Dostoevsky highly praised Pushkin in his "Series of Articles on
Russian Literature," and criticized Russian democrats and revolutionaries in his book review of Chemyshevsky's novel What is to Be Done? (Chto delat?'). Dostoevsky's analysis of Chemyshevsky's work; his notions of the popular spirit of Russian literature; and his analysis of the hero and anti-hero were further developed in A Writer's Diary.
Dostoevsky also criticized Katkov's views on the advisability of the western, capitaiistic way of development for Russia, and praised the "native soil" and the "people's roots."
Ta sum up, in his journalistic articles and works of the 1860s Dostoevsky stressed the social role of literature and the national peculiarities of Russian literature; he wrote about the "typicality" and "popular spirit" [tipichnost' i narodnost'] of Russian literature. by emphasizing the importance of the most typical, contemporary characters and the moral values of simple Russian people as the major source, "the roots" of
Russian literature. He also contributed to literary polemics on a number of other theoretical questions, such as the artistic side of literature, the namre of literary talent, and the comiection between fiction and contemporary life.
In his early journalistic works, Dostoevsky refined his cornmitment to the creation
of a new kind of Russian joumalism, that is, joumalism closely connected with the
Russian people's ideals. Most of these issues would be later developed in the Diary. and
will be mentioned in the corresponding chapters of this dissertation.
Behveen the closing of Epoch in 1865 and the begiming of his work with
Citizen in 1873, Dostoevsky did not publish a single piece of journalism. This is
explained by his absence corn Russia dunng much of that period. The sole exception,
the article "My Meetings with Belinsky" which was written in 1867 in Geneva, was
supposed to be published by L. Babikov in St. Petersburg, but the publisher died and the
article was lost. However, several references to this article do survive, for example in
Miller's Memoirs (1883 : 295) and in Dostoevsky's letter to his fiend, the poet A.
Maikov on September 3 (15), 1867. The mere existence of this article on Belinsky, upon
which Dostoevsky toiled for almost three months, and his notes from the notebooks of
1872, show that Dostoevsky still felt it both desirable and compelling to wnte joumalistic
articles in the late 1860s and early 1870s.
The ovenvheIming bulk of Dostoevsky's joumalistic endeavours during this nearly 30-year period provides a rich field for the scholarly investigation of the witer's work and the grounds for an understanding of its eventual effect upon his later works of
fiction and journaIism. In these early joumalistic works, Dostoevsky refined his cornmitment to the creation of a new kind of Russian joumalism which would be Iater
developed in A Wnter's Diary.
2. Earlv h~roachesto the General Conce~tof the Diarv.
By 1876, A Wnter's Diary had developed a well-established form and structure ofa
pcriodical, in the fonn of a diary. The writer put a lot of effort into the creation of this
form, and developed it only after many years of meditation and experience. Anna
Dostoevskaya wrote that the idea for A Writer's Diary first appeared just after he
completed his novel The Demons, in 1868. But other scholars (Tunimanov 1972 and
Friedlender 1979) have discovered that Dostoevsky's first idea for the creation of the
Diary appeared much earlier. As 1 will show below in this chapter, several references to
the Diary exist in Dostoevsky's earlier notes, and he repeatedly mentioned such a
publication under various titles. In 1864, Dostoevsky planned to create A Notebook
[Zapisnaia kniga] which would consist of articles connected with periodical and book
reviens For exmple, in his daybook for 1864-65, Dostoevsky italicised the following note: "in the notebook" [v zapisnuiu knigu] and he then wrote a whole paragraph of his thoushts on lawyers and the judicial system in Russia. This means that originally he planned to give the titIe Notebook to such penodical. He also calculated the approximate profit that would corne fiom such a periodical. These notes clearly indicate that Dostoevsky had planned to create A Writer's Diary or a sirnilar publication as early as
1864.
Funlier notes and drafts for 1864-65 show that Dostoevsky tried to identiS the structure, outline, and general concept of his notebook. According to Tunimanov (1972), the similarities between these draAs and the Future Diary indicate that these drafis may be considered to be the drafts for the fiiture A Writer's Diary.
This notebook was to have two parts, according to Dostoevsky, consisting of a) articIes reviewing current events reported in the press, and b) a novel section. It was to be a periodical with 12 to 13 issues per year. Dostoevsky considered two possible versions: a periodical soId by subscription and one sold in retail outlets. Dostoevsky made the following notes in his daybook: "A project of a notebook... about 6 printing signatures per month." (Literaturnoe nasledstvo, 1971 : 232).
Dostoevshy initially planned to create his Notebook along the lines of other literary journals of the time, as a joumalistic publication with a literary supplernent. Dostoevsky considered the fictional part (a novel) to be an independent part of the notebook, closely connected with the joumalistic part, but with its own page numbering. However. at this point, in the mid l86Os, Dostoevsky did not complete the form he had planned. In 1865
Dostoevsky again retumed to this idea and made another note in his daybook : "In the notebook. The Nikitchenko criminal case" (Literaturnoe nasledstvo, 197 1: 232).
On 8 November 1865, before his four-year stay in Europe, more than five years previous to the publication of the first issues of the Diary in The Citizen. he wrote to his fnend. Baron A. Vrangel that he was planning to publish: "1 think about a periodical, but not a journal. It is a both useful and profitable project" (PSSP 28,2 : 141).
Dostoevsky's extended stay in Europe that began in 1867 abmptly changed his l i terary plans. In spite of a rather hectic li fe in Western Europe, he again mentioned his plans for a new fom of periodical on September 29, 1867, in his letter to his niece Sofia lvanova in Russia: "Upon my rehirn, 1 would like to publish something like a newspaper"
(PSSP 28,2 : 224).
There is also a reference was first mentioned by Tunimanov (1972 : 168) to --4
Miter's Diary in The Demons. One of the major characters of the novel, Liza Drozdova, siiggests to Shatov that it is necessary to publish "a usefiil book" which would include the follo~ving:"al1 cases and events which would describe the moral and persona1 life of the
Russian people at present" (PSSP 10 : 103- 104). Al1 of these remarks can be applied to
A Writer's Diary; and it is possible that Dostoevsky made Liza into the mouthpiece for his views on his future periodical.
In 1872, when he was working on the concept of the novel The Demons.
Dostoevsky continued his meditations on the future Diary. In the drafts and notebooks for 1872, most of which were dedicated to this novel, the writer included notes for his new project, The Diary of a Literary Artist [Dnevnik literatora]. He included a Iist of topics of interest, one of which was "spiritual bankniptcy of today's suicide." This is his first mention of the topic of suicide, which he developed in several places in A Wnter's
ïliary for 1876.
Even this early title, The Diary of a Literary Artist, has a rather syrnbolic meaning. It defines a professionally onented periodical that limits itself to the matenal written by a literary artist, which was supposed to be of interest to any reader who was interested in literature. The final titre, A Writer's Diary, conveyed a much broader meming and permitted Dostoevsky to address a variety of short pieces, inctuding short stories and joumalism, to a wider audience.
Dostoevsky specifically clarified this point in the following way, refemng to the
Diary as "a book for all.. . a periodical expressing public opinion" (after Evdokimova
1975 : 47).
When in 1873 Dostoevsky finally made the decision to become the editor of -The
Citizen (with the understanding that he would contribute his own works on a reguIar basis), hi= accepted that he could not ffeely wnte and publish everything he wanted to, dire to governent censorship and the fact that The Citizen was published by Prince
Mescl~ersky,a consetvative monarchist who influenced the general poIicy of the publication (their relationship will be more thoroughly discussed in the following section of tliis chapter). Nevertheless, Dostoevsky decided to address the readers of The Citizen with detailed commentaries on the latest events in Russia and abroad. To his editorials he also added other genres in the forms of short fiction, literary reviews, and the memoirs of his childhood and early years.
Dostoevsky addressed his reading audience directly fiom the very beginning of
his publication, when he wrote in the "Introduction": "What shall I talk about? About
everything that strikes me and sets me to thinking" (PSSP 21 : 7).
This forrn of open dialogue, which may be defined as the exchange of his
opinions with those of his readers, was one of the major features of Dostoevsky's new
project. The developrnent of fom, which included the opinions of readers, admirers and
cntics, was Dostoevsky's constant concern.
However, the first specific plans to create A Wnter's Diary appeared in late 1872 and early 1873, when Dostoevsky took up the editing of The Citizen. Actually, this periodical had previously represented a pro-rnonarchist stance which, as V. Meshchersky stated, meant "to reflect the most important events of Russian public life and, if possible, to direct Russian public opinion towards a conservative and monarchist point of view"
(Meshchersky 1898 : 175-6). At the sarne time Dostoevsky produced much more material than he had initially planned: he added a highly artistic element to the periodical.
This was manifested both in his very personalized comentary on recent events and, on the other hand, his inclusion of fictional pieces which were closely connected with conternporary developments in the country.
Taking into consideration the facts rnentioned above, the following periods of the creation of A Wnter's Diary can therefore be identified: 1 864. Notebook.
1867. Meditations on the concept and the general outline.
1872. The explanation of the major message of the Diary in The Demons and at the same time a mention of The Diary of a Literary Artist;
1873. The first version of the Diary in The Citizen.
Several Dostoevsky scholars have expressed different views on Dostoevsky's various îpproaches to the Diary. Dmitneva (1979) treated the outlines of the Notebook and mention of the Diary in The Demons as three different projects with a similar topic.
In Tunimanov's (1972) opinion, these were just different versions of the same work.
Both scholars, however, discussed A Wnter's Diary as a single, uniform work without taking into consideration the iact that the format of the Diary for 1873 (as a section in a periodical) is different in its form fiom (as a separate periodical) the later issues for 1577 and 1880-81.
These were the features, which came to fruition in the Diary, aspects which made it a unique endeavor in that it was simultaneously artistic and journalistic.
1. 3. DostoevsLyYsEditorship of T;le Citizen and his Relationship with the
Publisher Prince Meshchersky.
Dostoevsky agreed to edit a new journal for a number of reasons. His wife, Anna
Dostoevskaya noted in her Memoirs that when Dostoevsky accepted this position, it did not mean that he wanted to limit himself to journalism. She stressed that this was a temporary decision that would allow him to get closer to Russian life: "He took this position ternporarily, in order to have some rest fiom his fictional writing, and to study everyday life better" (Dostoevskaya 1971 : 244-45).
While Dostoevsky was the editor, The Citizen was published on a weekIy basis.
When he started The Citizen, Prince Meshchersky, the publisher, understood that his monarchist views would not win his publication great popularity. Therefore, in 1872 he invited the rather liberal and popular journalist Grigorii Gradovsky to work as the first ed i tor-in-chief of The Citizen. AAer onIy one year as editor, Gradovsky had to resign because he could not work with Meshchersky's constant interference. The journal was in a critical state: at the end of 1872, it had only 1,000 subscribers. Meshchersky urgently needed a new editor, someone with an establishcd name, who would be able to improve tlic circulation of the journal and add to its popularity. Therefore, he invited Dostoevsky to work as the editor of The Citizen, counting on his reputation as a well- established novelist. They met in the fa11 of 1872, and in mid-December Dostoevsky ageed to become the new editor of The Citizen.
According to Nikolai Strakhov's commentary, Dostoevsky accepted his editorial position too quickly, without proper consideration. Strakhov claims that Apollon h4aikov, a poet and Dostoevsky's close fiend, suggested the idea: "Dostoevsky took the editorship in a hurry, and Maikov gave him this idea" (Russkii Vestnik, 1901, Nu.1 : 130).
Prince Meshchersky's version of the event is rather different; he claimed that it
was Dostoevsky's own idea to become the new editor, and described how once, when
they were having tea, Dostoevsky questioned him about the editorship, "Do you want me
to become your editor?" At first Meshchersky thousht that this was a joke, but when he
redized that it was Dostoevsky's own decision he was pleased: "Dostoevsky was
sympathetic to the purpose of the publication" (Meshchersky 1898 : 175-6).
There is insufficient documentary evidence available to support the exclusive
xceptance of either story. It is probable that both are true to some extent. 1 suspect that
Dostoevsky discussed his decision with both Maikov and Meshchersky.
One further piece of evidence regarding this event is presented by the writer's
wife, Anna Grigorievna Dostoevskaia, who stated that he had considered editing or
founding his own journal for several years, since their trip abroad in 1867, but could not
realize his goal due to financial difficuIties, "It was hard to fulfill the idea to publish -A
Ijrriter's Diary ... without considerable means" (Dostoevskaia 1971 : 244).
Ultimately, Dostoevsky accepted Meshchersky's proposa1 because he wanted to comment on Russian contemporary life. In a letter to monarchist conservative historian and Slavophile, Mikhail Pogodin, dated February 26, 1873, Dostoevsky explained his motives in the following way: '7 had a lot to Say, therefore 1 joined a periodical" (PSSP
29, 1 : 262). Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the writer's decision to edit this particular journal was influenced by several factors, including his long-standing desire to do something of the sort, to have a break from the creation of literary fiction, to study contemporary Russian life in more detail, and to earn a steady income to support his
Finally, on December 16, 1872, Prince Meshchersky, Gradovsky and Dostoevsky addressed the Directorate of Publication [Rus. "UpravIenie po delam pechati"] with a joint statement, asking the Ministry to gant permission to Dostoevsky to take the editorship of The Citizen.
Although Dostoevsky had spent almost ten years in Siberia and was stiil under the surveillance of the secret police at the tirne of his job application, Meshchersky supported
Dostoevsky's new position, stressing that the novelist had completely reversed his political views since 1848, that he was "completely different from the political criminal of 1848" (Meshchersky, Literatumoe nasledstvo, 86 : 599).
Dostoevsky received an official letter on December 3 1, 1872 which granted him permission to becorne the editor of The Citizen.
The job proved to be much more demanding than Dostoevsky had anticipated. In the sarne letter to Pogodin, the writer descnbed the huge arnount of work with which he had to cope: "We do not have a secretary ... reading articles takes a lot of my time and sliatters my fiealth." (PSSP 29, 1 : 263). It is obvious fiom this letter that Dostoevsky had to do a great deal of purely technical work in the preparation of the first issues of The Citizen for publication. In
March 1873, journalist Victor Putsykovich was hired as the assistant editor and he took over some of these technical duties. A year later, Putsykovich became editor-in chief, replacing Dostoevsky. During these fifieen months, Dostoevsky was not only the editor, but also an active contributor. The sixteen articles he published in The Citizen provided the beginning of A Writer's Diary. This portion of the Diary is discussed in the following chapters of this thesis in which 1 'am tryirig to show they belong with the 1876-77 issues.
4. Several Versions of Dostoevsky's Resi+gationas Editor of The Citizeli.
The novelist worked as the editor of The Citizen for 15 months, between January
1873 and April 1874 (Grossman 1935 : 206-225). He had to resign for a number of reasons: Meshchersky's interference, poor health, problems with censorship, financial difficulties, and most importantly, his desire to create new noveis. Al1 these reasons were mentioned by Dostoevsky's wife, who wote: "AI1 these circumstances had such a negative impact on Fyodor Mikhailovich that in the Fa11 of 1873 the editorship became a b~irdento hini" (Dostoevskaya 1971 : 254).
The reasons why Dostoevsky quit his editorial job need more detailed investigation. These causes of the writcr's resignation are interesting because they sketch his social position and intellectual development. First, problems with censorship and Dostoevsky's attitude to monarchy suddenly became serious issues. The periodical had been published without preliminary official censorship, but problems with censorship appeared after the first weeks of Dostoevsky's editorship. On January 29, 1874, the journal violated one of the major regulations of the chef censor by publishing a quotation from the Tsar's speech without the permission of the Lmpenal Office, in the article "Kirgiz Deputies in St. Petersburg" Dostoevsky was taken to court where he was fined 25 roubles and sentenced to hvo days' imprisonment
(Grossman 1935 : 21 1).
Although Prince Meshchersky referred to Dostoevsky in his memoirs as "a cornplete and dedicated monarchist" (Meschersky 1898 : 179), Dostoevsky's attitude regarding the monarchy was much more complicatcd. In the Diary articles published in
The Citizen, Dostoevsky inciuded his mernoirs about the so-called "old people," Belinsky and Hertzen, and he Iater wrote articles about Chemyshevsky, Nekrasov, and the
Petrashevsky Case. The writer wanted to descnbe the various points of view which
CO-esistedin Russian society in the early 1870s, and he tried to shiA The Citizen fkom its purely pro-monarchist position to a more moderate stance.
Dostoevsky and Meshchersky held several serious discussions on these issues, nrhich became factors in Dostoevsky's eventual resignation. The conflict is evident in such pieces as Meshchersky's "Answer to the St. Petersburg News," or Dostoevsky's book review of General R. Fadeev's Russian Society at Present and in the Future. Throughout Dostoevsky's editorship it was clear that his views on the Russian nobility and other questions did not coincide with Meshcherky's. Dostoevsky was very much upset when Meshchersky suggested establishing officia1 secret police surveillance of liberal students in his article "Answer to the St. Petersburg News." He replied to
Meschersky categorically in two letters dated Novernber 1-3, and 3-4 1873: "1 deleted seven Iines about police surveillance. ... Your thought is comp!etely différent from my views" (PSSP 29, 1 : 306-7).
Another question which led to discussions was Dostoevsky's views on the
Russicm nobility. The novelist criticized R. Fadeev's Russian Society at Present and in the Future when he wote in his draft notebooks for the Diary on the pages dedicated to the editorial discussion: "he [Fadeev] is the first enemy of the nobility" (PSSP 27: 333).
However, the other mcmbers of the editonal board of The Citizen gave this book a positive reception. E. Belov's book review in The Citizen (PSSP, 27: 333) was supportive and obviously did not coincide with Dostoevsky's views. Additionally,
Meshchersky continued to interfere with editorial work, addressing Dostoevsky in
January 10, 1997 with angry notes such as: "please return rny galleys to me," and in his nmging reminders about Dostoevsky's mistakes: "1 did everything to Save you fiom the publication of this issue" (PSSP 21 : 477).
Meshchersky's regular interference and the continua1 discussions and arguments caused Dostoevsky's health to deteriorate. He had senous bouts of illness in the spring of 1874; he records, for example, between April 16-20: "a serious fit of iliness, with headache and injured legs" (PSSP 27 : 107).
In addition to deteriorating health, his discussions with Meshchersky led to serious arguments which made it impossible for them work together. Dostoevs~'s resiçnation was thus the product of a combination of factors. First, his health was poor, and he \vas physically exhausted by his work. Second, his views did not coincide with
Meshchersky's, and he could not collaborate with the pubiisher's position. Finally, and most irnportantly, he planned to continue to write novels, and therefore needed more time.
Dostoevsky decided to quit the editorial job at The Citizen in the begiming of
1874. On March 19, 1874 he wote to ;he Ministry of Press, "due to rny illness, please grant your permission to V. Pustykovich to replace me for six months as the editor-in-chief of The Citizen." On April 20, 1874 Putsykovich officially took over as cditor. and Dostoevsky resigned.
Dostoevsky's work at The Citizen helped him to understand the social processes of contemporary Russian life in the early 1870s, and supplied the writer with rich niaterial for his future work, through his daily contact with the readers, his close attention to the daiIy news, and his tiequent interaction with the press. Dostoevsky repeatedly noted these benefits of his interaction with the readers in his letters of the later period, as
in his letter to K. Alchevskaya dated April9, 1876: " I get new facts and impressions. ... 1 receive many letters fiom eveyvhere" (PSSP 29,l 78-79).
It becomes dear then, that the writer's work at The Citizen gave him a better chance to understand contemporary Russian life, first of al1 through the constant interaction with his readers and the collection of numerous facts of Russian reality. 1.5. The Diary AAer 1875. Some Introductory Remarks About the Genre.
AAer Dostoevsky resigned the editorship of The Citizen, he worked for the
fol lowing year on his new novel, The Raw Youth [Podrostok].
Dostoevsky resrimed the publication of his Diary in 1875-76, and continued to
produce it, with occasional interruptions, until his death. As A.M- Aleksandrov (1 892 :
1 17-207), one of the technical printers of the publishing house, recolIected, Dostoevsky
had intended to continue A Writer's Diary upon terminating his editorship of The Citizen.
The first notes for A Wnter's Diary were created in November 1875, before the
publication of The Raw Youth in book form.
Dostoevsky was an attentive reader of Russian newspapers and joumals throughout his life, but in the middle 70s he did this professionalIy, with the sole purpose of selecting the most important and typical political events, criminal cases, facts and dcvelopments from Russian present-day reaIity (see PSSP, 21 : 37 1 ).
In 1875, Dostoevsky descnbed his new undertaking to prospective subscribers in his important "Amouncement." His wording clearly suggests that he had forrnulated a specific shape and scope for the new endeavor, a detailed personal report about the latest events, and had a clear idea of the Diary: "This will be ... a report about everything I heard, saw or read" (PSSP, 22 :136).
This diversity of the topics, which the writer brought iogether, and his numerous remarks about the unity of the general concept of these diverse topics demonstrate that Dostoevsky perceived the Diary to be a single work, a whole, and that this single work
took the form of a persona1 review of contemporary events, a diary. A Writer's Diary was published in 1872-73 in monthly installments, of about 25-30 pages each, and it was written solely by Dostoevsky, who planned to publish it as "a monthly feuiIleton connected by a single general idea" (PSSP, 29-1 : 73). This meant the analysis of the political. literary, social and domestic news in the journalistic format of several sketches related to each other.
The publication was successful from the very beginning. Dostoevshy's name was sufficient promotion for his periodical; the topics were interestins to most of the educated public: and it was the only periodical in Russia at the time which combined so many
-genres, topics and approaches to journalism. According to the memoirs of Nikolai
Strakhov (see iMil1er 1883 : 301), the number of subscribers for A Wnter's Diary was
1,982 in 1876, and had reached 3,000 by the begiming of the following year.
Dostoevsky's total sales, both subscriptions and rctail sales through bookstores reached about six thousand copies, which was very good for a literary periodical at that time. He wrote in a Ietter to his brother on March IO, 1876 giving a rough estimate of the copies sold, including both subscribers and retail sales: "1 publish A Wnter's Diary, the number of subscribers is not big, but retail sales (al! across Russia) are considerable. Altogether, I publish 6,000 copies and sel1 everything" (PSSP, 29 - 2 : 75-76).
It is obvious fiom these figures that, beyond the purely artistic challenge, the enterprise was also successfûl fiom a commercial point of view.
The Diary was created in a very special way; it was different from anything else the writer had previously published. From the Notes to his Diary, it is clear that
Dostoevsky put a great deal of intellectual work into deciding the contents of his periodical. He read thousands of newspaper articles from The Voice, The Moscow News,
The St. Petersburg News, [Golos, Moskovskie vedornosti, Sankt Peterburgskie vedomosti] etc., and made numerous remarks about the major events of the time.
Sometimes, a short newspaper report could spur him to the creation of a short story ("The
Meek One"), or to the deep philosophical analysis of some important moral question, such as suicides (PSSP, 24 : 5-35, 53-55). He also took a deep interest in the most notorioris criminal cases of the time.
In concluding this chapter, 1 wouid like to remark bnefly on the genre of -A
Writer7s Diary. Following from what has been said earlier about cohesion on pp. 6-9,
the conceptual organization of this work as a whole cmbe easily understood when we
analyse it as a special new genre fictional jolrrnalism) by mixing together a number of
several standard genres (short stones, memoirs, journalism, iiterary criticism, etc.).
The Concept of "fictional joumalism" needs a more detailed
exp lanation.
On the one hand, the Diary is a journalistic work. It was originally
created in 1873 as part of ï7ze Citizen. In 1876-77, it was published in monthly instalixnents in periodical format, as a separate work. Based on
fomal criteria, 1 use the word "journalism" as the major part of the new tem.
On the other hand, as it will be demonstrated in a detailed way in Chapter
Four of this dissertation, the Diary includes many elements of fiction. First,
it includes works of fiction in the form of short stories. But at the same time,
these short stories arc closely linked to and based on factual events. Many of
these events, such as suicide cases, or a visit to a chiidren's baI1, were
descnbed in traditionally journalistic articles included elsewhere in the Diary.
Secondly, traditional b'joumalistic" entries inctude many elements of
fiction, or have numerous references to fictional works and Iiterary
c harac t ers.
Therefore, 1 use the adjective "fictional" when 1 refer to the type of
journalism which Dostoevsky used in his work.
A Writer's Diary differs fiom the dianes and notebooks of other Russian writers.
For esrtrnpIe, the diaries of Leo Tolstoy is just a diary in the traditional meaning of this word, even if it includes numerous lengthy rneditations about life art, and literature; or the notebooks of Chekhov were created pnmarily as a coIlection of matenal for future works and consists of random plot description and jokes on different subjects. The
Dostoevsky's Diary consists of completed chapters created for other readers, for publication. It is neither a random collection of thoughts on different topics, nor a log- book of chronological events. It combines several different genres (fiction, joumalism, auto-biography, etc.) and at the same time it is united by a general thought. Therefore.
Dostoevsky's Diary occupies a unique place in Russian literature as an attempt to combine journalism with fiction and create a detailed picture of the Russian life of the
1840s- 1870s.
The genre of fictional joumalism was completely new in world literature. It combines traditional genres such as memoirs, fiction, literary criticism, letters, joumalism, and political reviews, and yet, Dostoevsky considered the Diary to be a single and unified whole. The writer never treated the Diary as an anthology, as a mechanical collection of different stories. On the contrary, Dostoevsky oflen repeated that it had one general message: it described his responses to the major developments and events of
Russian life of his time.
This is made clear by Dostoevsky's numerous remarks about the Diary's concept, nrhich are scattered throughout his letters, drafts and notes, and wilI be examined in the following chapters of this thesis.
Dostoevsky began to produce his Diary in a monthly journal fom in lanuary
1876, thereby initiating an entirely new genre in wortd literature. Dostoevsky did not combine pieces (his own short stories, rnemoirs, literary criticism, political reviews, correspondence, and chronicles of criminal cases) at random; rather he placed them in a mosaic to create the picture of his vision of Russian life, a very persona1 response to current events: "1 am not writing a chronicle of events -- to the contrary, this is a diary in the full meaning of this word; therefore, it's a report of my personal preferences" VSSP.
29 - 2 : 73).
In his letters Dostoevsky repeatedly stressed that the genre of the Diqsurpassed convcntional boundaries, and that he was engaged in a continual struggle to detine his crcation: "1 have not made up my mind about the form of my diary " (PSSP, 29-2 : 73,
75).
He stressed repeatedly that the Diary had a unity, by refemng to it with the term composition [sochinenie], which strongly suggests a single, unified piece. As he wrote to
Iiis stcp-son Pave1 Isaev on Janoary 7' 1876: "1 am not publishing a journal, but 1 would like to publish a work" (PSSP, 29 : 71 ).
Tlierefore, A Writer's Diary was a genuine diary in the major sense of the word; it was a report about everything which interested the writer at the time. Even in Apnl 1876
Dostoevsky agreed that the search for the form was still in progress: "the form of the diary -- 1 don? know whether 1 will ever establish it" ( PSSP, 29 - 2 : 78).
In one of the major letters explaining the concept of A Writer's Diaq and its connection with both genres (fictional novels and joumalism, in this case) Dostoevsky wrote to K. Alchevskaya, a Russian women activist, on Apnl 9, 1876: "A writer of fiction should know, besides his artistic concept, al1 the details of contemporary life (both historic and artistic ones)" (PSSP, 29 - 2 : 77).
It is a complex task to define the genre which Dostoevsky created. It is neither simply a traditional diary, nor merely a chronicle of events. The 1993 definition of Saul
Morson (1981) that the Diary is situated "on the boundary of genres," that it is a literary utopia, or an anti-utopia, is only partially right. If it is a complete unit, a single work of art, it cannot exist on the boundary, and it cannot be something "in-between," or without definition. ïhese views were developed by G. S. Morson (198 1,1993) who started his study treating Dostoevshy's Diary as a form of utopia, and included in his analysis such notions as theory of parody, anti-utopia, scepticism, and critical beliefs. Taking as a starting point a valid statement that Dostoevsky's work can be treated as "an integral literary work rather than as an arnorpho-us- collection of unrelated pieces," Morson (1 98 1 : x) attempted to use the Diary as a "touchstone of a literary theory." This led the author to a rather dubious conclusion that this work '7s in itself an ambiguous context"
(1 98 1 :1 82)- The second work by Morson (1 99 1), his introduction to the first complete
EngIish edition of A Writer's Diary made by K. Lantz (1991) was a revised study on the same topic. and had numerous detailed observations, much more thorough analysis and valid conclusions. The Diary was not used to create a new liter* theory for this time. but
\vas analysed as a unique major work by Dostoevsky which was a cohesive, unified work, due to its concept, structure and composition.
In my dissertation, 1 will accept Morson's conclusions about the unity of the Diary as a starting point of my research, and will apli_iy my new approach, in order to prove the Diary's ünity and cohesion, approaching the same matenal fiom different points of view, namely invetigating concepnial, structural, referential and semantic cohesion of the text.
I believe that the work's self-imposed unity defines it as a genenc whole, a genuinely new fonn which rnay be identified as fictional journalism. This narne reflects the paradoxical features, which Dostoevsky integrated: an approach at once documentary and fictional. References to everyday life abound in Dostoevsky's fiction; on the other hand, his documentary, journalistic works are profoundly marked by his instantly recognizable narrative voice, and by the fiequent intrusion of fictional components. This relationship beîsveen the fictional and documentary sides of Dostoevsky's writing reached its peak in his Diary.
Additionally. I have to mention numerous ties existing between the Diary and
Dostoevsky's major novels. The Diary was written at the tirne when Dostoevsky
finished working on The Raw Youth [Podrostok]. During his work on the Diary,
Dostoevsky collected important information which was Iater used in The Brothers
Karamazov, one of his major novels. A very detailed and thorough body of research
dedicated to the numerous connections and prirallels between the Diary and
Dostoevsky's other major novels has been done by A. Denisova (1985) and by T.
Zakharova and T. Tsivian (1977); therefore 1 will not dwell on this topic, only briefly mentioning the major conclusion of these scho1ars that the parallels between
the Diary and Dostoevsky's major novels are abundant. This conclusion presents
another argument for the Diary 's cohesion and supports the major thesis of the
dissertation: that there is an inseparable unity between Dostoevsiq's fiction and
jrurnalism wiiich was manifested in the Diary.
Another interesting issue which should be mentioned in connection with this research is the existence of the genre of the diary in Russian Iiterature. It is necessary to mention the diaries and notebooks of Chekhov, in which he collected material for his stories and plays; the diaries of Leo Tolstoy in which the novelist became a philosopher and left numerous deep thoughts on human existence, Iife and death, love and god. Nevertheless, Dostoevsky 's Diary stands apart in this genre, because it was created and published by the author as a literary work written for wide readership, and its size, scope, and diversity present it as a unique and completely new genre in Russian literature.
In the next chapters of the dissertation, 1 will trace these inter-genenc connections in order to prove that Dostoevsky's new approach, which included the simultaneous usage. interdependence and penetration of several genres was in fact the creation of a new li terary genre. Chapter 2.
Referential Cohesion - Time, Space. and Narration Type
2.1. The Concept of Time in Dostoevsky's A Writer S Diary
The temporal organization of A Writer's Diary has not yet been subject to scholarly study. and this chapter is the first serious atternpt to do so.
The specific handling and organization of tirne is arnong the major defining characteristics of Dostoevsky's work (Likhachev I979:3OS). It depends, first of dl, on the general message of the work and the development of its protagonists and images (see Stufliaeva 1982 : 10; Voloshinov 1933 : 162-1 70). Therefore. the artistic texture of the Diary was constantly growing and expanding in time because its focus shifted from the daily news to contemporary political issues, and then to philosophical issues: from particular occurrences in time to major theoretical generalizations. The handling, presentation and organization of time in Dostoevsky's work are complex becaiise it is dctennined by a complex message, and by the general goal of the work, which was to "depict Russian life" of the 1870s and 80s.
As an example of this motivational complexity and its effect on temporal orsanizrition, 1 wilI analyze the 1873 issue, as well as some major chapters from the 1876-77-8 1 issues of the Diary. First of all, 1 would like to introduce the notion of bio.graphica1 narrative time, widely used throughout this work.
The interrelation and inter-penetration of the temporal references and sequences are primarily defined by the authonal, bio,qaphical time in the Diary. The references to authorial time go far beyond the limits of ordinary journalisrn, and add the element of fictional narration. G. Sharapova, who studied the peculiar features of
Dostoevsky's works in the 1840~~stressed that, in particular, "The poetic element was one of the major features of the writer's journalism. A simple journalistic chronicle, a feulleton, was transfonned by Dostoevsky in the new genre of the author's confession, wi th numerous references to biographical time" (Sharapova 1969 : 71 ).
Dostoevsky widely introduced authorial confession into the Diary, and he achieved this by the repeated usage of biographical time. The author's narrative voice and numerous personalized remarks were used in A Writer's Diay as one of its major characteristic features.
Time in the Diary is organized in a very cornplex way, and it combines the simultaneous usage of biographical time, that is, time narrated from the author's persona1 viewpoint. while using historical time to introduce the topics of the past and the future throughout the temporal organization of the whole work.
The period of time of the 1840s was introduced in A Writer's Diary in such a Lvay which combined personal events with historical events. This time period was introduced by means of the images of Belinsky, Nekrasov and Hertzen in the first three issues of the Diary in 1873.
Semantic unity of the work is created by the interconnections between di fferent chapters. For example. in the Diary for 1873, the chapter "Old People" defined the polemical subject of "man in society." The next chapter combines the development of this topic with the introduction of the next one. The author begins with a statement about the complex reiationship between the -miter and society and then moves into a generalization. The chapter "The Environment" ("Sreda*'), fonns the organiza:ionaI centre of A Writer's Diary for 1873.
The chapter "Environment" is thernatically prepared by the previous chapter
"The Old People" which introduced Belinsky and Hertzen as representatives of the
1840s generation. The same characters, Hertzen and Belinsky, are also mentioned in the
"Introduction," where they are referred to as Dostoevsky's "priskazka," later renamed an
"anecdote," "Apropos of that, 1 would like to tell you another little story... an anecdote"
(PSS P. 2 1 : 8). It is clear that this story was a real life occurrence because the same fact was also
reproduced by Hertzen in My Past and Thoughts pyloe i Dumy] (Hertzen 1956 :8 :
229). Therefore, this incident was transferred fiom actual, biographical, historical time
into the fictional tirne of the author's narration. This is substantiated by the following general passage in which Dostoevsky explained to his readers that it was hard to find and to talk to an opponent, "If 1 should find a reader, and, God forbid, an opponent, then 1 realize that on$nm be able to carry our a conversation" (PSSP 21 : 8). ?- Immediately following this statement, Dostoevsky uses a fable, "of ancient, of almost Indian ongin." At this point, it seems that the generalized time of the fable will provide the major fom of time in this chapter, but the Indian fable is followed by a story about Hertzen and Belinsky which introduces the personal biographical time of the wnter
Dostoevsky's biographica1 time is connected with the time of the 1840s by means of his biography, "my debut in the literary world" (PSSP 21 : 8).
Authorial time appears in A Writer's Diary in close connection with actual time flow. The author's representation of time is cornplex: it has several tirne frames. The activation of this authonal time includes the interior time of the authonal narration ("1 saw him when he walked"), the real bio,qaphical tirne (Y started my career at the time"). and the actual historical flow of time (the 1840s). The definition of an event in time as an "anecdote" does not contradict the existence of the objective histoncal time.
Dostoevsky defines the story of the meeting with Hertzen and Belinsky as "an anecdote" meaning by this an interesting story from the past. Therefore, from the beginning of A Wnter's Diary -- in particular, the end of the first and beginning of the second chapters for 1873 -- there already exist several different periods of time, or tirne-mes, which, for this analysis may be defined as:
1. The biographical tirne of the author which includes:
1.1. The contemporary time of the 1870s and the author's interpretation of the events of that time;
1.2. The author's past: his biographical time of the 1840s, which is at once historical and real time;
2. Time of the fable or (in this case, Indian) parable; a generaiized time.
These complex time structures are developed in the next chapter, in relation to the image of Belinsky. 2.2. Time in "The Old People"
The 1840s provides the pnmary temponl settinq of the chapter "Old People,"
which depicts the image of Belinsky and his view that because of the organization of
contemporary society, people could not help committing cnmes. This chapter finishes
with Dostoevsky's mernoirs of his stay in prison and his encounters wiih the people there,
"those who, according to Beiinsky's belief, could not help but commit their cnmes"
(PSSP 21 : 12).
Dostoevsky's impressions of his imprisonment in Sibena were related to what
Belinsky had told him earlier about the source of crime and evil. From his own
communications with fellow inmates, Dostoevsky concluded that he saw something
di fferent from what Belinsky had told him, "Four years of hard labour was a long school.
I had enough time to become convinced" (PSSP 21 : 12).
The final part of the chapter brings the reader into the present time, and is
presented in the form of a current polemical dispute which Dostoevsky was engaged in.
In this section, the author creates a joumalistic organization of time. As will be
illustarted by the examples below, he rnakes severai references to past events which
introduce the topic; then he mentions a socially important situation; this is followed by
the unification of his several time periods and by the insertion of his author's voice as the
major narrative voice in the temporal organization of this chapter.
The temporal organization of the chapter is much more complex than that of ordinary journalism. This complexity is achieved by the increasing independence and
importance of certain histoncal facts fiom the I840s, which are used to sketch the cliaracters of the "old people," Belinsky and Hertzen. The temporal characteristics and
references are presented in this chapter by means of the following modifiers of time:
1. In Dostoevsky's recollection of the beginning of his literary activity, "God
knows how many years ago this happened" . He provides the time with additional
emotional characteristics, "a sad, fatal time" -- which appears to be a subjective time
which refers back to the biogaphical events of the time.
This tirne reference has no indication of years. The time frame exists in close
connection to the emotional characteristics which are presented through the author's
meinoirs. and remains open to further pIot development and narrative flow.
Dostoevsky's memoirs introduce the next story "The Old People." Here the
writer mentions a temporal connection between these two time periods: "1 certainly
ofren recall these old people now, because, of course, now 1 am meeting new people"
(PSSP 21 : 8).
This comective sentence is very important. It includes the adverbial modifier
"now" and two adjectives which have temporal references, "old" and "new" people. The phrase about "old people" implies. though does not mention explicitly, the adverbial modifier "at that time"; and the present time is indicated directly by "now*'. The connection between the two periods of time is emphasized by the words "certainly" and
"because".
The very beginning of the chapter is echoed at its end, when the connection with contemporary time is more obvious.
2. The author recollects Hertzen not simply as particular person, but as representative of the whole epoch of the 1WOs, as "he was a product of Russian aristocracy ... above all, the type that appeared only in Russia" (PSSP 21 : 8).
Hertzen's story provides a hefor the larger narrative of the l840s, giving the penod definite and indefinable qualities, and connecting it with real events. But at the begiming of the chapter, there is no reference to Hertzen's own, objective time, and the story about him is used in the sense of the historic past. This stoiy functions as a social and ethical parable, and its generalization is indicated by the repetition of several verbs in the imperfect tense, continuing, rather than completed, forms of the verbs: "Hertzen did not emigrate ... he was simply bom an émigré. [In the century and a half of the life of the
Russian gentry that preceded him.]" (PSSP 21 : 8-9).
Dostoevsky's reminiscences of about Hertzen lack a specific, peculiar time-frame; they are included in histoncal time, which is rneasured by the reference to centuries; therefore Hertzen as an actual person who existed in a specific period of time, is chronologically vague in the Diary. The story of Hertzen is removed fiom its specific historical context; this generalization is strengthened by Dostoevsky's use of imperfect verbs: Hertzen "was negating," "was publishing," and "\vas sending his appeal to
Russian revohtionaries" (PSSP 2 1 : 9).
3. Reminiscences of Belinsky, in contrast with those of Hertzen, have a very precise temporal organization which is supported by the events from Belinsky's life.
3.1. Belinsky's family and ongin are documented: "1 think his father was an army doctor" (PSSP 2 1 : 10).
3.2 Dostoevsky indicates the major features of Belinsky's character and reportedly attributes certain temporal characteristics to hem: "always," "forever."
These characteristics are mentioned at the very beginning of the chapter. This
repetition emphasizes and underlines the numerous differences between Hertzen and
Belinsky, stating that Hertzen was completely different (PSSP 21 : 1 1).
3 -3. The time of the 1840s has hvo biographical planes: the time of Hertzen and
tliat of Belinsky. These two different temporal characteristics co-exist in an occasionalIy
contradictory marner, in opposition to each other. Therefore, a cornplex organization of
the tirne patterns in the chapter becomes apparent, though at first it seems that there is only a simple cornparison of the old epoch with the contemporary tirne, which is already
mcntioned in the title itsetf, "The Old People."
3.4. The auihor's subjective time is introduced, initially in close connection with the early period in Belinsky's life, mentioning the time of their acquaintance: "at once, with the most straightforward haste, he introduced me with al1 his heart to his faith"
(PSSP 2 1 : 1 O).
The early period of their fiiendship, when Belinsky tried to convert Dostoevsky to his faith is mentionea again at the end of the chapter, when its semantic and temporal organization is defined more clearly. Dostoevsky reports at this point from the time after he Iiad spent four years in prison and had time to convince himself that Belinsky's views tvere wrong, that "there was something different, certainly not what Belinsky said"
(PSSP 21 : 12). From this point, there is a clear connection to the contemporary actual time of the 1870s: "and that we can heu it now in the verdicts brought down by our jurers, for exarnple" (PSSP 21 : 12). By exarnining Belinsky at two separate points in his own past in order to relate the story of his own changing views, Dostoevsky prepared the comection with the next chapter, which was dedicated to his meditations on current crime rates and the conternporary judicial system.
3 -5. Dostoevsky characterized Belinsky's views by widening the temporal context. A new plane, or type of temporal organization is introduced by reviewing the thinken and writers who infhenced Belinsky and his Iife: "George Sand, now totally forgotten Cabet, Pierre Leroux and Proudhon who was then only beginning his work"
(PSSP 21: 11). In this section, a tirne previous to Dostoevsky's encounter is indicated, "1 found him to be a passionate socialist" (PSSP 2 1: 10). Thus, Dostoevsky indicated the time period when Belinsky accepted Feuerbach's theory of materialism and tried to find the solutions for Russian social problems in socialism.
3.6. Dostoevsky tried to wnte the logical completion to Belinsky's life, with his on-n remarks on the imaginary time of Belinsky's biography, hypothesizing about what would have happened if the critic had lived longer. Dostoevsky introduced a polemical, in~aginaryfuture, in which Belinsky would never become a Slavophile. At the same time, Dostoevsky defined his own position and understanding of Belinsky's views during the 1840s by comecting them with the contemporary Slavophile movernent: "He would never have ended up a Slavophile. Belinsky might have ended by emigrating" (PSSP 21:
11-12).
In this phrase, the verb appears in the subjunctive form, using the particle
"might," indicating a time which could have happened but did not happen -- unreal, imaginary and implied time. In this passage, we cm see the diminishing of Belinsky's image, by the usage of subjunctive time (it could have happened).
Unlike A. Dolinin (1935: 26), 1 propose that it is inaccurate to treat the chapter
"The Old People," as merely a caricature of BelinsQ. The dominant tone and expression of the piece is not a polemical, but a poetic one. Wlen Dostoevsky presents the image of
Belinsky in a simplified and cntical form by imposing cnticism on his senior colleague, he gives more general features to this image. These were not only features of Belinsky himself, but charactenzed the liberals of the 1840s, of whom the author of A Writer's
Diary was very criticai in his earlier novel, The Demons. Notes on Belinsky appear in the drafts to this novel, and in the notebooks of 1872-75 (PSSP 1' : 1 12,228,252). We know that by December 23, 1 872, Dostoevsky was thinking very intensively about future topics for A Writer's Diary, "Belinsky said: why not now, not today?" (PSSP 21 : 252).
This rather complex image of Belinsky, which addressed both the persona1 features and the Iiterary activity of this literary critic, was to some extent directed against Ivan
Turgenev, who in his novel Smoke (1 867) and also in Memoirs about Belinsky (1869) connected his own Westernizer's views with Belinshy's ideas (PSSP 21 : 376). Perhaps as a political statement, Dostoevsky titled it "My Friendship with Belinsky" in opposition to Turgenev's article "My Meeting with Belinshy" (see PSSP 21 : 376).
The article was definitely extant and in progress during the late 1860s and earIy
70s. It \vas mentioned both in his wife's memoirs and in his notes when he "described the events of the 1840s" (PSSP 21 : 376). In 1873, these notes were used as matenal for the first chapters of A Writer's Diary. Therefore, in the Diary, Dostoevsky was re-wrïting, in his own way, Belinsky's
biography, attributing to it some caricature-like features of a contemporary Westemizer.
He mentioned particular characters whom he mocked: Turgenev and Granovsky. These
notes becme both the preliminary materials for The Demons and an article in the future
1872 issue of the Diaxy.
Dostoevsky's depiction of Belinsky, therefore, had a double orientaticn: he is a
social activist of the 1840s who had both some general features of this generation and he
ako had his own personal features as an individual. Likewise, as a stereotype of his otvn generation, his image possessed qualities which drew him closer to being a literary
character from Dostoevsky's fiction.
The personality of Belinsky is depicted with the same psychological depth and convincing histoncal development with which Dostoevshy's literary articles are invested.
Belinsky is depicted as the literary protagonist of the chapter "The OId People."
Dostoevsky's portrait of Belinsky is possessed of al1 of the structural features by which a literary character is identified: "First of aI1, a literary character fiom the beginning has its own tirne of existence, which becomes dense with time. The exposition of the character is used in different types of narration." (Ginzburg 1973 : 376)
The exposition is the demonstration of a tvriter's attitude. In "OId People," the exposition of Belinsky's image, according to Ginzburg's terminology, is "potentially full", that is, its qualities meet al1 the requirernents of a full-scale literary character.
The exposition of Belinsky's image has two parts. First of all, it includes the key assertion of the author that, "he was the most exalted person 1 ever met in my life" (PSSP 21 : 8). Hertzen is characterized as a secondary, subsidiary level of this exposition, in order to contrast with the major feature of Belinsky, which will be descnbed in more detail below. The indications of this contrast may be observed at the end of Belinsky's characterization: "Belinsky, on the contrary, was not a gentilhomme, oh no" (PSSP 21 : 9-10). From the begiming of the narration, Belinsky exists esclusively in a kind of general, parable or fable temporality. Later, Dostoevsky presents here a more detailed personal portrait of Belinsky, through his views on religion, his philosophical and social vietvs, his attitude to life and the meeting and talks between
Dostoevsky and Belinsky, and the imaginary continuation of Belinsky's biography. In particular, Dostoevsky described Belinsky's attitude to time: "He was in a huny, more than anyone else in Russia" (PSSP 2 1: 12).
In this charactenstic we see the secondary rneaning of the backgiound time.
Belinsky said he was disappointed in the slow speed of Russian life, and especially the slow development of the country, "Why not today, why not tomonow?" (PSSP 2 1: 12).
This disappointment was also emphasized in Dostoevsky's account of his meeting with Belinshy at Znamenskaya church; when Belinsky was going to watch the construction of the future railway and said: "It makes my heart rest a bit easier to stand and to watch the work: we will have one railway ai long lad' (PSSP 21 : 12). At the end of the chapter, when the last year of Belinsky's life is mentioned, a very exact period of time in the 1840s is comected with another plane of tirne, the biographical time of the author. Dostoevsky speaks about his relationship with Belinsky, about the envirorunent
("Sreda") and then moves to the introduction of the next chapter. 4. The time of the 1840s serves as a background, an inner time within the chapter
"The Old People." This is true not only for Belinsky and Hertzen, but also as a very real time for Dostoevsky himself. In particular, Dostoevsky remembers a secret meeting of the arrested members of the Petrashevsky Case, himself included, with the Decembrist's wives. "We saw these great martyresses who had voluntarily followed their husbands to
Siberia. ... They blessed us on our new journey" (PSSP 21: 12).
It is significant that the author returns to this event in the past when he speaks of
Nekrasov later in the Diary.
5. At the end of the chapter, several temporal planes are mentioned with reference to each other; for example, the begiming and the end of the chapter "The OId
People" refers to Belinsky's historical time, and mentions Belinsky's words that "society is set up in such a mean fashion that a man cannot help but commit crimes" (PSSP 21 :
10). At this point, Dostoevsky himself pointedly remarks on the very obvious connections with the previous passage, "1 saw around me people who, according to
Bclinsky, could not commit crimes. Four years in prison was a long school for me"
(PSSP 2 1 : 12). This penod of time, four years in prison, becomes emblematic of the philosopliical gap which appeared between the views of Dostoevsky and Belinsky. The views of these people became different. We cm see Dostoevsky's wish to clari6 his position in respect to Belinsky's, and in respect to his point of view during the 18705, of the relationship between the individual and society.
Therefore, Dostoevsky presented different approaches to the depiction of time in the Diary: actual time, historical time, biographical time, and fictional time. AI1 these numerous, widely recurrent treatment of time contributes to the overalI text cohesion, as it was demonstrated on the example of the chapter "Old people."
Nurnerous references to the past have connections with the present time, which is a typical device of Dostoevsky's writing in general;
Time presentation is very personalized; it is comected with particuhr characters (Belinsky, Hetzen and the author).
The future or irnaginary time presents a possible version of the development of the present time. Al1 the specific presentations of theare closely coi~nectedwith the background time of the narraior, strengthening the overail text cohesion. 2.3. Time as a Category of Cohesion in A Writer 's Diary
The category of time as a structuring device illustrates the cohesion of -A Writer's Diary in a very obvious way. Dostoevsky used numerous literary, linguistic and stylistic
devices to express different types of relationships in his narration. Generally speaking,
the time references to the Diary are limited by the time penod 1840s - 1870s which
contributed to overall cohesion of the work. Numerous temporal characteristics of the
events throughout the text create a unified, cohesive text because, as it will be illustrated
in more detail beIow, they present a consistent and systematic approach to the treatment
of time, closeiy connected with its semantic patterns.
The most common temporal indications of structura1 relations are the following:
-- Direct indication of periods of time: century, year, month, week, day, hour,
moment;
-- Continuous tense (aspect) versus single point in time;
-- Perfect, or finished, versus non-finished time;
-- Modi fiers of the past, present and future time;
-- Relationships between severai consecutive actions, or events, which are pnor to one another, following one another, or take place independently or simultaneously .
In the following section of the thesis the above mentioned temporal modifiers will be investigated in connection with tense-aspect reIationships of A Wnter's Diary.
Several theoretical works, which have analyzed the connection between time and the text cohesion provide a fïrm theoretical foundation for this research. The categories of tense and aspect and their relationships with the text cohesion were studied in the fûndarnental works of Halliday and Hasan (1 976), Lotman (1 971) and Uspensky (198 1). These authors repeatedly stress that categories of tense (continuous-perfect) and sequences of consecutive actions are the key categories in the contemporary analysis of text cohesion, that is, in the understanding of a unified text which functions as a whole piece.
A theoretical approach very similar to that of the above-mentioned works is used in the following part of the thesis in which 1 will use this terminology and this template to euide rny approach to temporal structures of cohesion in the Diary along the following Ci suidelines:
1 - First, determination of the most frequentIy used patterns and sequences of time, tense and aspect in the Diary;
2 - Second, definition of the connections between these tense-aspect patterns and the sequence of events, scenes and chapters in the text;
3 - Third, the consideration of A Writer's Diary, as a whote and inseparable unity, as a cohesive literary text- It is a text distinguished by numerous relationships between the succession of tenses and corresponding events, which form a rather sophisticated temporal network of actions which in tum provides the foundation of the fictional world created by Dostoevshy. 2.2.1. Penods of Tirne and Sequences of Actions
Dostoevsky refers most fiequently in A Writer's Diary to such periods of time as a century, a year, a month, a week, a day, an hou, and a moment. 1 believe that these divisions of tirne are connected with particular events and facts in the Diary. For example. the use of years or decades is connected with historical epochs ("time of the
40s") or major events (French Revoiution). The months and weeks are mentioned with connection to Dostoevsky's literary activity; and days or hours relate to highly personal moments from the author's experienced and textually recollected persona1 history. This interconnection behveen periods of tirne and semantic topics is represented in the following table, and is another example of the coherence of the Diary as a whole: Periods of Time Topics
Epochs (1 840s-70s) Historical Events (French Revolution)
Literary Periods (The epoch of the i 840s) Years?Months, Weeks or Days Literary activity (editorial life)
Days Events in the writer's life (e.g., meeting with other writers Minutes and Moments Tuming points in the narration ("suddenly") The following, and by no means exhaustive survey of exarnples illustrates this reliabie temporal map of Dostoevsky's universe:
1 / Epochs are indications of some particular histoncal event, or time period:
- literary activity: "the beginning of my literary career ... God knows how many years ago" (PSSP 2 1 :12);
- literary epoch: "our literary artists ... are happy with the types of the 40s
and 50s" (PSSP 21:8);
- historical periods (French revolution, Russo-Turkish War, abolition of
serfdom in Russia, etc.): "it was long before the French Revolution of the 1848" (PSSP
21:131).
21 A Writer's Diary mentions a year or month as a period of time in
connection with the following events:
- writer's bio-graphy: "recently, 1 lived abroad for several years" (PSSP
- editorial life: "dunng the last two and a half months, we have received
many Ietters" (PSSP 2 1 :61 );
- referring to different issues of periodical publications: "a rnonth ago, 1
read in Russky Mir" (PSSP 2 1 :124).
Dostoevsky refers to a week as a penod of time mostly in connection with
journalistic meetings and discussions, and events from joumalistic life: "You will
publish this the next week" (PSSP 21 :64). Indication of the exact day and tirne of an event is usually connected with
highly personal expenences: "On the 20th of December 1 found out that 1 was the editor of The Citizen" (PSSP 2 15).
3/ The mentioning of hours as periods of time usually indicates a very persona1 expenence of the writer which indicated his personal presence: "1 remember, it
(PSSP
Minutes, seconds and other momentary indications of rapid action, or other small periods of time are connected with a rapid change in the flow of narration: "in a moment, al1 disappeared in the fog" (PSSP 2 1 :107); "suddenly, 1 could hear different noises" (PSSP 2 1:44). 2.1.2. Continuous Tirne Versus a Single Point in Time -- -
This opposition is a major qualitative distinction. Continuous time is used regularly in order to emphasize, stress, or attract attention to an artificially prolonged period of narration, for example: "Once, when 1 was talking to the late Hertzen, 1 praised his works (PSSP 21 :8). "1 did not visit him during the last years of his life (PSSP 2 1 :12).
The following modifiers of time are used in such cases: once. dzrring ihe last yea rs .
On the contrary, an event associated with a single point in time is used most often to denote a rapid turn in the narration, to introduce a new topic, or to comment on a new, different penod of time: "is it possible that after three years of silence, 1 cm write an article on economy?" (PSSP 275).
2.1.3. Perfective Versus Non-Pedective Action.
This is another opposition of a tirne relation which displays the opposition
"continuous time -- a fixed point in time" The examples of perfect actions are:
"Recently, I have been abroad for several years." PSSP 21 :19).
The emphasis on unfinished action, that is, an action in the process of development, is uncharacteristic of Dostoevsky in speaking about himself. It occurs most frequently in third person narration: "Two editors came into the room: one has just finished his career ... the other was starting it." (PSSP 21:23).
2.1.4. Modifiers of Time in the Past, Present and Future
These units are used to emphasize the passage of time:
In the past they are usually used as indications of some additional details connected with the situation: "A fiend came to see me yesterday" (PSSP 21:47); "on the next day afier I saw them" (PSSP 2 1:48); "one day, 1 saw a leaflet on my door"
VSSP 21:25).
Indications of future events are usually co~ectedwith the events going on in the present, which is a typical feature of Dostoevsky's style:
"This is the reason for troubles, and not only at present, but in the future as wefl" (PSSP 27:25);
"What kind of present and fùture time 1 have mentioned here -- 1 will explain this on the following pages on my Diaiy7*(PSSP 27:27).
Al1 three of the major tenses of present, past and future, when used with the adverbial modifiers of time, tend to undetline, emphasize, or exaggerate the importance of the corresponding event or action in the present. Dostoevsky often connected the events in the past and fùiure with the present time. This may be regarded as a characteristic feature of Dostoevsky's journalistic style. 2.1 S. Several Consecutive Actions.
This case could be considered as the most obvious exarnple of cohesion between tenses. In several actions following one another in A Writer's Diary. the modifiers of the past time and the fhretime are used almost exclusively in comection with the present time and constitute a very specific temporal feature of Dostoevsky's style: "Then, they did not understand anything about us ... now they are beginning to understand us (PSSP 2 1 :92).
Usually when a sequence of actions in the past is used, reference to the next action appear in the How of narration of Dostoevsky's persona1 memoirs, closely connected with the writer's biography (which again are seen fiom the point of view of the present time): "Ever since 1 cm remember myself, all my life ... We knew the New
Testament very well, from early childhood ... I was ten years old at that time" (PSSP 2 1 :
The other type of several consecutive events can be related to the writer's journalistic activity, either when Dostoevsky was editing Citizen, A Writer's Diary, or working with other periodicals: "1 have read something f?om the contemporary literature, and I think that The-Citizen miist mention about sorne of these works (PSSP
2 l:54).
Different activities, for example, joumalism and economy, connected with writer's activity or biography, are compared to each other: "Oh my God, aRer so many years, how can 1 start with an article on the economy (Am 1 an economist? I have never been an expert in economics)" (PSSP 275).
Each of the above-mentioned examples demonstrates that the usage of a particular tense or aspect, or sequence of tenses is comected with a particuiar group of inter-comected events or topics, or a special type of narration.
AI1 the above mentioned characteristics of Dostoevshy's temporal style are very signi ficant feature of his writing. They contribute to the temporal cohesion of the
Diary making it a piece of writing mainly concentrated on the Russian contemporary life, on the present, which is one of the major features of the journalistic style. (The connections betsveen journalism, fact and fiction wi11 be analyzed in the last chapter of the dissertation). Most of the examples above illustrate a close connection between the past and the present time, with the emphasis on the present, which is one of the
~Iiaractcristicfeatures of Dostoevsky's writing.
The connections behveen different tirne penods closely related to each other (time of the 1840s, four years in prison, time of the 1870s, etc) contribute to the cohesion of the Diary. 2.4. Space and Cohesion of A Writer 's Diary
Space is used by Dostoevsky in A Writer's Diary as one of the keys to text cohesion.
The author created a literary piece which is limited by geographical borders, and the creation of this space has its own peculiarities, in particular the limitations of the events and plot developments in some particular spatial limits.
Generally speaking, every literary work has its spatial limitations which do not excusively define but greatly contribute to its cohesion. For example, spatial boundaries of Defoe's Robinson Crusoe are defined by an island in the Atlantic Ocean; or Joyce's -Ulvsses is limited by the streets of Dublin. In the same way, Dostoevsky's narrator is limited to several major spatial areas, a limited number of locations which are repeated throughout the different chapters and sections of the Diary and which contribute to its general spatial cohesion.
Among the major regions, areas, or spaces within A Wnter's Diary are the following:
1 - Russia (including Russia as a nation and also cities of St. Petersburg,
2 - Western Europe (Engfand, France, Germany, etc,);
3 - other Slavic countries and areas (Bulgaria, Poland, Serbia); including so-called Eastern Question, and partially overlaps the Slavic and
European countries, but also includes an additional power - Turkey;
4 - distant locations: USA, Japan, China, Afnca, etc.
This selective nature of the geographic sp@s de fines the w-acial boundax-ies of the Diary. The coverage is highly selective and it does not have universal, encyclopedic nature. For example, Northem Europe (Scandinavia), or Southem Europe
(Spain, Italy, Greece) are hardly mentioned in the Diary. This selective nature of the space treatment proves the cohesive structure of the work, when a limited number of locations are repeatedly used in different chapters, contnbuting to the text cohesion.
In the artist's space in A Writer's Diary, different places are often used in symbo lic ways and are connected with certain place-names, adjectives or attributive rnodifiers, which are used in cornparison with each other; for example, Russia as a rule appears in contrat with other places: Europe, China, Turkey etc.
1. The image of Russia as geographical space is the most widely repeated one throughout the text and it creates one of the strongest images of A Writer's Diary.
It can be associated with other concepts: a great nation; the center of the
Orthodox Christianity; the biggest force in Europe and Asia; a country with a great future: a connecting link between Europe and Asia, etc., as is indicated in a detailed index created by K. Lantz (1993 : 1455). The Image of St. Petersburg
St. Petersburg is at the centre of the author's attention. The repeated
image of this city in Dostoevsky's novels has been widely discussed in works by
Dolgopolov (1977), Lotrnan (1973), Popov (1964) and other scholars, though not a single
special study has been dedicated to the image of St. Petersburg in A Writer's Diaxy. In
this chapter the first attempt of this kind will be made.
The topic of St. Petersburg is represented by many different references,
definitions and images. It is at once (see PSSP 2 1: 1 10- 112) "one of the two capitals," though it does not represent the whole country; it is also "a great c@," "one of the gloorniest cities in the world," the centre of politics, literature, painting and other arts; and likewise a city of extreme poverty, filled with prostitutes and drunks. Among the many adjectives wiîh which Dostoevsky describes this city, "gloomy" is the one most often repeated: ". .. gloomy streets of St. Petersburg;" "1 think, this is the gloomiest city in the worId" (PSSP 2 1: 1 1 1).
The geography of the inner city reflects the Russian social structure and, by describing or simply rnentioning different districts and neighbourhoods of St.
Petersburg, the writer refers the reader to a speci fic sub-set of background information.
The readcrs who were his contemporaries supposedly would have recognized most of these references.
For example, the most widely used opposition in Dostoevsky's image of the capital is: luxunous district of the Nevsky Prospect -- lower middle-class districts
(Liteiny prospect, Vozdvizhensky Prospect, the Canals, etc.). The Nevsky is the major transportation artery of St. Petersburg's downtown, and in Dostoevsky's depiction it is filled alrnost exclusively with the caniages of the wealthy Russians moving in endless rows: "carnages are moving in the direction of the Politseisky Bndge... and the other row of caniages going in the direction of the Anichkov Bridge" (PSSP 2 1 :1 OS).
Dostoevsky mentions two different geographical locations to indicate nvo different social groups: the upper and the middie classes. The first row of caniages moves "to the Police Bridge;" suggesting that the people moving there are members of the Royal family, court, top-ranking goverment officials and senior military and navy officers: those who regularly attend the Winter Palace and the MiIitary and Naval
Academies and the numerous ministries situated around the Police Bridge. The second ro\v of camages moves "to the Anichkov bridge;" to the centre of entertainment. a centre visited by the lower gentry, landiords, petit bourgeoisie, wealthy merchants and other people representing the upper middIe class.
The writer opposes the busy Nevsky Prospect and adjoining downtown areas to another part of St. Petersburg: the dirty streets of the industrial neighbourhoods, the districts where the working people Iive. These peopIe seldom or never visit the luxurious Nevsky Prospect, but the writer likes to study them closely, because he finds material and inspiration for his novels and for several key chapters of A Writer's Diary in tliese gloomy and dirty streets: "1 noticed about working people ... they never visit
Nevsky;" "they are dressed in Russian costumes ... with their wives and children." (PSSP
21:llO-114).
Dostoevsky uses pictures corn this crowd to create his literary works: for exampie, "A Hundred Year Old Woman," and "A Boy at Christ's Christmas" -- among others. The image of St. Petersburg streets, created on these pages, includes both its poor working neighbourhoods and its wealthy districts. This consistent usage of the opposition of different districts and neighbourhooods of the city create a certain spatial approach for the description of the city. Moreover, the setting in St. Petersburg is analogous to the general theme of the Diary, that is, "the contemporary life in Russia," contributing to its overall cohesion. The Russian society is divided into hvo opposite classes: rich and poor; in the same manner the space in the capital is divided into rich and poor neighborhoods.
The author uses symbolism and allegory widely in his descriptions of the city: at the beginning of a chapter on St. Petersburg. First, Dostoevsky describes the common, routine action of crossing the Nevsky Prospect: "A few days ago, 1 crossed the
Nevsky Prospect fiom one side of the street to another." (PSSP 21 :1 OS), and then goes on
10 suggest a larger, allegorical picture as he moves from the sunlight to the dark side of the street, and later, corn the fashionable and cornfortable downtown to the poor working-class neighborhoods. Throughout this transition, al1 the movements take place within a mystenous setting. The \Miter observes how "the white fog descended over the city;" he moves "hm fog into fog;" and he notices "strange smell." (PSSP 21 : 105-
106).
In these several pages filled with the images of St. Petersburg, the writer uses the expenences of different senses to describe the mysterious figures of people and horses which appear fkom the clouds of fog and then disappear back into it almost instantly; we cm hear "short fm sounds produced by running horses", we sweat from
"the heat of the sunny day" and "in the air of St. Petersburg filled with unusual smells."
This description of the city creates a very visual picture, a vivid image of the location, place and setting in which the narration will develop.
Another symbohc device used by Dostoevsky is the description of architecture and cornparison of architecture with other aspects of city li fe: social, political, artistic and other developments. The witer makes very critical remarks about the architecture of the city: "1 am surpnsed by the architecture of our time ... and of our city ... . Architecture of St. Petersburg shows lack of character and personality" (PSSP
2 1 : 106). -4s becomes very obvious from this quote, Dostoevsky was very critical of the pure artistic value of St-Petersburg's architecture, and he often criticized its mixture of styles and lack of taste, both in architecture and in Russian life in general.
In this city something unusual, or surprising is happening everywhere, even in its architecture: theatre buildings, places of entertainment, gates and parks attract the author's attention. Very oAen he sees a new house, or construction and development sites: "the buildings and the sidewalks are under renovation" (PSSP 21: 106).
The city sidewalks are dug up to the ground, to the foundations. The construction of new ta11 buildings and new streets symbolizes the changes in Russian society in this transitional penod. Dostoevsky saw St-Petersburg as a constantly changing, confusing,
instable place which was in the process of constant construction and renovation (see
PSSP 2 1: 106- 107). The image of this city in the Diary is one of its central images and the importance of this image in the Diary could be compared to the importance of the same city image in Crime and Punishment (see Belov 1971).
In general, small city spaces, or micro-toponymy, are a regular feature of
A Writer's Diary and also support the coherence of this text. This happens by the means of several factors: their regularity and repetitiveness throughout different chapters of the
Diary, such as "Little Pictures," "One-Hundred-Year-Old Wornan," "Meek One;" their andogues with the rich and poor neighbourhoods reflecting the class structure of the
Russian society in general; their numerous references to the social processes urban development and population flows, for example numerous connections between city and vi lIage people in "Little Pictures."
The smaller city spaces are used more ofien in the fiction than in the journalism which could be considereed as a part of Dostoevsky's witing style. They appear in "A Boy at Christ's Christmas Party," "A Hundred-Year-Old Woman," "The Meek One," though sornetimes the smaller city places are also used as the site of journalistic investigation: a court building, a shelter for homeless children, or a railway car.
The spatial description of the small city spaces is frequently used in
Dostoevsky's vision of St. Petersburg when he writes about its cafes, mansions, literary salons, restaurants and tavems. Several lines are dedicated to the adventures of the writer's journalist colleague during a working day in St. Petersburg: "my friend the journalist" first visits "the salon," then meets with a few important people "on the
Nevsky," and finally goes to have fûn at a restaurant, "at Finfina." (PSSP 2 1: 107). This busy life of literary salons and entertainment exists in contrast to the poverty and misery of the industrial city suburbs. As a sharp contrat to this luxurios life, Dostoevsky describes poor people: "a IoneIy crafisman and a girl in the crowd" and Iater on comments on "a three-year-old girl ... at the gates" (PSSP 2 1 : 1 12).
The contrast of downtown and siiburb, oId shabby houses and new lusunous palaces, of bright sun and gloomy foggy days -- al1 this variety of images creates a very contradictory picture of the Russian capital. A number of smaller streets, squares, and churches play a more humble role. They can simply describe the scene of the action, and are used in a purely indicative fünction: "once 1 met him next to
Znamenskaia Church" (PSSP 21 :12). The narnes of city objects can either convey much s;mboIism and background information, as in the examples of crossing the Nevsky Prospect. The other function is simply locative: the smaller city objects denote the
construction of the new buildings, or they can merely indicate the location of the events
taking place in the flow of the literary narration.
Therefore, the writer's vision of St. Petersburg contributes to the cohesion
of A Writer's Diary in several respects: its image in repeated in several chapters; it often
has symbolic function; it is closely connected with the description of Russian life with its
con~radictions,lack of taste, and class structure; it is the factor which constitutes one of
the major topics of the whole work.
The Image of Moscow
Moscow is the second urban spatial image created by Dostoevsky.
Though there is a great difference in the prevalence of images of these two cities - the St.
Petersburg's image is presented frequently, repeatedly and consecutively; Moscow, in contras, is given only a few brief sketches. The writer did not devote as rnuch detail to
Moscow as he did to St. Petersburg, although he made nmerous passing and brief references to this city as 'the second capita1,'or 'one of our two capitals', or 'the third
Rome' in almost every volume of A Writer's Diary, thus contributing to the Diary's coherence. In many pages Moscow is descnbed or referred to as a city equal to St.
Petersburg: "Petersburg and Moscow were leading Russia at al1 times on its way" (PSSP
23:6); "That's how it is, in Our Moscow!" (PSSP 21 :117). Dostoevsky, as we know fkom his biography, was connected with Moscow by numerous ties: he was bom there, he spent his childhood there, and later for many years lie paid regular and fiequent visits to his sister V. Ivanova and his publisher M.
Katkov who both lived in Moscow. The wxiter was delighted to Iearn that one of his articles was widely read, admired and discussed in Moscow: "my article produced a fûror in Moscow, both in Riady and Zariadie" (PSSP 27: 114).
This response was caused by the "three Mepictures" of poor people and children in St. Petersburg, including the striking description of poor life, di* language and swearing. Dostoevsky, who knew Russian life so well, refers in these iines not simply to Moscow, but to its specific parts, Riady - the downtown commercial part of Moscow, next to the Kremlin; and Zariadie - an adjoining district, southeast of Red Square. Here again Dostoevsky uses background information to locate his authorial eye in social as well as geogaphic space, refemng to the upper middle class of Riady and the lower middle class of peopIe who lived in Zariadie.
The repeated images of St-Petersburgand Moscow contribute to the unity and coherence of the text of A Wnter's Diary, though the two cities are represented in different ways: in the case of St-Petersburg, the \Miter created a consistent image of the city and dedicated several sections to this image; the image of Moscow consists of sporadic bnef references and never more than a bief sketch.
Both capitals have many things in common: first, repeated references in various chapten and issues (referential function); secondly their symbolic representation of some particular aspects of Russian life (symbolic fiinction); and thirdly as the location of the major events happening in the text (locative function). Al1 these city spaces contribute much to the creation of the Diary's coherence.
Russia and Europe
Dostoevsky paid great attention to the creation of the image of Europe in
A Writer's Diary. The detailed treatment of this topic could become a subject of a separate monographie study. Being limited by the size of the dissertation, 1 will analyze this aspect on the Diary's cohesion in a very bnef form, stressing a few major aspects.
This is one of the most complicated, controversial and prominent images of space and location in the Diary. The pure fact of these numerous repetitions and references to the same European theater contributes to the Diary's cohesion, and the specific features of this image -- though they could range fiom admiration to sharp criticisrn -- explain the mechanism of this coliesion in detail. Therefore, it could be considered as one of the major, significant factors which creates the Diary's spatial unity.
The problems of international relationships between Russia and Europe, and of the opposition "Russia-Europe" were at the centre of Dostoevsky's attention when he wrote about the European continent. In al1 these cases, the writer placed his pnrnary emphasis on Russian interests, Russian culture, Russian origins and roots. The opposition "Russia - Europe" remains central in several key chapters of A Wnter's
Diary: for example in 'Dreams about Europe,' in which the writer poses the question:
"Isn't this the same in Europe? And every true Russian will think about this" (PSSP
22:83).
Dostoevsky's views about Russia and Europe developed gradually.
First of all, Dostoevsky stressed that Europe was on the verge of collapse, that he did not see any unity in Europe with its separation into rich and poor, left and right. and w ith its geographical boundaries and differences . Dostoevsky stressed that Europe was almost on its deathbed and that numerous antagonists would ruin Europe, and that it had no future.
There were huge differences between Russia and Europe accùrding to
Dostoevsky. First of all, there was the idea of unity. Though there was a difference between the intelligentsia and the people (narod), they could be dealt with. Russia rnanaged to deal with many such class differences during the refonnist reign of
Alexander II. In his writings on Russia, Dostoevsky created the notion of the Russian idea, coexisting with other ideas (A Catholic idea and a Protestant idea) in the chapter,
" Three Ideas. " These recurrent and consistent views of Russia as a very important country superior to Europe were repeated continuaIly during the 1877-78 issues of the
Diary. In the Pushkin speech, this idea was developed even further, and Dostoevsky showed Russia to be the most important country in Europe, which would show the Europeans its love for humanity .
Another important issue comected with the image of Russia was the war in the
Balkans. After this war, Russia turned to help the Serbs. The great Mother Russia
became the leader of the Slavic countries. Dostoevsky was disappointed to see how the
Serbs tumed to Europe. In the last issue of the Diary, Dostoevsky claimed that Russia
would seek suength in the East, stressing Russian importance and greatness.
There were several things that Dostoevsky did not like about Russia (he
did not like many of these things about Europe as well), such as its poverty, its cruelty
to children and to animals, its drunkemess, and its high suicide rates, among other
things. But al1 of these, according to Dostoevsky, existed on the surface, but the
peasants and simple Russian people, the "narod," knew the real truth and could be
kind, honest, and humane. These recurrent views create a picture of Russian life of the
1870's (in many cases existing in opposition to life in Europe), thus coiitributing to the coherence of the Diary.
Many facets of Russian life are totally different from those in Europe:
"Russia is mixed with Europe, but Russia is not Europe at all" (PSSP 2241).
Dostoevsky consistently stresses Russia's superiority over Europe: in practically every mention of Europe, he emphasizes his opinion that Russia is better in certain aspects. These cornparisons sometime have totaIly unexpected twists, and they pertain to al1 sides of life: literature, science, visual arts, economy, railways, etc. An hignificant literary artist can invent, or contribute ot the creation of Europe: "Here, in
Russia, every poet and inventor of Europe cminfluence Russia" (PSSP 23:32). At the
saine time, Russians are very sensitive angpen toilhe understanding of the new European
ideas: "Every European poet, thinker and humanitarian is best of a11 understood and
received here in Russia" (PSSP 23:3 1).
The next resul t of al1 these comparisons, di fferences and contradictions
between Europe and Russia, is a logical question which appears between as another
prophesy: "Russia would once more take an enormous and original step ahead of
Europe" (PSSP 23:9).
This contrast between Russia and Europe becomes sometimes
exaggerated, stressing the huge differences which exist between Europe and Russia.
Speaking more generally, this opposition of "weV- "others" remains one of
the rnost evident and consistent features of the description of other spaces, countries or
continents in A Wnter's Diary. Dostoevsky does not limit himself to the simple
descnpt ion of another place or country, or descri be di fferences between this particular place and Russia; the wnter moves to the heart of the matter by asking "why did al1 these differences appear and what do they rnean to Russia?"
Russia exists largely in contrast to other countries, or, to be more exact, other countries of the world exist largely in contrast to Russia. Russia rernains central in the wnter's world. It is usually mentioned not in isolation, but in connection, or in cornparison, to other countries. The Russian Empire exists in -A Writer's Diary as a very special place, as something different from Europe, or other places and countnes. The differences and contrasts between places or geographical locations are important in describing this country. This definition by contrast is the key to Dostoevsky's vision of
Russia as a country which is different tiorn the rest of Europe: "Russia will be the stronsest country in Europe" (PSSP 23:27); "Al1 big European countries will be destroyed ... there will remain but one colossus on the continent of Europe -- Russia"
(PSSP 2397).
The greatness of Russia, according to A Writer's Diary, is that eventually it will become the greatest country in Europe, a genuine superpower whose influence can only grow with the flow of time.
The writer's treatment of Europe as something different and alien to
Russia is supported throughout A Writer's Diary, and his general message is disserninated by means of personal experiences of the major protagonists; in the case of
A Writer's Diary, or in the case of Dostoevsky himself, or in other very persona1 cases and stones of Russians travelling across Europe which appear in chapters such as
"Apropos of an Exhibition," "Dreams about Europe," "TravelIing Abroad: Something
About Russians in Railway Cars."
Dostoevsky repeatedly applied the notion of border in the text of -A
Writer's Diary (see also Lotman 1973: 21 1). The borders between Russia and Europe in the Diary are both symbolic-cultural borders, and at the same time real, political, and geographical borders. Dostoevsky's emphasis upon this unique Russian space, Russian culture, and Russian way of life sometimes Ied him to extreme statements or
~eneralizations,"This happens because we are lonely in the European community of nations" (PSSP 21:70); "Europeans will continue to make enors in the assessment of
Rrissia" (PSSP 2 1 : 70).
The writer argues that to be a European means not to be a Russian, that thcre are very few Russians who cmcross the border of these mutually exclusive spaces and really become Europeans, and that if they do so, they are no longer Russians, losing their national identity. Dostoevsky also repeatedly stresses throughout his Diary
European influences on the education of the Russians: "Russia already visited Europe and becarne an educated country" (PSSP 23: 49).
The bigger space - Europe as a whole - is sometimes divided into its constituent countries: England, Gemany, and France, but in most cases, the generalized opposition of Russian spaces to other, non-Russian space abroad is used: "genera1 hostility of Europe towards us" VSSP 21 : 70).
The writer's views on the opposition 'Russia -- Europe' developed greatly and undenvent profound changes during the last years of his life. The writer started fiom the complete denial of any possibility of cooperation between Russia and Europe. Then the writer repeatedly mentions some positive moments of European infltnce like education. In the last chapters of the Diary, the writer gradually came to the conclusion that the Russian people should become 'Pan-human citizens', because of the Russians' feeling of brotherhood with other nations and their universal fratemity and understanding of other people: "We Russians have two motherlands: our own Russia and Europe"
(PSSP 23: 30); "Universality is the most important personal characteristics of the
Russias." (PSSP 23:3 1).
In the last article of the Diary, Dostoevsky again advocates tuming away from Europe -- this very complex attitude to Europe demonstrates the dialectics and complexity of the writer's views; thus, this image remains one of the most contradictory in the whole Diary.
Europe in a11 its complexity is one of the most repeated images of the
Diary and contnbutes to the cohesion of this work as a whole in a very specific way, fint of al1 as a space which is opposite, different fiom Russia; the one which helps to define and preserve the Russian national identity.
The image of Europe is one of the most complex issues of the Diary, and numerous repeated references to Europe throughout the Diqgreatly contribute to its overall cohesion.
Russia and the Eastern Question.
Among al1 the spaces beyond Russian boundaries, two regions attracted the w-iter's attention most of all: Europe and the Balkans. Actually, the Eastem Question
exists not as a region, but as a probtern or issue of the contemporary life, closely
connected to a geographical region. Secondly, it is necessary to stress the geographical
paradox that Dostoevsky terms: "the Eastern Question" was only Eastern from the West-
European point of view, and was actually more of a "South-Western" location in relation to Russia.
The Eastern question, according to Dostoevsky, included the unification of the Slavs under Russian leadership; victory in the Russian-Turkish war; and the increasing Russian influence on the Balkans. Dostoevsky dedicated several major chapters to the Eastem Question, a topic which frequently drew his attention: "Eastern question! ... What confusion in some heads?" (PSSP 23: 44); "A new unification of nations appeared in the East!" (PSSP 22: 87-88). Even the relationships between Russia and its traditional dipiornatic partners and allies in Europe were treated through the pnsrn of the Eastern Question. Dostoevsky gives a historical overview of this part of the world and stresses the importance of this issue to the course of the world politics, saying that it was impossibIe to give Constantinople to Greeks" we must not give them such a critical point on the Globe." (PSSP 23:49).
Typically, Dostoevshy adds complexity to the issue of Constantinople: though it is far fiom Russia, and it should belong to Russia one day. The interests of several powers, several nations were concentrated in the Balkans, and therefore, this geographical space includes references to various nations: Russia, Austria, England,
Gerrnany, France, Serbia, Bulgaria and Turkey. Several different forces work in the
Balkans in various, sometimes opposing directions, and this conflict creates a very special zone of interests of several countries. Dostoevsky makes a smart comment this rather complicated political situation: "If Europe does not interfere, then the Slavs shouId win" (PSSP 23:44).
A united Slavic world could create a new political entity in the south of Europe.
1Vighty Russia would play a major role in the process of integration of Slavs in this region: "The Slavic world will be led by Russia" (PSSP 23: 49). The many complicated relationships in the Balkans are resolved by the simple expedient of achieving Russian aims first -- to establish its influence in this part of the world and to unify the Slavic world. This is the writer's major theme and his resolution of the Balkan situation in this part of the world. This issues of foreign policy are closely connected with the major, general topic of the Diary, that is, the image of Russia, thus contributing to its cohesion. Several Distant Spaces and Locations.
Distant geographical locations contribute to the cohesion of the Diary as
nre11. Even very few references to such remote destinations as China, Amerka or Asia -
which are scattered throughout the text of the Diary -- are mentioned in comection with
a lirnited, recurrent number of topics and themes, thus making connections between
different parts of the text and contributing to its overall cohesion.
Among the distant spaces which are described by Dostoevsky in -A
Writer's Diary are United States, China, and Asia.
1. America is descnbed by Dostoevsky as a distant escape, as a remote
fantastic land of great possibilities, financial success and political keedom: "Our young man nins off to America." In the political domain, America is given positive evaiuation.
Speaking about the SIavic countries, he wote: "This will be a purely political union, like the United Arnerican States or even broader still" (PSSP 23: 50).
2. China is referred to as an exotic place with a great history, amusing and bizzarfte customs and traditions, and a millemium of dictatorship, bribery and tyranny. He compares al1 of these qualities in an exaggerated way to Russian customs, as a result putting Russia in the center of attention an using China to create a contrast: "In China-.. we would publish [The Citizen1 excellently" (PSSP 2 1 5); "We are the same as China, but we lack their order" (PSSP 21 :7).
3. Asia is regarded by Dostoevsky as a place of vital Russian interests, primariiy because Russia is not only a European, but also an Asian country, and,
therefore, it is important for Russia to increase its political influence in this part of the
world. Asian countries do not have any political or religious unity of interests, as do, for
example, the Balkan Slavic nations (in Dostoevsky's view, at least). In spite of this,
rnilitary aggression is necessary, stresses Dostoevsky, because Russia will have its
escape, its profit, and the source of important resources for future opportunities in Asia:
"Asia is our future exodus" (PSSP 2723).
Russian politics in Asia are completely different fiom those in the
Balkans. In the Balkans, Russia leads a war for the liberation of the Slavic lands and
people from the Islamic rule of Turkey. It is different in Asia, where Dostoevsky justifies the agressive Rlissian foreign policy by the conquest of new spaces for political
influence: "As soon as the Russians settIe on land in Asia, this becomes a Russian territory" (PSSP 27: 38). The growth of the Russian military presence in Asia could only be achieved thoush the Russian rnilitary conquest: "Geok-Tepe is captured! The victory of [general] Skobelev is heard al1 over Asia!" (PSSP 27: 32); "Long live our victory at Geok-Tepe!" (PSSP 27: 40).
This repeated reference to the Russian military politics is a characteristic feature of A Writer's Diary as a cohesive text, by adding different shades of meaning to the general theme of the work, "contemporary Russian life." Dostoevsky's point of view on Russian military poticy is an example of the complexity of his outlook. For example, the writer justifies the conquest of Central
Asia, but he is careful to stress that Russia (in his view) has no intention to conquer
Serbia, for example, although he supported the quest for Constantinople. The writer's repeated and sometimes contradictory references to this issue add to the coherence of the
Diary -- they al1 glori@ Russian qualities. Russian foreign policy, thus contnbuting to the general picture.
Dostoevsky repeatedly refers to the same geographical locations in a consistent, recurrent manner. Al1 the complexity of the writer's views is defended by
Dostoevsky with astonishing consistency, which adds to the coherence of A Wnter's
Diary. At the same time, in spite of al1 this complexity, the wnter defends this often contradictory nature of his views. There is a major common denominator, or common gound for al1 the variety and complexity of views on this subject: Dostoevsky's vision of
Russia. 2.5. Twes of Narration as Factors of Cohesion in A Wrirer S Diarv
Wayne Booth (1963), Yury Lotrnan (1972) and Boris Uspensky (1 972)
laid the foundations of the theory of narration and point of view in their classical works.
The major conclusions of these works will be used as a theoretical background in the
following section of the thesis. The above mentioned authors suggested the teminology
which will be used in this dissertation; they analyzed the types of narration including
author's voice, impersonal narration and the protagonist's narration; the combination of different points of view, points of view on the spatial and tempora! plain, and inter- relation of different points of view. The classifications suggested in these three works and the theoretical principles for the study of different types of narration will be the starting point and the theoretical basis of the following section. In many cases though, the above mentioned classifications will be modified and developed, on the bais of the n-iaterial of A Writer's Diary.
In the present dissertation, the basic approach to the study of narration will be the theory created by Lotman and Uspensky. in particular, Lotman stressed that when a literary artist applied multiple points of view, he created an effect such that "the different points of view bring a dpunic element in the text: every point of view pretends to be true" (Lotman 1972: 320-334). This tension between the different points of view of the narrator, author, major and secondary characters creates, according to Lotman, "a certain tension" when different points of view are either complementary, or contrasted to
each other.
This Bakhtinian "potyphony" of multiple types of narration is one of the
characteristic features of Dostoevsky's fictional works. In the following pages 1 will
argue that this is a very important recurrent feature of Dostoevsky's journalism as welI.
The writer uses dramatized narration, as cm be seen in numerous
examples beiow. The narrator refers to himself as "1" or "we," or "the editor;" uses if-
sentences in his imaginary dialogue with his readers ("if 1 only find a reader, then I will
talk to him"); creates complex types of narration to increase the drarnatic effect of the
work. It makes a strong effect on the reader, who feels a direct involvement in the
process of narration and communication with the author.
This feature is anoiher important issue of the multiple/dramatized points of
view in the Diary. Further, in the opposition: author-narrator-characters-readers,each of
the four can range in relation to each of the others from identification to complete opposition, on any axis of value, moral, intelIectua1, aesthetic or even physical contact.
1 will use the approach similar to those which was developed in Poetics of
Composition by Boris Uspensky, who studies narration using material of War and Peace and the Brothers Karamazov. Uspensky analyzes the following parameters of a literary
test: types of narration, different points of view and their combinations, shifis of points of view in space, multiple points ofview on the plane of psychology, and other such "levels of text." Though al1 of the illustrations and examples of this work refer to the fictional
pieces, most of these conclusions could be applied to -A Writer's Diary by Dostoevsky.
Some of the Uspensky's terrninoloav will be used in the following pages, narnely: point of view on the plane of phraseology; moving point of view; multiple point of view; inserted narration, or point of view; and actuavimaginary diaIogue Uspensky
( 1972).
"The point of view on the plane of phraseology" is one of the key
notions for the theory of narration on the lexicaI level- Uspensky uses this tenn to
descnbe differeni types of nming the sarne person, for exarnple, several different
names, such as he- nry neighbor - Ivan fvanovich - the boss could refer to the sarne
person as seen by different people, or the same person being placed in different
circumstances. For example, the image of the author could be introduced fiom
di fferent points of view, and types of narration (dialogue/monologue). On the level of
phraseology, the author of the Diary could refer to himself as:
I, cve, iïterai-):at-iisf. flnancial apert. publisher. orid editor.
An actual dialogue, related in direct or indirect speech could represent
the author's point of view; a conversation in which real characters pronounce really
existing words and phrases: "And Semyon told me the following.. ." or "Yesterday, a
friend of mine paid me a visit" (PSSP 21 : 43). This type of narration could be called
"multiple-voices type of narration." Dostoevsky engaged his readers in a dialogue in many different ways in
practically every major chapters. Therefore, the Diary can be considered a reader-
oriented work which includes a great variety of dialogues. 1 distinguish two major
types of dialogue used in the Diary, namely, polemical and imaginary dialogues
1. Polemical Dialogue. In direct dialogues, Dostoevsky openly invites his
reader to start a conversation with him, using the direct address, "dear reader (s), 1
would like to ask you.. . ." This kind of dialogue cm include several people: for
example, Dostoevsky's dialogues with Chemyshevsky and Belinsky in "Old People"
(PSSP: 2 1 : 8-10) include nurnerous addresses to the readen of the Diary. This kind of
polemical dialogue is also widely used in Dostoevsky's replies to his readers' letters.
In this dialogue, a reader, an opponent, or a critic participates in the dialogue indirectly.
Marly of these dialogues have an etement of anticipation ("what would you Say, dear reader?"), and are closely connected with the second, imaginary type of dialogue.
2. lmaginary Dialogue. Sometirnes Dostoevsky creates a dialogue with completely imaginary, non-existent persons, and openly tells this to the reader. For example, the witer states that a voice or voices exist only his imagination: ''1 started hearing voices. 'Here you are!' a mocking voice laughs at me" (PSSP 2 1 : 16). These voices of imaginary people are repeated throughout the story "Bobok": "'Oh, well!' I heard another, a completely different voice" (PSSP 2 1 : 43-45).
This type of imaginary dialogue was repeatedly empioyed by Dostoevsky in his fiction ("Bobok"), literary criticism ("Half a Letter") and political reviews on the
"Eastern Question." The repeated usage of these imaginary voices is a constant feature
of the Diary and, when uscd in journalistic articles, can be considered as a feature
linking its journalistic and fictional aspects.
These two major foms of dialogue and types of interaction between the wnter and his
readers demonstrate Dostoevsky's intention to engage his readers in a direct, or implied
conversation with the author. The reader-onented approach influenced both the
narrative pattern (many of chapters start with the writer's address to the reader) and the
selection of the topics discussed in the Diary (for example, literary or political polemics
instead of a simple review of the latest events.)
The moving point of view, aAer Lotman, could be called
"cinematographic point of view," as used in "Bobok," or "Little Pictures:" "1 carefully
looked into the faces of dead people.. . 1 went out from the church.. . 1 Iooked into the
_graves- it was temble" (PSSP 2 1 :43). Here we see how in one or two paragraphs the
author's point of view is changing, shifting, moving fiom contemplating the faces of
the dead people, to the interior and exterior of the cemetery church, and to glance inside
the graves. This moving point of view creates the cinematographic illusion of the
dynamism of the narration, when the readers follow the movements of the author.
Another example of the moving point of view is the author7sstroll along the streets of St. Petersburg in "Little Pictures:" "Recently, 1 crossed the Nevsky Prospect, from the sunny side of the street." As the author reached the middle of the dangerous crossing, he found himself "in a temble fog." The fog becarne thicker and thicker, and, as he went a little tùrther, he saw "the face of a horse... one could see only a few steps ahead" (PSSP 2 1 :105).
In this case, the moving point of view reflects the author crossing the
Nevsky Prospect. This close-up view of the sunny side of the street is followed by the foggy middle part of the street, and then by the opposite side of the street which was completely covered with the thick fog . This picture is followed by a general view of St.
Petersburg architecture, from the bird's eye view: "ln fact, al! of St. Petersburg architecture is remarkably characteristic" (PSSP 2 I :106).
The moving view "close-up --- general viewpoint" could be used in the reverse order, as in the third part of "Little Pictures." In this case, the author starts fiorn a general picture of a crowd and proceeds to a close-up of a working man, " On Sunday nights. sober people go out for a walk.. . When 1 looked at the tradesman, 1 got the idea
(PSSP 2 1 :108).
Multiple point of views are presented in "Little Pictures" with the obvious redistic details. Here, the writer gives a rather complex account of the conversation between a group of people. The point of view shifts from one narrator to another, until it finally retiims to the author:
"Once 1 walked arnong the drunk tradesmen.. . One young man speaks very energetically.. . The second repeats, answering hm... The third is suddenly filled with indignation" (PSSP 2 1: 108- 109).
The author's persona1 point of view is included in the third-person narration. Due to the author's presence, this story cornes closer to the reader when the author-narrator stresses at the end that he was a witness of al1 these events, and thus ends up the story with his own point of view: "1 was one of the witmesses of the scene ... 1 was in the middle of the crowd" (PSSP 21 :109).
Another example of moving, or cinernatographic point of view is used by
Dostoevsky in his article on art criticism, "Apropos of an Exhibition." In this example we see a close comection between literature and visual art. The moving point of view is closely comected with another, inner point of view of the three characters. The description starts with a general view of exhibition: "1 visited the exhibition of Russian artists" (PSSP 21 :68). And then the focus is nrirrowed to a particular painting describing
3 very typical picture of a Russian life: "Here is, for exarnple, a smalt picture by
Makovsky:" "The man sitting at the window lowered his head," "the second man sits at the table .. . he dnnks tea," "the owner sits in fiont of us - he looks like a proud man"
b. (PSSP 21 :70-71). In this exarnple the point of view is moving fiom the exibition hall to a A particdar picture, and then fiom one character to another.
The combination of several different points of view is very typical of
Dostoevsky's *'polyphony." In addition to his fiction, this literary device is widely used in the Diary to create the polyphony of the journalism, by not only representing the extemal description of the protagonists, but showing the cornplex, moving, or multiple point of view to the reader.
4. The inserted point of view, which is used practically in al1 chapters of the Diary, represents the inserted- narration which could be introduced schematically by the following symbols:
L Ai where Al is the major, or primary story, and A2, A3, ... are inserted stories.
For example, in the Chapter "lntroduction" (PSSP 2 1:8), two anecdotes about Hertzen and Belinsky are is inserted in Dostoevsky's own narration in the
r way : C [ A3 Where
Al is Dostoevsky's own narration -- a fabIe;
-42 is a story about Hertzen -- "One day I was talking to Hertzen
A3 is a story about Belinsky -- "Once Belinsky invited me.. . ." (PSSP Another story, "A Hundred-Year-Old Woman" is created as a story in a story and could be graphically described- in the following fom: A 1 p2
- A3
Where
Al - the major narration of the author - "A woman told me her story the other day.. .";
A2 - the narration of a woman, as if taken fiom the reality --"1 was very late that day.. .";
A3 - the fictional continuation of the woman's story which is ais0 the author's narration - "1 sketched in an ending to this story.. .".
A more complicated case, when three stories are included into one chapter and are united with the author's narration, is used in "Half a Letter." (PSSP 21 :60-68).
This can be symbolicaIIy presented in the following form: Where Al - a major story - "1 will publish a letter.. ."
A2 - half-letter - "Here is this half-letter.. ."
A3 - a story about Antropka, a hero created by Turgenev - "Do you remember Antropka by Turgenev.. ."
A4 - an allegorical meeting of two literary artists at a party - "1 imagined that you were invited".
Such cornplicated cases of the description of several stories included, or inserted in the major thread of narration is a very typical exarnple of Dostoevsky's composition. The use of inserted narration is one of the literary devices used by the author of A Writer's Diary that contributed to the cohesion of this literary work.
To summarize. Dostoevsky uses many different points of view and types of narration in his Diary. The following factors could be singled out as very characteristic features of this technique:
- point of view on the plane of phraseology;
- rnoving point of view;
- actual/imaginary dialogue;
- multiple point of view;
- inserted narration or point of view.
Al1 this varied inventory of different types of narration and points of view of the narrator represents specific artistic device used by the author. These types of narration serve different purposes: they contribute to the polyphony and variety of viewpoints; they show the complexity of the situation; they create a special atrnosphere of intimacy in conversation between the author, namator and reader. These different types of narration recur throughout different sections and chapters, making it a very specific and repeated feature of Dostoevsky's style and the inner organization of the work, thus contributing to the overall cohesion of A Writer's Diary. Chapter 3. Structural Cohesion.
In the following chapter, 1 will distinguish two types of structural relationships in
the text of A Writer's Diary: intra-textual, that is relationships between different
fragments of the text (fiames); and extra-textual, that is references to other writers and
other literary works.
They contribute to the cohesion of the Diaty in the following way: consecutive
cames show the linear comection of episodes, sections and chapters; general kames show their overall, non-linear and semantic connections, that is how several fiaPents of the test are united by one general topic.
References to other literary artists and works represent a very special, but widely repeated and characteristic aspect of the Diary's cohesion: they are scattered throughout the Diary thus making different chapters and sections related to one another.
3.1. Frarnes in A Writer 's Diary.
-4s Dostoevsky himself repeatedly stressed, and as 1 have shown in chapter one, his Diary was created as a unified whole. In spite of the diEerent topics, types of narration, mixtures of views and opinions, styles and genres. the Diary remains a single piece of literary art, first of al1 due to the unity of different chapters, issues and sections and their inter-relations. These connections between different parts of the Diary can be very clearly manifested if we apply the notion of textual frames to its analysis. The following study will show that most of the chapters of A Writer's Diary (with
a very few exceptions) have a fkme structure. This means that the beginning and ending para,graphs of most months, chapters and parts are connected to each other by the means of cross-reference, pronouns, anaphora, cataphora, rows of synonyms, hornonyms and other sirnilarities in form and meaning. In most cases, the bezinning and the end of each section (usually the opening and the concluding paragraph) convey the sarne or a very simi1ar message, comment on the same topic, often using the same words and parallei grammatical structures and thus create the fiame of this literary work.
Several di fferent scholars successfiilly use the terrn fiame in di fferent meanings: frames in spoken discourse (Tannen 1997), semantics (Goffinan 1974, Gensler 1977), psychology (Minsky 1975), scripts and plans (Schlank 1977), and linguistics (Tannen
1979). In the current research, I follow the approach of Russian scholar Yury Lotman
(1 97 1 : 75) who compared a textual fiame to the frame of a painting which "separates a piece of canvas fiom the surrounding artistic space." The fiame of a literary work, though, has its own peculiarities. As a rule, in A Writer's Diary, the first part of a frame introduces a topic discussed later in more detail. In the last paragraphs of the same chapter, a conclusion, a major thought, or a surnmary of the previous chapter is presented in a brief and often emotional forrn.
Two major types of frames are observed in the text: a chain fiame, and a general frame. They correspond to the two types of semantic-structural relationships in the text: linear and non-linear. Linear or syntagmatic relationships represented by chain type of kames denote
the linear, consecutive cohesiveness of the Diary: a section is connected to the next
section, a chapter is connected to the following chapter, an issue is connected to the
consecutive issue, etc.
Non-linear, systemic, or paradigrnatic relationships represented by general hes denote the overall cohesiveness of a literary text. In this case different sections, chapters
and issues have a general or similar message, which contributes to the most general theme of the Diary, that is the description of the Russian life and society of the penod 3.1.3. Linear. or Chain Frame.
A chah fiame is a type of chapter organisation, in which the end of the previous topic actually introduces or connects the opening topic for of next chapter, creating a chain of topics comected to each other in the consecutive order:
(A1 - Al') - (A2 - A29 - (A3 - A3') ...
Where Al, Al' are the first and the last paragraphs of the first chapter; A2, A2 are the first and the last paragraphs of the second chapter, and so on.
This type of fiame cm be illustrated by nurnerous examples in a table beIow, based on the first issue of A Writer's Diary for 1873. Table 3. Exmples of Chain, or Consecutive Frames for the Diary's 1873 issue.
Chapter Title The opening pangraph The cIosing parsirenph
1. Introduction 1 am the editor .. . 1 joined this publication
2. Old People Anecdote about Belinsky.. . 1 want to talk about it (anecdote about Belinsky)
9. Apropos an Eshibitior 1 went to an e.xhibition.. . but 1 forgot about the exhibition 10. Irnpersonator An article was pubIished The- Russian World wote .. . in The- Russian Worid......
15. About Lies.. . Why do al1 people lie:' .. . Tkere are no men who don't lie
16. One of the Lies The ~Ministerof Education.. . In the same speech, the Minister said As it is obvious fiom this table, the openin%and the closing paragraphs of almost al1 chapters of the 1873 issue refer to similar topics, they are "in-framed" by repeating frames, for example:
Chapter 1 - the periodical The Citizen
Cl-iapter 2 - a story about Belinsky
Chapter 9 - art exhibition
Chapter 10 - the penodical Russkii Mir [The Russian World]
Chapter 15 - about liars
Chapter 16 - the speech of the Minister of Education.
Therefore, the frame structure of the 1873 issue of the Diary cmbe presented in the following form:
Chapters 1-2: (AA) - (A2-A2') ... Editor .. . Anecdote
Chapters 9- 10: (A9 - Ag') - (AI0 - A10') Exhibition .. . The Russian World .. .
Chapters 15- 16 (Al5 - A15') - (A16 - A16'). Lie ... Minister's Speech.
Each of these chapten, as we cm see, has a fiame - a double reference to the same topic, at the beginning and end of each chapter. Additionally, al1 of the chapters, representing various topics, are united with a general super-topic of "Russian life in the early 1870s,"
including popu1a.r periodicals, literanire, art, dornestic policy, education, and other
pertinent topics.
The writer rnost frequently uses a chain he,which represents the linear relationships in the text. These linear connections of consecutive paragraphs are arnplified by non-iinear, semantic relationships of the general topic of a whole chapter, issue or instalment which could be shown graphically as: (Al-Al') - (A2-AT) ...
In later issues, modifications of this basic mecan be found; for example the one when the concluding paragraph of the previous part introduces the opening paragraph of the following part. For example, in Chapter 1 of the January 188 1 issue is based on the
Iinear linkage, but of a slightly different type whose structure could be schematically descnbed in the following way:
(A I -A 1') - (A2-A2') - (A3-A3') - (A4-A4') - (A5 - A57 - Finances and Literature.. . Roots.. . Peace ... Dreams about Russia
AI1 these rather Ioosely related topics could be united in one topic, with one common denominator: Russian society of the time, including literature, piece, roots and the author's dreams about Russia. And when one reads the 1881 issue the first impression is that it is anything but cohesive with al1 the digressions. Dostoevsky begins by stating his intention to discuss "the financial situation in Russia," then proceeds to the revic~vof Russian literature, then develops the topic of "the unification of the Russian people," and finally concludes with his meditations on "a Russian dream." But upon a close, detailed examination, it becomes obvious that al1 the chapters of this issue exhibit coherence; it is not irnmediately obvious from the table of contents, but it is clearly understood afier reading the whole chapter that Dostoevsky's issue is not only Russian finances, or Russian literature, or Russian unification, but Russian society in general.
One of the questions arising here is why the writer chooses to write in this
fashion, rather than in straightforward, expository prose. The most probable answer --
never stated directly -- is that Dostoevsky forces his readers to do some intellectual
work, to participate in an imaginary dialogue with the writer, and sometirnes to make
conclusions for themselves and, by doing so, to unite al1 these chapters under the
common topic of "Contemporary Russian Society."
The first part starts with the following introduction: "Oh my god, what sort of
econornist and financial expert am I?" After briefly introducing the financiai topic of
the chapter, Dostoevsky goes on to current literary problems: "Our literature missed
many topics of our contemporary life."
Part 2 continues with cornments on the previously mentioned financial topic:
"And what about finances? 1 don't dare to write about finances." And then again, at the
end of part 2, Dostoevsky returns to the same initial topic: "My introduction is too long.
Back to the finances!"
Part 3 presents the major message of the whole chapter, that the fundamental
problem of Russian society is "the roots," (the masses of peasantry, and that these must
be nounshed so that the whole of society cm flourish: "Think about improvement of the roots.. . and the finances will improve soon." At the end of this part the author
introduces a new terminoIo-y, speaking about 'the roots.' This term "the roots", re-
appears at the end of Erame 3: "What roots? Which kind of roots?" "You are nght,
gentlemen, let's start fiom the roots."
Part 4 continues the topic of the roots, which was introduced at the end of Part 3:
"Russian people are the first -root, which must be restoreci." To solve Russian - problems, one of the major tasks is to improve the general wellbeing and education of A the simple Russian people, whom Dostoevsky calls "the ocean," or "the roots:" "How
can we make peace between the upper class and our ocean?" This phrase means to
unite the simple Russian people, allegorically called here "the roots" or "the ocean"
with the Russian nobility, the upper classes and the intelligentsia.
Part 5 presents another example of a chain-frame comection. It begins with the
last part of the previous fiame of part 4, with the same question, which is used here in a
sIightIy modified fom: "How can we make peace behveen the upper and lower cIass'?"
This question is closely connected with the opening phrase of the next part by the
means of the demonstrative pronoun "this," "To do -this, there is a magical word:
trust." The final paragraph of this part relates to the whole chapter again: "Why al1 -this
is a drearn?"
Modifications of this fiarne structure are widely used throughout A Writer's
D iav. It could be illustrated by another, more complex example, from February 1 876,
"The Kronenberg Case" in which a similar succession of chain fiames is ~sedin a more complicated version, though different parts of the chapter create the frame structure.
This becomes clear fiom the following exampfes.
Part 1 starts with the introduction to the topic: "Al1 kiow about the Kronenberg
Case, which took place a month ago." Dostoevsky, in his introductory part, bnefly tells the readers the story of the Kronenberg criminal case, and establishes the beginning of the chain comection to the title of part 2, 'Something about Lawyers in General' :
"Before 1 start. 1 would like to Say a few words about the lawyers in general." This mentions "about the lawyers in general" links the introductory part 1 with the second part, and through it, with the remaining parts of the chapter.
Part 2 presents some general considerations about lawyers and the judicial system in Russia: "Just a few more words about the lawyers ... ." Afler a brief introduction,
Dostoevsky suggests more detailed study of the speech of the defence lawyer, and then prepares the reader for the next part of the chapter, dedicated exclusively to the defence speech: "Let us study this wondertùl speech in detail."
Part 3, titled 'The Speech of Mr Spasovich,' starts with a very acute rernark, attracting the attention of the reader: "Fram the first words of this speech, you see a -oifted speaker." Dostoevsky concludes this section with a sentence, which connects the speech with the next part, "The Bemes:" "These are just flowers; the berries will corne later."
Part 4, "The Bemes," starts with the following reference to the previous part: "1 have already mentioned earlier, that .. .." It is finished with the mention of the next part: "The limit is not letting your eloquence cany up to the Pillars of Hercules."
Part 5. Introducing both the title " The Pillars of Hercules" and the opening
paragraph of the next part 5: "But we see the real Pillars of Hercules where Mr.
Spaçovich.. .." The final paragraph of this part presents the conclusion of the whole
chapter: "When the society geizes to pity its the weak and oppressed."
Part 6, titled "The Family and Our Sacred Ideas. A Concluding Note about a
Certain Modem School," has the same type of fiame relationship, in which the title, the
major message and the conclusion are closely connected and are dedicated to the sarne
topic, using the sarne vemacular: "Mr. Spasovich makes a ppnted remark in
conclusion." "1 said that at the beginning and 1 repeat it."
Dostoevsky presents in this case an exarnple of a frame in which he openiy
proclaims his strategy, and his general topic in the last part. Sometimes the major
message is included in the title, and is repeated both at the beginning and at the end of
the chapter.
The fiame structure of the February 1876 chapter takes the fonn of the second
type of the fkrning structure, the general fiame discussed below.
3.1 -2. General Frame.
The general frame contributes to the overall cohesion of the Diary by descnbing the development of the same general theme for the whole chapter. This message is introduced at the very beginning and then it is repeated and comrnented upon in the opening and closing paragraph of each section of the same chapter.
For example, the topic of the "General Political Situation in Europe in 1877" is
described through sections dedicated to England, France, Gennany, Russia, the Balkans. -
- which are -not necessarily comected to each other in a consecutive way, but which
constitute a unity, a chapter devoted to a single topic.
In this case, the firsi and last paragraphs of the chapter have numerous references
to each other, and though the chapters themselves are rather loosely connected with each
other in the consecutive way, they al1 are connected by the overail, general topic of the
chapter or an issue.
A --- (A 1-Al ', A2-M',)
Where A is the general topic for the whole chapter, Al and Al' are different
modifications of the sarne topic of the first section; A2 and A2' of the second section, etc.
As we can see, this type of fiame is different fiom the linear or consecutive frame
described earlier because it deals with the general overall message of the whole chapter or issue, and not with the connection of the consecutive dements.
For example, section 2 of chapter 1 for October 1877, 'An Old, Customary
~MilitaryRule' dedicated to the analysis of Russisn rnilitary policy, starts by introducing our military mistakes:
"People in both Europe and Russia have written about Our military errors during the present campaign." After the analysis of the Russian defeat during their first assault on Plevna,
Dostoevsky explains it fiom a purely technical, military point of view -- stating that the cause of the defeat was the obsolete, outdated Russian rifles. He proceeds with the statement that the Turks knew how to fight a defensive war, by digging trenches better than the Russians and concludes the first chapter with the final remark: "But this is not a mistake, but a -fact." This phrase concludes the btpart of the chapter, at the same time introducing the second part of the chapter, which is dedicated to "the new -facts."
Part two starts with an in-direct dialogue, which mentions and introduces the new topic, 'a new fact:' "But certain facts even now have emerged fûlly enough to aIlow them to be evaluated more or less accurately." This term 'new fact' is used throughout remainder of this chapter, especially at the beginning and end of each section, for example, in section three: "And now this military fact, this axiom, so to Say, suddenly seems to have been shaken;" in section four: "Well, people will Say, what new facts have
II you uncovered here?"; and in section fivyû~dit was specifically the Turks who were destined to discover these new facts."
The final part of Chapter 1 for October 1877 srnarises the writer's position on
Russian rnilitary policy and at the same time presents the major message of the whole chapter in a concise, connected form which coincides with the title of this part: "We just discovered a new -fact, and we were not mistaken." There are, therefore, close connections behveen the beginning and the concluding
paragraphs for each part of this chapter in A Writer's Diary. This type of frame cohesion is called here "the basic me"and it may be recorded in the following symbols:
Table 4. Genenl Fnme for Chapter 1, 1877.
General topic of the Chapter Topics for the Sections
(Al - Al', A2 - A2' ....) ("old mistakesw-"new fact"...) The next section, chapter 3 of the October 1877 issue, "Roman Clencs here in
Russia," could be regarded as an introductory part to the whole chapter, followed by comments and quotes fiom other periodicals. ïhis section is dedicated to the attempts of the Roman Catholic Church to spread its influence to Russia. The first part of this section develops the major topic of the chapter, in that both the apening and the closing paragraph of this chapter comment on Roman clergy in Russia: "These clerics tried to make advances through Russian periodicals."
Dostoevsky's comment on the story itself separates the hesfrom each of the parts. Part 2 basically repeats the same message on the Roman clergy in Russia, but mainly in the form of a conclusion, producing the following pattern: A 1 - A 1', A2 -
A2': "The Clerics make advmces to Russia."
Part three of this chapter starts with a reference to another article and to some critical cornments on it in the press, which are very loosely related to the message of the whole chapter: "An article about a Russian scholar in Poland."
The introductory paragraph of part 3 moves reader's attention fiom the story about the Roman Cathoiic clergy to the topic of Russians travelling though Poland, tlirough a Catholic world. Thus, the general topic of this chapter -- "Catholic Presence in
Russia" -- is given a new twist or development, and then in the concluding, or the second part of the fiame, Dostoevsky writes about global problems, about Russian interests in Russia, in Europe and in the East: "Russian interests in Europe and in the East."
Thus, the writer creates a more complex example of a mixed fiame pattern: (Al -
A 1') -- (A2 - M')-- (A3 - A3' (1'-2'-3')) or (Catholic Clergy in Russia)- (a Russian
Scholar in Poland) - (Russians in the East)
in which the last part of the frame summarises the topic previously introduced at the begiming of each part of the chapter. Therefore, this fiame consists of three inter- connected fiames, which are based on different topics:
A 1. CathoIic Clergy in Russia;
A 2. A Russian Scholar in Poland; and
A3. Russians in Asia.
The conclusion bnngs al1 of them together into a global topic, a new eeneralisation, which is the general message of this chapter A (1-2 -3) "Russian C -
Newspapers that Work against Russian Interests." This general message incorporates concIusions to the thee topics discussed above. This, in its tum, is a part of the major super-topic of "Contemporary Russian Life" in al1 its detail which coincides with the statement about the concept of the Diary which Dostoevsky made in his letters about the overall unity of the Diary as a whole.
I would like to briefly surnmarise the section on fiames in the following way:
First, frames are the repeated references to the sarne or similar topics under discussion. They provide two major types of structural coherence: linear, syntagmatic, or consecutive chain me;and general, paradigrnatic, or topical coherence general frame.
Secondly, both frames are used throughout the text very tkequently, though both of the fiarnes do not necessarily occur in every chapter.
Thirdly, the chain fkarnes representing linear coherence are more frequent in the
1873 issue; the more sophisticated general chain was more widely used in the latter issues for 1877 - 1878. This presentation of material in the Diary indicates that
Dostoevsky developed his ideas fiom a chain of consecutive stories to the general picture of Russian life. 3.2. Extra-Textual References to Other Literary Artists, Critics and Other Literq
Works: Dostoevskv as a Literarv Cntic
Extra-textual references, that is mentioning of other literary and journalistic works
and li terary artists occupy an important part of the Diary, and contribute to its overall
coliesion. Therefore, articles on literary criticism serve as good examples of extra-
textual cohesion for topic of reference.
In the brief introduction to this chapter, I will outtine Dostoevsky's major views
on the literary criticism. Further, 1 will argue that even such specialised chapters and
sections as those dedicated to the literary cnticism are united by the general topic of the
Diary. that is, the topic of the contemporary Russian life. These numerous references
relate to different questions of literary criticism: French influences on Russian Iiterature
(George Sand); Dostoevsky's views on Tolstoy's novel as one of the best achievements
of Russian literaîure (Anna Karenina); strong cnticism of Wcsternizers and Turgenev's
protagonist Potugin (Smoke by Turgenev).
In the following section of the thesis, 1 will argue that these seemingly diverse topics on literary cnticism contributed to the cohesion of the Diary in the following way:
1 - Literary criticism occupies a relativeIy insignificant number of pages, about
10% of text of the Diary (12 sections and about 150 pages, out of total 1340 pages).
However, at the sarne time these sections are very important for the formation of the general theme of the work, describing different aspects of Russian contemporary life, cultural and literary life in particular. Sections on literary criticism can be dedicated to a particular author (Nekrasov, George Sand and Turgenev); or a particular literary work
(Anna Karenina); or a literary review (articles on Turgenev and PusMn).
2 - The writer's views on art and literature are extremely important for the understanding of his position as a witer and Iiterary artist - they influenced the selection of topics and issues discussed in other chapters and sections, thus contributing to the cohesion of the Diary.
3 - Numerous and repeated references to other literary texts and literary artists, which are scattered throughout the text, contribute to the structural cohesion, refemng to the same objects in different sections, chapters and issues of the Diary. Most of these repeated references to other literary artists, for exarnple those on Tolstoy, Turgenev and
George Sand were included in the "Subject and Name Index" of A Writer's Diary (see
Lantz 1993) and will be commented on below.
AIthough Dostoevsky never started a regular literary criticism section in his
Diary, the theoretical questions of literature and literary criticism were oRen included among his social, aesthetic, political and artistic problerns, because Dostoevsky treated
Iiterature as one of the major defining factors in the spiritual life of his society.
Dostoevsky repeatedly wrote about the form and the content of the new monthly periodical. The author explored not only the everyday current news, but also the more fundamental topics and questions facing Russia, things which interested him as a writer and which he experienced in a very persona1 and detailed way. Thus, the title "Diary" in its direct meaning suited this publication very well. The writer dedicated a great deal of time to the study of literary periodicals. Under the category of the things he read,
Dostoevsky meant chiefly the current periodicals. He did not have time to read al1 the literary works that appeared at the time. He was very interested in the major works, in the mainstrearn literary process, and in literary criticism. At the beginning of 1875, in a letter to the poet V. A. Kozlov who was going to start another literary periodical,
Dostoevsky wrote about the importance of literary criticism for contemporary joumals:
"Will you have a section on literary criticism in your periodical? .. . Literature needs criticism" (PSSP 29-2: 23).
Dostoevsky stressed a very important principle of selection of material for -A
Writer's Diary in his letter to a woman activist K. Alchevskaya: "1 have 10- 15 topics when 1 start writing (not less). But 1 have to postpone my favourite topics - they take up a loot of space, they take up a lot of my energy" (PSSP 29-2: 78). These meditations and thoughts about the seiection of topics were very close to those included in Dostoevsky's letter to the poet Yakov Polonsky, in which he explained why a certain article was not included in his Diary: "I am not very happy with my 'Diary.' 1 would Iike to sel1 100 times more than 1 do, and 1 would like to write about literature" (PSSP 29-2: 74).
Al1 of these quotes demonstrate the same fact -- the writer thought very carefully about the concept and the general message of his Diary. Dostoevsky finally foxmulated the major message to the readers in the February 1876 issue. His attention was focused on the topic of the Russian People [the word 'People' is capitalized here, meaning 'narod,' or 'masses of cornmon people']: "The issue of the People, about our views and
Our understanding of the People is the most important contemporary issue for us, ... this is
the most, so to speak, practical issue for us at present" (PSSP 23: 44.)
Dostoevsky started this piece with a discussion of "people, literature, and popular
spirit [narodnost']," and then developed his thesis into a statement about "literature for
people and about people," arguing that al1 Russian literature was very closely comected
with the coilective iife of the Russian people and its ideas (see PSSP 22: 44).
In the second chapter of the February issue of A Wnter's Diary, Dostoevsky
wrote that the ideals of the Russian People in Russian literature are "strong and holy."
He stressed that the literature was close to the People's soul, and, though the People do
not understand Pushkin, Gogol, or Tolstoy, the best achievements of Russian literature still cornes from the People. Russian literature took from its people such good features as simplicity, honesty, fairness and openness; and al1 of these features existed in harmony:
"1 would like to speak about our literature. Al1 good things which exists in it were taken from the People" (f SSP 22: 43).
This understanding of literary development from the point of view of the Russian people and "the People's soul" provided a good foundation for the analysis of literary works by other writers.
These remarks support the major thesis of the dissertation: that the Diary constitutes a coherent whole in which different, sometimes, seemingly distant topics
(Russian literature, literary cnticism and Russian people for example) were united by a general strong uniQing super-theme, "Russian contemporary life in general."
Taking this as a starting point and rnoving further along these guidelines,
Dostoevsky developed the notion of the "narodnost, narodnye tipy," (popular spirit,
popular types), that is, the depiction of the spirit of simple Russian people, their beliefs,
views and traditions, which were created by Goncharov and Turgenev: "The characters
of Goncharov and Turgenev becarne very powerful when they were connected with the
Peopfe" (PSSP 22: 44).
In this piece, Dostoevsky fiirther developed the concept of the "popular spirit" of
Russian literature. In the March and April issues, he returned again to these ideas, speaking about Lavretsky, Bolkonsky and other characters created by Turgenev, Tolstoy, and Goncharov (see PSSP 24 : 183).
By stressing this, Dostoevsky developed further one of the major directions of
Russian literary criticism, that is, the importance of the connection behveen the simple
Russian people and the Iiterature.
Dostoevsky also analysed Russian literature fiorn the point of view of "a positive ideal." He came to the conclusion that the whole history of Russian literature was the search for a positive ideal: "1 want to finish my thought about literature. Our literature gave more positive than negative characters" (PSSP 24: 306).
In these lines, Dostoevsky defined what he saw as the major features of Russian literature: in particular, the search for positive ideaIs and the search for the national identity of the Russian people, the "people's soul," and "people's point of view." In doing so, he stressed the outstanding role of the major Russian wRters of the time:
Turgenev, Tolstoy and Goncharov.
Dostoevsky expressed many other thoughts about literary criticism throughout the
Diary. All these extra-textual links and references to other writers contributed to the
cohesion of the Diary as a whole.
Dostoevskv's Criticism about George Sand
The first chapter of the June issue for 1876, dedicated to the death of the French
writer George Sand is a perfect exarnple of Dostoevsky's literary analysis of another
literary artist. In two articles, "A Few Words about George Sand" and "The Death of
George Sand," the writer analysed the artistic qualities of the fictional works of this
French novelist, and tried to put them into context of the literary process of the time.
The chapter dedicated to George Sand became a part of the general structure and organisation of -A Writer's Diary. It was integrated into this work as a part of a larger question, to which many other pages of A Writer's Diary are dedicated: the interaction of the spiritual, social, and political relationships between Europe and Russia. Dostoevsky treated this problem as a major issue, analysing the works of George Sand and looking at her as a writer who greatly influenced both European and Russian literatures.
II is necessary to note that even the articles on George Sand refer to the 1840s, the issues raised then were relevant to the 1870s' because, as Dostoevsky stated in his
article, George Sand made a serious and long lasting impact on Russian literature.
Dostoevsky connected several other important issues with George Sand's name, in
particular, the penetration of the ideas of fieedom and human dignity from Europe into
Russia. He concentrated on the analysis of the literary and social views of George Sand,
and proudly prociaimed the important idluence of this French writer on his generation:
"She was entirely one of our contemporaries - an idealist of the 1 830s and 1840s. ...
Hers is one of those names that emerged in Europe, 'the land of sacred miracles,' and
drew from us, fiom our Russia so many of our thoughts, so much of our love, so much
of our sacred and noble force of our aspirations and our cherished convictions" (PSSP
23: 70). These lines by the author of 4 Writer's Diary were part of an extensive
discussion on the pages of the Russian press dedicated to the death of the French
novelist. Furthennore, he interpreted Sand's views in relation to his own views,
discussing both the political and literary importance of George Sand in the context of his
own political and artistic position in the 1870s. Dostoevsky wrote about her as a writer
and a person, who had similar views to his own, who based her convictions, her hopes
and her ideals "on the human moral sense, on humanity's spiritual thirst" (PSSP 24:
223-4).
Analysing Dostoevsky's articles about George Sand enables us to speak both
about the common grounds of these writers, their social views and their artistic works.
Dostoevsky's admiration of George Sand as a great writer indicates the existence of cornmon features between these two novelists.
Dostoevsky stressed the ideal of human fratemity in George Sand. Speaking
about the artistic side of her work, he discussed the humanistic approach to her
protagonists. Dostoevsky stressed that George Sand had great influence on Russian
writers because of the beauty of the images created by her heroes and heroines, and the
type of the high morality she created, which expressed the moral views of many Russian
authors.
Dostoevsky exarnined several types of women created by George Sand: "Al1 these
girl characters engaged in the same task, the same theme" (PSSP 23: 35-36). The topic
of the pure innocent girl's fight for hurnan dignity, of high moral purification, is
repeated on these pages. At the same time, Dostoevsky stressed the artistic qualities of
this French writer. As a literary critic, Dostoevsky knew that the psychological depth of
the realistic images of George Sand was achieved by her sincenty, kindness, punty and
enorrnous responsibility (see PSSP 23: 35).
One of the other major features, which Dostoevsky loved in Sand's writing, was
that she beIieved in people, in humanity and humanisrn: "She believed unconditionally in
the hurnan personality, even to the point of its immortality, and she elevated and
zxpanded the conception of it throughout her life, in each of her works" (PSSP 23: 37).
The issue of human dignity, human personality, and the preciousness of a human soul, no matter what kind of person it belongs to, is one of the major messages in al1 of the works by Dostoevsky, starting with The Poor People. Important thoughts about the importance of the exclusive role of George Sand
arnong the French writers and her quest for higher ideals were expressed in the words,
which Dostoevsky dedicated to Gorge Sand: "And there was not a thinker or writer in
France of her time, perhaps, who understood so clearly that "man does not live by bread alone." (PSSP, 23: 36). Dostoevsky finished the article by expressing his own views on human personality, when he studied the views of the French woman writer on human dignity in comection with the idea of moral beauty.
The article by Dostoevsky, "A Few Words about George Sand" is an example of an attempt made by Dostoevsky on the pages of A Writer's Diary, to speak about one author. As usual, the author cautiously noted the "he was not writing a critical article."
But this piece is important because it expresses some of Dostoevsky's own views on art and literature. At the same time it is one of the first attempts to study the relationship between Russian and French literature and to show the influence of George Sand on
Russian art.
In this article, Dostoevsky started an analysis of a serious issue of the relationships between George Sand and Russia.
Another article dedicated to George Sand was written in the forrn of a funeral speech, in which Dostoevsky speaks about a deceased writer. This form was later used again in his Diary for 1877, in a piece dedicated to Nekrasov's death; and later in 1880, in article dedicated to Pushkin.
Therefore, the articles on George Sand contribute to the cohesion of the Diary in several ways. Fint, several chapters and sections are linked together by mentioning the name of George Sand, her literary heritage and influence on Russian literature. Secondly,
it links to larger themes of the Diary, those of literary cnticism, the purpose of literature, search for the positive hero. Thirdly, it adds to the understanding of Dostoevsky as a literary critic who employed different topics in his critical articles, but always united
[hem by the major topic of Russian contemporary life and Russian literature.
"Anna Karenina" by Leo Tolstoy
Dostoevsky dedicated some sections of his Diary to contemporary literature. In the beginning of 1877, Dostoevsky wanted to show "the positive side" of Russian literature. He developed this thought throughout the year of 1877, discussing, among other topics "the major conditions for the development of Russian independent thought," in his Diary, including the distinguishing features of the Russian personality, the Russian nation and its national identity. From the first issue of the Diary in 1877, Dostoevsky stressed that Russian literature was a new phenornenon in the formation and growth of the Russian national identity: "We can state positively, that there was no other literature except for the Russian literature, which had so many good witers in such a short period of tirne" (PSSP 25: 27).
Dostoevsky's serious and particular interest in the contemporary literary process was shown in the issues of A Writer's Diary for 1877, in which he wrote rather fiequently on li terary topics. When Dostoevsky prepared a special issue dedicated to
Tolstoy's Anna Karenina, he noted: "1 am writing my 'diary,' in fact: 1 am recording my
impressions of everything that most strikes me about curent events.. . including the strongest impressions pertaining to Russian literature" (PSSP 25: 195).
The chapter of A Writer's Diary dedicated to Anna Karenina has attracted a considerable arnount of attention IÏom Dostoevsky researchers (see Fridlender t 973;
Kashina 1975; Shchennikov 1978, 1980; Zakharova 1985). In particular, G. Fridlender called Dostoevsky "a genius in his analysis of Anna Karenina" who was arnong the first to show the real importance of the Tolstoy's novel: "Dostoevsky was the first to express the thought.. . that Anna Karenina was not a love, or family novel, but a philosophical novel" (Fridlender 1979: 205).
A group of questions which connects A Writer's Diary with Leo Tolstoy's novel
Anna Karenina occupies an important place in other scholarly works dedicated to the
analysis of this chapter of A Writer's Diary. SeveraI witers have stressed the fact that
Dostoevsky was the first who saw that Anna Karenina was not a simple literary work,
but a fact of great importance to the Russian literature of the time. The author of -A
Writer's Diary himself stressed this thought several times: "Perhaps 1 am expressing
myself in too naïve fashion, yet 1 am determined to Say the following: this fact of my
impression fiom the novel, a piece of fiction coincided in my heart with the huge fact of
the declaration of war now in progress: both facts connected in my mind (PSSP 25:
195). in this statement we can see that a purely literary fact was closely connected by
Dostoevsky with another, real fact from everyday life, adding to the coherence and integrity of the Diary as a whole by connecting the political news about the war with the issues of literary criticism. N. V. Kashina (1975:212) noted the novelist's remark about a work of art as an indicator of social life, as an important fact of social life. G.
Shchennikov noted that in the works of Iiterary criticism created by Dostoevsky in the
1 8701s,"aesthetics is considered not as the admiration of beauty, but as a part of everyday li fe" (Shchennikov 1988: 14).
In the present study, Dostoevsky's analysis of Leo Tolstoy's novel is considered as an especially important aspect of his argument for the spiritual independencc of the
Russian people. Dostoevsky found some support of this argument in Tolstoy's novel itseif.
In hvo chapters from the February 1877 issue of A Writer's Diary, "A
Slavophile's Confession" and "Anna Karenina-" Dostoevsky predicted that this novel would have a great impact upon the future of Russia, that it would become the means by which Russia would Say its word to the whole world. He concluded that Russia, after the publication of the Tolstoy's novel, has displayed its leading role in Europe both culturally and politically, which was manifested bcth in Tolstoy's literary art, and in the country's political influence, in "the brotherhood of al1 Slavs." He asked, what could help the Russian people in their spintual development? Dostoevsky stressed that if any
European were to question the Russian national identity -- the Russians could refer to Tolstoy7snovel. The novel created by Leo Tolstoy becarne a literary fact of great
significance: "This novel took on, in my eyes, the dimensions of a fact that could give
Europe an answer on our behalf' (PSSP 25: 197- 199).
In his analysis of Anna Karenina, Dostoevsky stressed the national stren-gth and
independence of this novel by Tolstoy: "Anna Karenina in perfection as a work of art.. .
that very thing which constitutes Our distinctness from the European worId" (PSSP 25:
200).
Dostoevsky stressed this thought repeatedly, going into the domain of literary
criticism7though he underestimated his work as a literary critic and made some
apologetic remarks by defining his article not as a full-scale book review, but just a few
remarks: "1 cannot embark upon literary cnticism here and will Say only a few things"
(PSSP 35: 200). These so-caIled "a few things" were the w-riter's attempt to compare the
principles of Russian and Western-European realism. As an example, Dostoevsky shows
the solution of the topic of "guilt and crime", one of the most repeated topics in both the
Russian and Western-European literatures. Dostoevsky stressed that the deep
psychological study of the questions of good and evil was one of the major achievements of contemporary Russian literature. The literature of the West was different in this
respect, and he made a strong contrast between the European, legalistic use of force and
Russian solutions.
The writer stressed that, for example, European laws were directed toward the support of the existing social order. In connection with this, the power solution of the problem of "guilt, crime and transgression," according to Dostoevsky, could not Save humanity: "No organisation of labour cm Save humanity fkom abnormality, and, therefore, guilt and crime" (PSSP 25: 201). The author of the Diary used Anna Karenina as an exarnple of a Russian solution to the problem of guilt: "This is expressed in a monumental psychological elaboration of the hurnan sou1 with great power" (PSSP 25:
201).
Dostoevsky added polemical remarks about the novel Anna Karenina, its creator and its major protagonist in his comments to the 8th Chapter of Anna Karenina in
July-August 1877. At the same time, in his discussion of Anna Karenina, Dostoevsky makes extra-textual references to other writers, in particular, Shakespeare, Gogol, and
Goncharov.
It is thus obvious that the anaIysis of Anna Karenina in A Writer's Diary is cIosely connected with the major message and ideas of the work, and that this analysis forms a very important component of Dostoevsky's argument regarding the issue of
Russian spiritual development: "If we have Iiterary works of such power of thought and execution, then why we cannot eventually have our own science as well, and our own economic and social solutions?" (PSSP 25: 202).
The existence of such works as Anna Karenina, Dostoevsky thinks, is an example of the great achievements of the Russian people "in al1 domains" of culture and science. "Smoke" by 1. Turgenev
Dostoevsky used the sarne criteria, which he had used in his discussions of Sand and Tolstoy, for the Turgenevysnovel Smoke. The article on Turgenev was not included in the final, published version of the Diary, but it had many detailed drafts. Many references to Turgenev were scattered in different chapters of the Diary, thus contributing to its coherence.
In particular, Dostoevsky had nunierous passing references to Potugin (the major protagonist of the Turgenev's novel, a Russian landlord and a Westernizer) throughout different chapters of the Diary, and his notes and drafts contribute to the cohesion of the
Diary as a whole by expressing the witer's views on Turgenev's Smoke in a compact fom.
Dealing with the issue of the draAs to the Diary, 1 would like to argue the folloiving. Although we cmot put Dostoevsky's drafis on the same level as the published material, they very oflen are related to the published material, and should be considered as an important part of the writer's literary heritage, often expressing his views in a concise and clear form. The examples fiom the cirafis can support the major thesis of the dissertation (the textual cohesion of the Diary as a unity) in the following way: numerous references to the same topics, people, places, literary works and characters -- references which are repeated in different sections and chapters of the work fboth in the published text of the Diary, and in the drafis) dem&rate that Doçtoevsky fi treated his Diary as a unified whole. Dostoevsicy studied Turgenev's social and artistic views and tried to connect them with the artistic and the social merits of novel. The novel was published originally in
1867, and Dostoevsky was interested in it because it took as its topic Russia and its people. He did not accept the views of the protagonist, which Dostoevsky ascribed to
Turgenev. in the notes of 1875, Dostoevsky wrote: "Smoke. And this gentleman sits in a railway car and decides that everything is smoke.. . 1 regret that he has the right to do this.. . the author should have put himself in a certain perspective, but he did not do it"
(PSSP 24: 90). Dostoevsky criticised this comparison of Russian life with smoke, stressing that "Turgenev, in general, lacks the background knowledge of Russian life"
(PSSP 24: 91).
In the drafts of the Diary, the novel by Turgenev was criticised, primarily, from
the social and ideological point of view. Al1 of Dostoevky's attention was concentrated
on Potugin, the major character who expressed the therne of the novel. Dostoevsky
treated this protagonist with a special diligence. The substantial preparatory matenal for
the drafis of the Diary shows how Dostoevsky developed his understanding ofthis
character. The Dostoevsky's drafts show that the writer connects Turgenev with the
protagonist of his novel when he sketches his plan for an article: "Article. Potugin.
Turgenev. Beauty. Civilisation" (PSSP 24: 74).
The author of the Diary did not accept Potugin's views. Dostoevsky did not
believe dong with Potugin, that the privileges of the good life should be allowed only to one tenth of the population of the country. Dostoevsky expressed this thought clearly and repeatedly: "Potugin. On the condition of the happiness of one-tenth of the population, 1 do not want this civilisation" (PSSP, 24: 127).
Dostoevshy suggested several approaches to the analysis of this character.
Potugin was mentioned again, in December 1875 issue as the protagonist who expressed the major message of the novel: "Srnoke. About beauty. Potugin. Abuse of Russia"
(PSSP 24: 73). Dostoevsky s?ressed again on the same pag& that Potugin is more than the expression of Turgenev's views; that Potugin is the depiction of Turgenev himself, his self-portrait: "Potugin is Mr. Turgenev himself* (PSSP 24: 74).
According to his copious draAs and scattered notes, Dostoevsky had planned to make a major anatysis of Turgenev's novel. Ln addition to its purely literary analysis,
Dostoevsky analyses social issues expressed in the novel, in particular the issue of the
Westemizers. The narne of Potugin eventually became a generic syrnbol indicating the degree of separation between the intelligentsia and people. Dostoevsky used the name often in irs plural form, indicating "Westemizen," a whole direction of Russian political thought. In the January 1877 issue of the Diary, Dostoevsicy writes about Potugin in plural form, referring to representatives of a whole trend in Russian society: "Our
Potugins ought to be a Iittte more charitable toward Russia and not throw mud at her"
(PSSP 22: 25).
In the Apnl issue of the Diary, in which he criticised the Westernizers,
Dostoevsky used the name again as a symboi: "Our Potugins may try to dishonour the
People by sneenng that the Russians have invented nothing but the samovar" (PSSP 22: 1 10). In his later drafts, Dostoevsky hvice wote about Turgenev as the creator of "the
stupid Potugin" whom he '\vas going to take care of later" (see PSSP 22: 187,190).
Dostoevsky stressed that this name was connected with a symbol. This rneans that
Dostoevsky, starting with a purely artistic and fictional image, concentrated on the major political and social message of a certain work. A repeated literary image was a part of
the Dostoevsky's critical method. It was a way in which he thought - both as a critic
and a wvriter.
In the 1860s-70s, Dostoevsky often gave generic, symbolic names to his major characters, which were expressed in the course of the novels. For example, Prince
Myshkin was associated with "Christ," Arkady Dolgoruky was "Rothschild," and
Versilov was the general image of "the Atheist." With the analysis of a text created by another writer, in this case, Turgenev in Smoke, Dostoevsky made the opposite transformation. He started fiom the real text and moved to the general idea that lay at the basis of this fictional character.
In the context of Dostoevsky's images of the people and the intelligentsia, the image of Potugin opposes that of Vlas. These hvo heroes, taken from the works of
Turgenev and Nekrasov, are the symbols of two opposing approaches, two ways of seeing the Russian people.
Dostoevsky dedicated chapter 5 for 1873 to the study of the sou1 of
"contemporary Vlas" (PSSP 21 : 41) that is, a representative of simple Russian people.
The image of Vlas was repeatedly used as a symbol, in the same way as Potugin was used in several consecutive issues of the Diary. Both of these images express a similar
generic meaning, which was used by the author. For example, in his Diary for 1877.
Dostoevsky speaks about the "resurrection" of Russian culture: "To become Russian
means to stop despising your own people. When we become ourselves, we shall al1
require the countenance of humans.. . and not a monkey, a slave, a lackey, a Potugin"
(PSSP 25: 23).
Potugin's image in the context of A Writer's Diary was connected with the
piirticular social orientation of Turgenev's novel. Dostoevsky discovered the general
message behind Turgenev's protagonist, and then he took it and used it as a fùnction, as
an image in another poetic system, in A Writer's Diary. Dostoevsky used this image in
connection with the idea of the spintual independence of the Russian people. As a
result, A Writer's Diary strongly criticised the views of the Westerniser Potugin which
coincided with the views of Ivan Turgenev.
The polemics raise an important issue on Dostoevsky's view of the value of literature. Clearly, Dostoevsky often mentioned non-literary points and social issues.
But at the same time, the "artistic value" remains the major ment of a literary work.
Therefore, Dostoevsky combined two approaches in his views on literature, first, its artistic value, or khtrdoz/zzstvennost ' and, secondly, its social value, connected with the issues important for the society and Russian people in particular.
The many repeated references to these issues represent another factor that strengthens the close cohesion of the Diary's topics, characters and ideas. Chapter -4. Intellectual Cohesion: -the Unity -of Journalism. --Fact and Fiction -in A- Writer 's Diaty by F. Dostoevsky
Most Dostoevsky scholars agree upon the existence of two major tendencies in
the Diaw: journalism and fiction (Fridlender 1972; Tunimanov 1972; Azbukin 199 1 ;
Poddubnaia 1994), and even take notice of some connections between them, but do not study this process in detail. G. Fndlender showed the existence of deep aesthetics in -A Writer's Diary which "was based on detailed artistic presentation of the topics and
images which were based on the everyday reality" (1 972: 126). 1 propose in this chapter
of the thesis that the fiction and journalism in the Diary are so closely integrated as to be
inseparable: the fictional works have numerous journalistic tendencies, and in the journalism we can see the constant presence of the artistic moment.
Some of these connections were noticed in Fridlender's commentaries to the
Diary : for example, he stressed that "the general global meditations are inseparably
rinited with his persona1 biography and with the memoirs, fictional dialogues, facts and
scenes from everyday Russian and West-European life" (PSSP, 22: 283).
In the cornmentary to Dostoevsky's Complete Works (Polnoe sobranie sochinenii
i pisem, or PSSP), Fridlender wrote that "the real essence of the Diary is not the
mechanical combination of these genres [memoirs, feuilleton etc.], but that by using
them to convey the major message, Dostoevsky created his own original genre which
determined the artistic unity of the Diary. In this sense, the Diary is not only a phenornenon of journalism, but of art" (PSSP 22: 279).
In this chapter of the thesis, 1 will argue with the statement by Fndlender who described the unity of A Writer's Diaq not as inter-penetration or inter-dependence between the joumalism and fiction (as is understood in this dissertation), but as a kind of a parallel independent development of these two genres - a feature which Dostoevsky followed throughout the text of the Diary: Such recurrent topics as, for example, 'the life of poor people in St. Petersburg,' or 'the contemporary generation of the Russian people,' or 'the decline of the family in Russia' -- al1 of these issues are comrnented upcn in a parallel way, both in Dostoevsky's jorirnalism and in fictional works which are incIuded in A Writer's Diary, such as 'The Boy at Christ's Christmas,' 'Peasant
Marei,' 'A Hundred-Year Old Woman,' etc." (Friedlender, PSSP 22: 283).
This dissertation contends that merely to descnbe these two genres in the Diary as
'parallei' does not comprehend the totality of its characteristics; I argue that the Diary is built on the inter-penetration, unity, and cohesion of its journalism and its fiction.
Al1 major theoretical works on the Diary (in particular, those by G. Friedlender
1972, V. Tunimanov 1972, T. Zakharova 1972, G. Morson 1993) give strong stimulus for the further study of the journalistic and fictional genres in the Dostoevsky's works, though certain aspects of the Diqhave been almost entirely ignored: for example, the problem of relationships between fiction, joumalism and facts from everyday life.
One of the Ieading Dostoevsky scholars, V. Tunimanov (1 972) States that several major topics and semantic lines are recurrent throughout the text of the Diary, and arnong them, these could be named as major topics: fictional works, speeches about
writers, memoirs, fimeral speeches and critical reviews. Tunimanov asserted,
"Dostoevshy divided his works by himself in two parts: his journalism which was
created in connection with the important contemporary events and fictional works"
(Tunimanov 1972 : 200).
I believe that this division oversimplifies and neglects the peculiarities of -A
Wnter's Diary, and does an injustice to Dostoevsky's approach. If we agree with
Tunirnanov's assertion, then pieces such as "A Meek One," "Little Pictures," or "The
Boy at Christ's Christmas" should be separated from the other material. Tunimanov tried to study A Writer's Diary as a unity, but one which consisted of two independent parts: fiction and journalism. His conclusions, however, require further study: in particular, the statement about how the fictional works are connected to the generai context of the work is unclear and indefinite.
The factors which unite the short stories ("A Meek One," "Little Pictures," and "The Boy at Christ's Christmas Party") with the other journaIistic works of -A
Writer's Diary are not merely parallelism of ideas. 1 argue that there is an inseparable unity behveen the journalism and the fictional works in A Writer's Diary. 4.1. The Topic of Children in A Writer 's Diary: Cohesion of Journalistic
Facts. Bio-gaphical Events and Fiction.
The first two chapters of the January 1876 issue of the Diary, with the exception of a brief introduction, are almost exclusively dedicated to children. This is a part of a very big topic which occupies numerous chapters, sections and paragraphs scattered throughout the Diary. It is clear from his cirafis and notebooks that when
Dostoevsky started collecting material for his Diary in November - December of 1875. he had not initially planned that contemporary Russian children would be the major topic of his January issue.
For Dostoevsky, the moral and physical sufferings of children were clear proof of the inherent flaws in the social system of Russia. He perceived abused children as the sign of an imperfect, defective social environment. In children, he heard the voice of conscience and truth. Close attention to the child psychology was important for
Dostoevsky in his attempt to find "man in a man" -- a major task which he set for himself: "We should treat children with respect" (PSSP, 22 : 68-69).
The topic of children is first mentioned in the notebooks and drafls for the
January 1876 issue of A Wnter's Diary: "Christ's Christmas tree. A ball. Colony."
(PSSP 22: 137).
The writer's interest in a children's colony was based on an article titled
"Report about the Society of the Children's Orphanages in St. Petersburg," published in the newspaper Voice, issue 3 10 for 1875. The report stated that "the number of children was only 48, though there was enough space for 70 children ... and the state of health of children was very unsatisfactory" (Voice 1875, Nov. 9 : 2).
On December 27, 1875, Dostoevsky and his fiiend, the famous lawyer A.
Koni, visited this orphanage and spent the day there, from the moming until late at night
(Grossman 1935 : 239). This visit was significant because his report about it later became an important part of A Wnter's Diary for January 1876.
As the writer's notes explain, he wanted to tell the history of a children's colony in an artistic rnanner, just as he treated a court case a month later in the February issue of the Diary for 1876; he also planned to insert an episode about the orphanage school there. It is significant that Dostoevsky worked at the journalistic pieces in4
Writer's Diary ("A Boy with His Hand Out") while simultaneously thinking about his future short stories ("A Boy at the Christ Christmas Party"). His short stories were created in the sarne "artistic laboratory" and they have numerous parallels with his journalism. These parallels, as will be shown below, demonstrate the close connections between Dostoevsky's fictional and journalistic works and, in the case of the Diary, their inseparable unity.
The story about children started from the meeting with a medical student - a real event fiom the writer's life, which resulted in "The Boy with His Hand Out." Then a piece of fiction, a short story "The Boy at Christ's Christmas Party" was added to it, followed by another piece of non-fiction, "A Colony of YOUD-~ Offenders." In the 4 notebooks of mid-December 1875, the noted his meeting with a student, "a medical student fkom the acaderny, begging for money" (PSSP, 24 : 78).
On the sarne pages, a little further, Dostoevsky outlined the next issue of the
Diary. Among other topics, he again noted, "a medical student from the academy"
(PSSP,24 : 79). An actual event, the writer's meeting with a student of the Medical
Academy who behaved as a beggar, had entered Dostoevsky's artistic imagination
(PSSP,24 : 389). Dostoevsky had probably planned al1 silong to inchde this story, because the draft notes for the January issue rnentioned a student: "Medical student with his hand out" (PSSP, 22 : 143).
Dostoevsky noted the chitdren's orphanage and the medical student in the drafi of the Diqon the same pages, almost at the sarne time. He wanted to connect these two stories -- about the children's colony and the medical student -- to each other as stages in the development of the next generation of Russians. Society's opposite pole is represented in A Writer's Diary by the children of happy and wealthy families. After visiting the Artist's Club at St. Petersburg for a Christmas party in December 1875,
Dostoevsky had the opportunity to compare the two poles of society. ARer he had visited the children's bal1 (1 visited the children's bal! at the artist's club." - PSSP 24: 91), the next page of the notes includes the following phrase: "Colony for the young cnminals"
(PSSP, 24: 92).
A few pages later in the cirafis, he mentions his visit to the orphanage. In the
outline for the January 1876 issue of the Diary, Dostoevsky inserted: "The Ball. The
Orphanage. The Colony." (PSSP, 24:99). There is no other mention of the begging medical student in the drafis. Dostoevsky may at that point have become occupied with
some plans and ideas, among which was: "A Christmas tree, a child at Rukkert, Christ,
ask Vladimir Rafailovich ZO~O~'(PSSP,24: 102).
It is clear that Dostoevsky's original impressions of real iife were united with his
fictional rnaterial in the story "The Boy at Christ's Christmas Party," rather looiy based on a poem by the Gennan pet ~Ückert(Fr. ~uckert.Gedichte. Neue Auflage.
Frankfurt am Main, 1843, S. 273-276). Therefore, the first mention of Ruckert's poem about the abused child appeared in the drafts for the January 1876 issue in connection wirh the topic of children. This mention is related to the Christmas Party at the end of
December of 1875, and the note in the newspaper Voice (PSSP, 24 :101). The
'.~kkert'sChild" did not appear again in connection with his future plan, until he finalized drafts for his story about abused children. This plan was modified to read:
"Boy with his hand out. A Christmas tree ... A dance. Dances of married couples. Visit to the colony. Al1 about children" (PSSP, 24 : 108).
At the very begiming of the January 1876, the writer's notebooks mentioned:
"A Christmas tree. A boy. I start fiom the unnatural and fantastic stories (1 visited bot11 places, -- wait, 1 was in both places: at the bal1 and the colony)" (PSSP 24: 108).
Tlie following chronology of the writer's cirafts can be helpful for determining his creative process. The "~bckert'sChild" appeared for the first tirne in the writer's notebooks and drafts on December 30, 1875. Notes about "Boy with His Hand Out" appeared in the notebooks later, during the first week of January (PSSP, 24 : 11 1-1 12). Dostoevsky said that he met the boy asking for change on the eve of the Christmas
party, that is, around December 22-24, 1875. Yet, there is no mention of this meeting
in the later pages of his notebooks and drafis for the Diary.
In light of the fact that the writer was very emotional about his Iife experiences,
1l and was intensely interested in child-related topics, including "Ruckert's Child," it is
conceivable that, because he made no mention of such a meeting, he may never have
actually met a boy who waç the prototype for "Boy at a Christmas Party."
1 propose the followin,o hypothesis -- that Dostoevsky, knowing the real facts
about the student at the Medicai Academy (who was clearly mentioned in the early + drafs for this topic), used him as the starting point for his future thoughts about the fate b of the young generation in Russia. He probably wanted to include a short story about
the medical student in the January issue of the Diw, in connection with the other two
stories, a fictional piece "The Boy at Christ's Christmas Party" and a journalistic,
factual article about his visit to the children's prison colony for young offenders. But
this meeting was not used in the final version of the text, because it was more important
for Dostoevsky to wite about cases that were cioser to his heart: his visit to the colony
for young offenders, and the Children's Christmas Party at the Artist's Club.
The drafts for these stories are mentioned very close together. The first notes about the medical student appeared on December 16, the story of a Christmas Party on
December 26, the notes about the visit to the prison on December 27, the "Ruckert's
Child" on December 30, and finally, "a boy with his hand out" on January 4-6. It is most probable that the impressions of the bal1 at the Artists's Club and the oiphanage caused
Il Dostoevsky to remember fictional Rukkert's story about the boy; at the same time it reminded him of an earlier factual story about a medical student who was a beggar.
It is also very likely that he becarne interested in children at this point as the result of several very persona1 experiences, events which took place in his own famiIy.
At this time, his own children were il1 with scarlet fever, and they were of the same age as the children about whom he wrote. It is well known that the writer used personal and very intirnate details in his works. A Writer's Diary included both his own personal experiences and the latest news from Russian life. For example, wnting about the
Kronenberg Case, Dostoevsky started a polemic against Mr. Spasovich, the lawyer at the case who tried to defend the father who tortured and abused his seven-year old daughter.
In connection with this case, Dostoevsky told "one small anecJote." In this story, without using the real names, he referred to his daughter Liubov Fyodorovna, and in his notes she was identified as his other daughter, Sonya, who died abroad in infancy
(Milykh 1981 : 49).
These notes made between the end of 1875 to the begiming of 1876, should be taken into consideration as an additional factor when we consider the topic of children in
A Writer's Diary. When Dostoevsky was writing about Russian children in general, he could have thought of his daughter Sonya who died in Geneva in 1868; she would have been seven years old in 1875, exactIy the age of the child in "The Boy at Christ's
Christmas Party." These collecteci impressions: his own lost child, his children's heakh and his anxiety about supporting them might have influenced the development of the image of a seven-year old boy who begged for change.
In the notes and drafts to the January issue of A Wnter's Diqfor 1876,
Dostoevsky included these topics in the following order: "Christ's Christmas tree. A Ball.
A Colony" (PSSP, 22 : 137). Here there was no mention of a boy asking for change, though Dostoevsky mentioned the beggar boy at another place in his notes and drafis: "A
Boy at Christ's [Christmas Tree]" (PSSP,22 : 138).
He probably created the story "The Boy at Christ's Christmas Party" around this time. The notes about "a boy with his hand out" are very scarce in his drafts, and it is
Iojical to suppose a hypothesis that they reflect not the actual fact reported in the Diq, but the development of the children's topic in general. The writer himself claimed directly that he was imagining the development of the events in "Boy at Christ's
Christmas Party" in the following passage: "A Boy at Christ's. What could have
Iiappened on the next day if the boy got welI? He would go with his hand out (PSSP, 22 :
138).
The image of 'The Boy with His Hand Out" apparentIy had a wider meaning than its use as an illustration for the Diary. It showed the fate of a whole generation of
Russian boys who were forced to live the lives of beggars and tramps. Therefore, "The
Boy with His Hand Out" had a very generalized and serious meaning. Dostoevsky referred in this image to the sufferings not only of Russian children, but of many other poor Russian farnilies at the time. Dostoevsky rnentioned the tendency towards cruelty existing in the Russian society earlier, in 1876, in reference to "The Society for the Protection of Animais." He wrote in his drafts that the great work of society should be directed towards easing the sufferings of the people. When society became more humane and compassionate, it would not be necessary to speak about humane attitudes towards the animals: "When our society becomes more humane, it wilI start loving animals" PSSP, 24 : 100).
As an example of such cruelty, Dostoevsky recalled a case mentioned earlier in the Diary in 1876, about an officer who beat his driver on the back of his head to force him to drive faster. Then the wnter remembered a women and four children begging for change in connection with this story: "The courier in 1837" (PSSP, 24 : 100). And later on the same page he remembered "a woman and four children asking for change, with their han& out" (PSSP, 24 : 100).
Thus, the author wrote about Russian society's tendency towards cruelty. The picture of a chiId asking for change "with his hand out" was an example of such cmeIty.
The notes about cruelty to animals and a postal driver appeared long before the January issue of the Diary which demonstrates the writer's long-standing interest in this topic. thus contributing to the Diaxy's cohesion.
It is important to mention a few other instances of "a beggar's hand" in -A iVriter7sDiary. In the drafts to the November issue for 1876, Dostoevsky wrote about
"Michael" and mentioned, "1 was wandering across St. Petersburg with my hand out"
(PSSP, 24 : 398). On another occasion, thinking about the future celebrations of Pushkin's anniversary, Dostoevsky wrote, "Why other newspapers ca~otgo with their hand out" (PSSP, 24 : 398).
When Dostoevsky recalled his meeting with the medical student, he wrote in his drafts about a medical student "with his hand out." (PSSP, 22 : 143) Al1 of these earlier references to the expression "a boy with his hand out" indicate that the writer often introduced this rather rare idiomatic expression during his thoughts on contemporary society. For Dostoevsky, the expression "with a hand out" symbolized a complete state of poverty.
Dostoevsky piamed a detailed synopsis of the Artist's Club Children's
Christmas Party of 1875, and a considerable part of it already existed in his drafts (PSSP,
22 : 180). But he deleted this fiom the final version of the published article, when he decided not to describe the party in a detailed way, because this had been already done by others: "Certainly, 1 will not describe the Christmas tree and the dancing at the
Artists'Club; it was descnbed in a proper time, a long time a30, and 1 have read about it in other articles" (PSSP, 22 : 9).
G. Fridlender commented, "probably, Dostoevsky did not use the description of the Christmas Bal1 in the Artist's Club in a detailed way, because just before the
January 1876 issue of A Writer's Diary was published, a feuilleton by A. Suvorin appeared in -The St. Petersburg Stock Exchange News on January 15. These commentaries also note that there was a second, similar party which took place in the
Artist 's Club, on January 15, 1876 and which was described in the articles by Suvorin and Boborykin (PSSP, 22 : 319). Dostoevsky must have noticed them and decided to delete his own previously written detailed description of such a party which took place during the first week of January fî-om his notebooks.
The other possible reason for deleting this section was that Dostoevsky thought that it might distract his reader's attention fiom the major topic of his story, that of children's poverty and sufferïng.
The final editorial changes on the first issue of the Diary for 1876 were directed towards this version. The writer's initial intention was to put "the fantastic story" at the begiming, and then the story "The Boy with His Hand Out" aller this, and at the end, the material about his visit to the orphanage. These stones were prepared for final publication in the following manner:
1 - The description of the bal1 at the Christmas Party;
2 - The Boy at Christ's Christmas Party;
3 - The Boy with His Hand Out; and
4 - Dostoevsky's visit to the orphanage (see PSSP, 22 : 244).
Initially, the writer had planned to include al1 of this rnaterial in one single chapter as one entry; at the last moment it was divided into several sections, when
Dostoevsky inserted the titles of these stories and separated hem, just before the final printing of the galleys thus creating four above-mentioned sections of this chapter in the final fonn (PSSP, 22 : 244- 245). At first, a single story about children which inctuded a
"boy with his hand out" was one of the versions of the story ''The Boy at Christ's Christmas Party."
The final sequence of the stories show very clearly that the topic of children was developed by means of close unity of both fiction and non-fiction in this chapter.
In the published text of the Dias., Dostoevsky used these stories in the following manner: first, "The Boy with His Hand Out," and then "The Boy at Christ's
Christmas Party." The separation of these materials -- fact and fiction showed the fictional element very clearly, when the readers can see the contrast between the
Christmas celebration and the final tragic end of the beggar boy.
The tale's ending underwent several modifications. The death of the boy and
Iiis ascension to heaven, which appear in ~Uckert'sballad, did not suit the Russian reality, and Dostoevsky finished his story in the following manner: "The next morning, the porters found the tiny body of the runaway boy who had frozen to death. They found his rnother too" (PSSP, 22: 17).
But the writer was not happy with this ending, and in the second edition of -A
Writer's Diary he added that "she (his rnother) died before hirn and they both met in
God's heaven" (PSSP, 22 : 245).
This ending was more logical and presented a frarne for the begi~ingof the story, in which Dostoevsky described the death of his mother: "When he felt his mother's face, he was surprised that she made no movement and had become as cold as the wail" (PSSP, 22 : 15).
As we can see fiom the above examples, the writer made many stylistic changes in the final text of the galleys. These changes were quite significant and at this
point I would like to trace their connection with the overall theme of A Writer's Diary in
order to see where these changes were directed. For exarnple, in "The Boy with His
Hand Out," Dostoevsky made changes to the punctuation of final galleys: "He went with his hand out -- this is a technical term and it means to ask for change" (PSSP, 22 : 13).
In the final version, the verb is changed from the infinitive to the persona1 form; thus the text has a wider meanhg and acquires a more philosophical massage in the previous draft: "He went with his hand out -- this is a technical term and it means that he asked for change" (PSSP, 22 : 244, see a comment to p. 13, line 27).
The story of a boy changes from a single real Iife case to a universal story with a syrnbolic rneaning. This strategy of going from a single case to a more general plan was also used in "The Boy at Christ's Christmas Party" which followed.
In order to observe Dostoevsky's editorial process in the January 1876 issue, I would like to compare fragments of texts in the author's final manuscript with the first and the second printings, and the variants which he edited (see PSSP 22 : 14,244, 258).
These fragments are presented in the folIowing manner:
1. The Author's Final Manuscript.
But 1 am a noveiist and it seems that one story 1 made up my
myself. Why do I write? It seems to me that the story took place
somewhere, sometime, and it happened precisely on the Christmas
Eve. (PSSP, 22 :14). 2. The First Printing.
But I am a novelist and it seems that one story 1 made up my
myself Why do 1 write? It seems to me that it really happened
somewhere, sometime, and it happened precisely on the Christmas
Eve (PSSP, 22 : 258).
3. The Second Version of the First Printing.
But 1 am a novelist and it seems that one story 1 made up my
myself. It seems to me that it reaily happened, yes, this story really
happened somewhere, sometime, and ir happened precisely on
Christmas Eve. It seems to me that there was a young boy in the
ce1Iar (PSSP, 22 : 244).
The underlined phrases in these exampies are those corrected by the author in different versions of the text. By comparing these changes, it becomes obvious that "The
Boy at Christ's Christmas Party" underwent certain changes, and that the author deliberately moved fiom a particuiar, singular event in life to a more concrete visual presentation of this material. For exarnple "it happened somewhere" was changed to
"this happened somewhere, yes, this really happened" in the first printing. Sometimes the factual side was emphasized, but the author also specifically noted the fictional nature of his story: "I just made up a story". In the second version of the first printing, anothet
\Tersion of the introduction appeared, "It seems to me that there was s young boy in the cellar." The writer created more and more details, as he moved fkom the early to the later versions of the text.
The similar considerations were used for the creation of more realistic and
detailed description of the events in "The Boy with His Hand Out." The writer speaks
not only about one boy, but about the typical fate of al1 similar children in Russia. A
particular boy whom he "met at a corner asking for a change" brought the author to
meditations about the general fate of many similar boys: "multitudes of boys, many boys
like this" who were "sent out with a hand" and afierwards "returns to a cellar" (PSSP, 22
: 13-14).
It is significant that Dostoevsky repeatedly used indefinite nouns in this phrase:
"a" cellar, or uses words "multitudes" and "many"; al1 of these parallels demonstrate
repeated and real-li fe cases.
These two stories are related to each other as specific manifestations of a more general case. In particular, Dostoevsky connected them through the repetition of the
phrase "it seems to me." His use of numerous parallel constructions shows us a repeated case, making it more convincing, more real: "The Boy with His Hand Out:" "Children
are strange people; I see them in my dreams (PSSP 22: 13). The next story has a similar parallel: "The Boy at Christ's Christmas Party:" "1 dreamt there was a boy in the cellar
(PSSP 22: 14).
The author draws the reader's attention to the factuality of his stories by speaking that "these stories are hard to believe, but they are al1 real facts" (PSSP 22: 14).
Likewise, in "The Boy at Christ's Christmas Party" the author made changes to increase the factual reference: "This story did take place -- a small boy lived in a cellar"
(PSSP 22: 13).
These two pieces, "The Boy at Christ's Christmas Party" and "The Boy with
His Hand Out," were used one after another, but the original sequence in the drafis of this chapter was different fkom the fina1 published version.
The original sequence, which existed in the drafis, did not follow the logic of the author's narration: the topic of "The Boy with His Hand Out" did not create the logical sequence of the boy's development, and it was originalIy placed before a detaiIed story, "The Boy at Christ's Party" and a story about the children's colony.
Therefore, the writer switched these two stories' places, placing them just afier the introductory story about "The Golden Age." Therefore, the general topic of "The
Boy with His Hand Out" was represented by a particular boy and a particular case fi-om everyday life.
This does not mean that the general topic disappeared. It was used as part of a fictional story, the story of a particular boy representing a generalized case.
It is therefore possible to conclude thar Dostoevsky's artistic process developed as follows: the original fact of reality -- a student of the Medical Academy asking for a change -- was modified in Dostoevsky's plans by events in his life, impressions of a Christmas Party, his visit to an orphanage, and his meeting with poor cliildren, who were even more touching than the original medical student. Al1 of these impressions were then manifested in a fictional piecc which was based on Ruckert's ballad, as Dostoevsky tried to use his own fictional creation as evidence of fact fiom real life. Al1 of tliese examples demonstrate how an original fact in the writer's life -- a meeting with a medical student who was a beggar in December 1875 -- was used both as a ~eneralizedevent, and with reference to real life, "1 kept on meeting on a certain Street corner a little urchin who couId have been no more than seven" (PSSP 22: 13). This tendency to generalize dominated "The Boy with His Hand Out*' and at the same time it contrasted with the concrete reality of "The Boy at Chnst's Christmas Party." Finally, the story "The Boy with His Hand Out" was a concrete manifestation of this general topic
II in "a fantasy story" which appeared in comection with Ruckert's ballad, another literary source.
This close inter-comection demonstrates the coherence and unity of journalism and fiction in A Writer's Diary by Dostoevsky. The writer himself wrote in a very obvious manner about the power of facts and their close relations to fiction: "People tell stories which are impossible to believe, but they are facts" (PSSP, 22 : 14).
Dostoevsky saw the power of facts as a part of reality, which couId sometimes appear fantastic. He wrote A Writer's Diary "as if he was in cornpetition with facts, taking the fantastic side of a fact and then adding his own fantastic quality" (Palievshy
1978 : 125).
The fictional story "The Boy at Christ's Christmas Party" was based on an original event and then developed; it was modified and influenced by other facts. In this story, we can see the implementation of Dostoevsky's ideas about the depth of contemporary li fe, and the realization of the artistic potential of a fact removed Liom its
quotidien context,
4.2. The Power of Fictional Elements Used in the Factual Journalistic Material
as Presented in "A Writer's Diary" by Dostoevsiq
This section is dedicated to the study of the fictional elements which were
included into interpretations of facts in A Writer's Diary. These processes support
further this dissertation's hypothesis: the Diqwas created as a single, cohesive unit; and
one of the manifestations of this thesis is that fact and fiction are very closely joined to
one another in the Diary.
Although the Diary was largely based on facts from everyday Iife, Dostoevsky
created a new reIationship bebveen everyday life and his fiction.
Dostoevsky repeatedly stressed the factual foundation of his witings.
However, he uscd the term "facts" to refer to both factual phenornena and ideas in his
literary works, for example his predictions about the political future of Russia (see section of Europe).
Dostoevsky chose those facts fiorn life which, to his artist's eye, represented
something typical and significant. When he connected literary facts with the facts of life, the writer ofteil linked them with the most important, wide-ranging and generalized phiIosophica1 statements. As it will be demonstrated by numerous examples in this section of the thesis, factuai material was used -- explicitly or implicitly - as means to reach general, theoretical conclusions by seeking out the potentially hidden depths within an everyday fact, in order to discem its broadest and most universal implications.
These basic principles of Dostoevsky's artistic system are very much in evidence in A Writer's Diary, particularly in the issue for 1876, as will be illustrated by several examples.
Dostoevsky starts with the case of a suicide of a young man and goes on to serious generalizations about the Russian life in general, comecting these two entries by the help of Khlestakov, a literary character created by Gogol.
In the berginning of the January issue for 1876, Dostoevsky wrote about an oddity of conternporary Russian life, and used sorne literary examples to clariG it. He recalled Gogol's Khlestakov and, more generally, "the Khlestakov way of li fe" as a phenomenon of Russian life. This characteristic widening of scope is used by the writer to compare different generations and to show the complexity of contemporary life in
Russia: "Haven't you heard about such notes, Dear father, I am 23 years old and I have not done anything," and the note ends up with "1 decided to commit a suicide" (PSSP, 22
: 5).
Dostoevsky goes on to compare Russians with other Literary characters and writers: with Hamlet, with Werther, with Diderot and Voltaire. These in tum lead
Dostoevsky's text to the most generalized and philosophical questions. It is important to note that the author treated a singular case of a suicide as a very typicai, generalized case of contemporary Russian Me. (on Dostoevsky and suicide see Papemo 1998)
The second part of the January 1876 chapter, "The Future Novel. Another
Accidental Family," introduces another angle of the \Miter's discussion of Russian Iife: children abandoned by society, accidental families, their lives and tragedies. Dostoevsky wrote about Perova's murder: a famous criminal case in Russia when a young woman's boy-friend Iost his job, and, in desperation, killed her and then stabbed himself to death.
Again, Dostoevsky takes a single case and then goes to generalizations, presenting it as a typical phenornenon in the Russian society: "A11 such are miscamages of the society, accidental members of accidental families" (PSSP, 22 : 8).
The realities of everyday life are connected here with Dostoevsky's own novel; a few factual detail and their tragic consequences are treated, not in isolation, but as representative of Russian Iife in general at the tirne.
The baIl and the Christmas party at the Artist's club in December 1875 deepened the writer's convictions about Russian problems. He wrote about "children who were dressed in Iuxurious dresses, though at home they have dirty everyday clothes." He presented this as "a very complex notion" when the children at the bal1
"were dressed in such fine costumes, while at home they went about bedraggled" (PSSP,
22 : 9).
This contrast between the dresses of the chiIdren demonstrates the fafse social values which were prevalent within society, and the writer draws more parallels between the school and society in general, where those Russian children could not meet life's everyday challenges: "It's a pity too that everything is made so easy for children nowadays." And the \miter continues later in the sarne paragaph: "Our whole system of education is concerned with making things easier" (PSSP, 22 :19).
The writer's remarks become sharper still as he addresses other facets of contemporary Russian Iife. He specifically refers to an issue of The St. Petersburg News which reported a scandal in the House of the Russian Nobility in Moscow. In connection with this, the writer questioned: "It is strange indeed: why is it that, since my childhood and al1 through my life, no sooner do 1 find myself in a large holiday gathering of
Russians that 1 at once begin thinking that they are only making a pretense, and suddenly start a first-rate row, just as they might in their homes. It's an absurd and fantasticaI notion" (PSSP, 22 : 10).
This contradiction between private and social life in Russian society could be explained, according to Dostoevsky, in that rnost people had an unfortunate tendency to stand up and start a scandal: "I also realize that it's rernarkabfy pleasant (oh, for many, many people) to stand up in the middle of the social gathering," "arnid these Europeans" and "to commit sorne indecency nght in the middle of the hall" (PSSP, 22 : 11).
Dostoevsky clarified his thoughts in reference to other literary types, speaking about Gogol's Chichikov, Derzhimorda, and Khlestakov. He contrasted two groups in
Russian society. On the one hand, the "European-onented part of the Russian society;" and on the other hand, its complete opposite, the provincial Russian nobility which could not behave politely.
These two parts of the Russian educated classes stood in opposition, violently
facing one another, but at the same time inseparable. Russian culture was drawn tiom deep national roots; but the formal codes of etiquette which defined poiite behavior were brought from the West, and thus resulted in two different modes of behavior. People like
Derzhimorda could not appreciate either the meetings of the highest nobility, or the dances, or politeness, or their way of behavior, such people: "What they appreciate is the govemor's baII, a ball with high society like the one Khlestakov has told them about.
Why? Because they themselves don't look like high society" (PSSP, 22 : 11).
If such a person were to attend a ball, he perpetuated a kind of hallucination, or dream, trying to create the illusion that he belonged to this society: "Such a man will corne from the European bal1 just the same brawler he was before" (PSSP, 22: 11).
The lifestyle itseif dictated various forms of theatrical behavior to his adherents; one should play a certain role, but most Russians could not comprehend this theatricality and therefore, Russian life had an intensely contradictory quality.
It becomes obvious fiom this passage that the writer started his story "The
Christmas Party at the Artists' Club" with a particular case - a high society scanda1 at the meeting of the House of the Russian Nobility -- which in tum sparked more abstract and theoreticai generalizations about Russian life.
The Golden Age irr Yozrr Pocket Another smali chapter 'The Golden Age in Your Pocket" is a brief discussion of the concept of "the golden age" which fûrther develops the writer's meditations about
Russian life. The previous, that is the "fathers"' generation. who had begun their lives so much earIier, created false attitudes to life, a false mode of behavior which had became societal nom: "Everyone is in new ciothes, and no one knowing how to Wear them; everyone celebrating, and no one is happy" (PSSP,22 : 12).
People do not know their imer selves, they do not know that they are kind and gentle inside, and that they cmbe much better than they are in reality: "But the problem is that you yourself do not know that you are beautihl" (PSSP, 22 : 12).
One's imer beauty is hidden so deeply that it is hard to understand how to find it, realize it and appIy it to everyday life. in this beauty we can see the potential for "the golden age."
Dostoevsky repeatedly retumed to the topic of imer beauty in a much wider context. He connected it with the deep spintuality of the Russian people, using literary material in combination with numerous facts fiom the everyday Me. He describes the force and beauty of People's ideas: "1'11 turn, rather, to our literature: everything in it of true beauty has been taken from the People'' (PSSP, 22 : 43).
Thus, Dostoevsky treated Russian literature and Russian culture in close comection with the lives of simple people, or the People. The lives of these People, in turn, were connected with the development of literature. These connections between the literature and real life were indicated very clearly on the pages of the Diary. Therefore a combination of various seemingly unrelated facts, current events, literary devices and philosophical meditations provided an understanding of the major topic: Russian life in general.
The topic of Russia appears in different versions, using new shades, ideological situations, facts of life and generalizations, in both monthly chapters and annual issues. Connections between everyday life and literary references are ubiquitous in the Diary. When the literary rnatenal is combined with the presentation of real facts, these facts are used according to the laws of literary creation, and the collection of these real and literary issues generates a plot. The facts of everyday life acquire a wider meaning through their use by Dostoevsky to promote a message, creating "a fantastic reality." In each case, we can observe a web of inter-connections between literary reference and the actual facts from life. Dostoevsky's connections, penetrations and sublimation bnng this hybrid art to its point of highest development in his theoretical conclusions.
1 argue that in the January 1876 issue of the Diary there are two high points, which unite lines and sub-topics. First, there is "The Boy at Christ's Christmas Party," and then in the third chapter, "Russian Society for the Protection of Animals."
Dostoevsky based this other chapter on a fact from everyday life, a report about the tenth anniversary of the Russian Society for the Protection of Animals.
This story also includes a second vignette, which provides an unexpected tum to the narration: the writer's account of the drunk Russian govemrnent courier who beats his driver.
The topic of animal abuse merges with the topic of the abuse of people, and
then the emerging portrait of generalized cnielty is exemplified by a Russian couner.
This cruelty is discussed by the writer not as a single fact, but as a universal aspect of the
decaying social order.
This part of the Diary is therefore composed of a combination of real facts connected to the "Society for the Protection of Anirnals" with the literary device of the writer's memoirs, a case when memoirs function as a literary fact, a more fictionalized fact. He then returns to real life, a case of a wife who stabbed her drunken husband with
2 knife. This literary tactic of uniting a variety of several unusual circumstances and events (see PSSP, 22 : 382) by means of a general topic is characteristic of the writer's style. The real events are not used as separate and unrelated occurrences, but as representations of a single unifj4ng theme. This device could be called the realization of the fictional potential of a fact.
The contrary is also tme: as a rde, Dostoevsky's universal, general themes are based on previously documented factuaI material. Dostoevsky openly statcs this: "These were the facts, for example, like the case when a wife stabbed her husband with a knife.
And these cases could be repeated in hundreds and thousands of instances, as a very typical part of Russian life: there are hundreds and thousands facts like this, al1 you have to do is just open the newspaperç" (PSSP, 22: 29).
The second important topic which the writer discussed in this chapter is the moral makeup of the Russian people, the virtues and vices of an average Russian.
Interestingly, because it demonstrated the absence of boundaries between the
fictional and actual matter, the notes about the courier and peasant Marei were put together in the drafts: "The goverment courier. A picture from my childhood. Marei.
(A ploughing peasant.) A picture from my childhood" (PSSP, 24 : 12 1).
Dostoevsky did not fulfill his original intention of putting these two materiais together because this story, which was based on an actual meeting with the peasant
Marei, was later published as an independent entry in the Diary: "The Peasant Marey"
[see section 3, chapter 1, Febmary 1876 issue]. Dostoevsky apparently wanted to present these personal expenences as obvious examples which illustrated his ideas regarding the humane qualities of the human race, and of Russian people in particular. In his notebook, he wrote regarding the government courier: 'The most important thing is not the picture but the symbol" (PSSP, 24 : 122).
The writer stressed his point very clearly: that a single fact in his literary work represented a generalization and worked as a symbol.
He likewise also interpreted his memoir, an actual event from the past called
"Peasant Marei," as a symbol. This story was dedicated to a particular person and a particular event, but these historical facts supported the generalized picture, which was sketched in the introduction about Russian people.
Finally, Dostoevsky connected his portrait of Konstantin Aksakov with the tlierne of the importance of "the simple People" for the development of Russian literature. Thus we can see the topic of the Russian people extending to its culmination in
literature.
Moreover, the author develops his memoir further, by presenting two contrasting incidents fiom the past, fkom his own past, his imprisonment and early childhood. To generalize about the Russian people, he opposes his own world-view to that of the Polish officer M-cki-
Dostoevsky would not have included his own memoirs in this chapter without general thought, and outside of the context of the other pieces, the memoirs lose much of their meaning.
When the author lacked an appropriate memoir of his own, or particular case fiom life, and when there were no real images supporting his didactic point, he would tken invent a fictional character, a completely fictional figure, which was close to reality.
For exarnple, when he spoke of "the golden age," the writer remembered an argument betsveen A. Suvorin and the manager of the Orel-Kursk Railway (PSSP, 2 1 :
163-4). Suvorin reported in "St. Petersburg News" that a certain passenger, Mr. Golubev, had reserved a whole railway car for himself (PSSP, 21 : 174). In this example,
Dostoevsky portrayed the stereotypical figure of "a crazy rich guy" whom he called
"Vorobiev." In the drafts and notebooks to the Diary he wrote that "he did not know
Golubev at al1 and called him Vorobiev," in order to make sure that his readers would understand that this was a general type: "Who is Mr. Golubev? 1 don? know him at all. 1 speak about a concept. Therefore, Iet us cal1 him Vorobiev" (PSSP, 24 : 113-1 14). On the next pages, the wnter refers to Vorobiev again: "Who is Vorobiev? 1 don't know, he is an imaginary figure" (PSSP, 24 : 126).
It was important for Dostoevsky to see the tendencies of the social development, to personify these tendencies, to describe most typical, characteristic cases, and then to find a real character, or to create a fictional character who could manifest these tendencies. This protagonist could be partially or comptetely fictional, but it had to be symbolic: a si@, an icon, an image. It is important to stress that a real situation taken from everyday life could also play its role as a symbol, and could be put into the context of a literary fact, or a group of facts, and then add some fictional pieces, thus realizing the potential of a fact imaginatively. The author could either infuse the meaning in a fact or drew new meanings from it.
The author used this principle of integration '90 think the situation through further" ('dodumat'), and to inhse it with its essential meaning, to realize the fictional potential of a given fact imaginatively.
This realization of the fact's potential was an explicitly pronounced characteristic of the Dairy as a whole, starting fiom 1873. For example, Dostoevsky wrote about a boy and a crafisman in "Little Pictures:" "And I imagined somehow that this craftsman's wife died a month ago" (PSSP, 21 : 1 1 1). And then the imagined picture is developed into more precise details: "Now the father and the son went somewhere far, to Vyborgskaia district, to visit a distant family. They put on the samovar and a cup of tea (PSSP, 21 : 111).
Therefore, in "The Little Pictures," the author completed the life of an
unknown person - a crafismen with a boy -- based on his own obsen-ations, taking a
factual reality as his starting point.
This principle of "thinking imaginatively" was continued in the ensuing
issues, and in rnost of the chapters of the Diary. For example, the Diary for 1876 had numerous situations with the author realizing the potential of a fact imaginatively.
The KomiIova Case.
In particular, in the October issue of the Diary, Dostoevsky wrote about the
Kornilova case, a woman who threw her young step-daughter out of a window. In an earlier issue of May 1876, speaking about another woman in the Kairova case, the writer stressed her strange behavior: "The act of this monster-stepmother is really bizarre; perhaps it realIy should be given a detailed and deep analysis that might even lighten the case against this criminal woman" (PSSP, 23: 19).
In the chapter "A Case That is Not as Simple as it Seems" in the Diary issue for October 1876, he continued this report; "the history seemed very simple," but at the same time it was much more complicated than it initially appeared to be, than a simple court decision "to exiIe Ekaterina Kornilova to Siberia for life" (PSSP, 23: 136).
Dostoevsky contradicted the jury at the courthouse, arguing that this case was more complicated than it appeared. He directed his readers "to think more and to follow the facts." The Mter presented the development of the events surrounding Kornilova's actions and remarked regarding the real facts: "These are the facts - what can be more simple? But at the same time, there are so many fantastic things in thern" (PSSP, 23:
137).
This new presentation of the facts made by Dostoevsky demonstrated a new and unexpected vision of the case, reveaiing the tmth to the jury members who had previously perceived only the outer formalities of the case and found Komilova guilty.
Dostoevsky suggested that one must look at how events might have developed in this case. Kornilova's husband would visit her in the prison hospital, they would look together at their new-born cfüld, and at the elder daughter, the same step-daughter who survived afier Kornilova had thrown her out of the window; they would talk together in a simple aiid straightfonvard way, and forgive each other, when they met at the railway station before going to Siberia (PSSP, 23 : 141).
Dostoevsky noted that the pure description of this event has a potentially strong fictional meaning: "You can try to describe this story in a short novel -- it might be better than al1 our poems and novels" (PSSP, 23 : 141).
By "the real truth," Dostoevsky meant not only the obvious and superficial meaning, but another aspect, that is a fantastic, or artistic meaning which connected the real logic of the events with his artistic imagination. This analytical approach to real material was cleariy demonstrated by the wnter. Returning to the December issue, he suggested "realizing the potential of the fact imaginatively" (dodumyvanie), speaking about his drearns, which were created for a particular purpose, "And al1 these drearns of
mine, they were written not for special effects, or pictures, but simply 1 feIt in them the real truth taken fiom life" (PSSP, 24 : 37-38).
Dostoevsky's visit to Kornilova in prison helped him to support his arguments with real facts, and he stressed that the husband of the accused woman really visited her and that they really forgave each other: 'The husband did corne, and does corne to prison to visit her, they do cry on other's shoulders, they do forgive each other and part with each other" (PSSP, 24: 38).
The comection between the imagination based on the logic of the real fact, and the material from real life lay in the hidden meaning of the real fact, which created a tragic, drarnatic interpretation of reality, and manifested Dostoevsky's universal understanding of "the present, conternporary time." This formula presents the key to the understanding and interpretation of the major hidden message of A Wnter's Diary.
Similar examples of the relationship between factual reality and the author's imagination are numerous, and appear throughout A Writer's Diary. Dostoevsky's rneditations and his artistic imagination about his time came fkom real facts fiom everyday li fe.
In particular, in part two of the May 1876 issue, the writer speaks ironically about the Bogomolova case, a servant, who was convicted for the murder of a new-bom baby (PSSP, î3:2 1,367). The Bogomolova case was presented to the court on March 19,
1876. The drafl version of the February issue of the Diary, which was dedicated to the Kronenberg case, refers to the same topic: "Humans are definitely better than animals,
but how do humans treat their children? Some of these people threw their in the
\vashrooms" (PSSP, 22 : 200).
The commentators of the writer's working notebooks and drafts to the May
issue of the Diary stress that Dostoevsky wrote down the notes about the child abuse in
connection with nurnerous actual cases: "Probably, Dostoevsky read or heard about this
crime afier it was committed ... or maybe the February statement has a generalizing
meaning (it was not a single case of the murder of a new-born baby)" (PSSP, 24: 2 16).
Dostoevsky's notes seem already to have a very special quality, which should
be taken into consideration: sometimes the literary facts could be prophetic, and could predict the factual real - life events, as in Konilova's case.
It is valid, therefore, to examine the parts of A Writer's Diary in which the author wrote about the Russian reality of his time as Iiterary phenomena from different viewpoints, illustrating the major therne with real facts of life.
When Dostoevsky discussed issues of international politics, he did not generally rely upon events which happened to him, but tended to use statements, predictions and prophesies which he tried to present as facts; in those cases when its actual impressions were missing, the Diqloses its sharpness and force. The ideological tension becomes weaker, and Dostoevsky's writing sometimes even lacks logic.
There were very few real facts from the \Miter's own life which could be used as support for his arguments in the political part of the Diary; a rare example of persoanl political experience can be Dostoevsky's trip to Dresden during the Franco-Prussian war.
in most cases, there were only theones and international news, and on those pages when the witer does not use the artistic force of facts, the Diaiy loses its emotional and artistic
force.
In cases when a real fact of life of simple people is discussed and is comected with the major phenornena of tirne and miter's theoretical statements, one can see the artistic depth and force of a particular chapter.
Dostoevsky's most powerfùl pages are those in which joumalism and fiction are linked to each other, the facts presented together with the fiction, and supported by a generalizing statement which reveals a theoreticai meaning.
It is valid to conclude therefore that literary facts CO-existwith fantasy; that the actual events coexists with theoretical messages producing the very powerful moral messase of A Writer's Diary, This CO-existencealso explains the peculiarities of the organization of the material in the Diary. 4.3. The Factual Background of Fiction in the "Diary:"
"A Hundred-Year-Old Woman"
In Dostoevsky's notes for 1876-77, he remarked the following: "A meeting with a hundred-year-old woman" (PSSP, 24 : 157). And on the next page, he repeated:
"An oId wornan, 104 years oId" (PSSP, 24 : 58).
These notes were the first drafts of the next issue of the Diary which included the story "A Hundred-Year-Old Woman" dedicated to the description of a meeting between "a lady fiom t!!e Street and a hundred-year-old woman."
As Anna Dostoevskaya, the witer's wife wrote, the story "A
Hundred-Year-Old-Woman" was based on a real event which happened ta her, which she related to her husband (Dostoevskaya 1965 : 64).
Dostoevsky contemplated this material for a long time. He came back to this topic several tirnes, as is obvious from his drafts and notebooks on "A Hundred-Year-Old
Woman:" "An old woman. if one could present this fact in an artistic way, that is, if a great artist could get inspired by it, then we could have a wonderful picture, with thoughts, skill, and with cursed questions" (PSSP, 24 : 167).
These notes provide several important dues to Dostoevsky's understanding of the depiction of reality. In particular, he stressed that an artist who sirnply re-created the copy of a fact must be wrong, because a person exists both in the present and the future, and he cannot be described only in the present time: "Realists are wrong because a man is completed only in the hiture and is not limited only by the present" (PSSP, 24: 247).
This thought was further developed with the following statement: 'There is no
tmth in realism alone" (PSSP, 24: 248).
Dostoevsky then argued that the facts of life could only be presented to the
readers in complete and full form if a tendency in their development was mentioned.
This general thought or tendency should infuse each fact, each part of the whole picture.
Dostoevsky understood that to present the facts in an artistic manner meant to
find a special form. A work of art is not a simple description of facts, but requires some
imagination and fantasy. Al1 these thoughts were used by Dostoevsky when he worked
on the story "A Hundred-Year-Old -Woman."
Dostoevsky himself called this chapter "a vague impression of his meeting
with a hundred-year-old woman, a little sketch without any plot" (PSSP,22 : 79).
The author seems to have made these small side remarks about the
independence of this particular story in the context of the whole chapter. However it is
only apparently independent. In reality, this chapter fits harmoniously into the texture of
the whole Writer's Diary, without interrupting its unity. It is close to the gcneral background of "Little Pictures" in the 1873 issue, which had a touch of warm humor stemming from the physiological sketch of the life of the Russian capital (PSSP, 22: 125).
It also provides a continuation of one of the major themes of this work, which
is evident when the author described his pleasure in walking arnong the streets of St.
Petersburg, trying to guess what would happen to this or that particular person, just as this fanciful, wandering imagination was also described in "Little Pictures:" "When 1
wonder about the streets I enjoy examining certain total strangers, studying their faces
and trying to guess who they are, how they Iive, what they work at and what is on their
minds at this particular moment" (PSSP, 2 1 : 11 1).
Dostoevsky completed the story of a young boy and the craftsman going to
visit their distant relatives. A similar thing occurs in the story "A Hundred-Year-Old
Woman" when, afier the end of the "real story," there is an imaginary continuation.
The whole chapter is divided into two parts: first, the historically tnie anecdote of a young woman meeting with an old woman, and second, a fictional story told by the author which completes the real event.
The second part, the artistic sketch, would be impossible without the first part, which provides a starting point, and in which the writer introduces some characteristics of the narration: "an old woman, with a crooked back and with a stick in her hand" who sits at each bench on her way to have a brief rest, going to visit "a family for dinner."
The first part of the chapter is factual, an organic part of A Writer's Diary.
Dostoevsky often used stories told by others, and he frequently referred to other articles, or books. It is important to stress that the author does not separate his own, invented story and create another work. The title "A Hundred-Year-Old Woman" refers to both parts: actual and fictional. These two parts are very closely connected to each other through the organization of details, the development of events, and the structure of each story. The first part, in which "another woman tells about her meeting in the Street with a 100-year old woman," is presented to the author, who responds with the second part.
The continuation of the plot is directly addressed fiom the author to the reader.
The old woman tells the members of her family about the lady she met previously, and about the five kopecks she received. Dostoevsky stresses the small detail of this coin repeatedly: when the old woman dies, the coin rests in her hand, touching her grandson:
"The old woman - her right hand which rests on the table, holds the five kopecks, while her lefi hand has remained on the shouider of her eldest great-g-randson Misha, a boy of about six" (PSSP, 22 : 79).
These connections between the first and the second parts of the story demonstrate its unity. Dostoevsky was not content with the particular fact of the meeting with an old woman. The description of that person was not complete in the actual fact. ln order to discover her real imer nature and fate, it was necessary to see everything through time, and put this person into context with the events happening in the past, present and future. This device does not contradict the logic of artistic thought; indeed, it follows the logic of life in its full realization of the fact itself.
The placement of "A Hundred-Year-Old Woman" in the context of A Wnter's
Diary defined not only the matenal of this particular chapter, but the relationship of the chapter with the work as a whole, and it presaged "The Meek One" in the future.
There are several paraIlels between these two works. The first short story occupies the major part of a chapter; "The Meek One" occupies a whole chapter. In "The
Meek One," Dostocvsky developed questions which had been discussed in the October issue of A Writer's Diq, particularly, the topic of suicide as trial, which appeared in a part of the January issue in a form of a person who is thinking about contemporary life and tries to escape fioni this life.
In "A Hundred-Year-Old Wornan" we can see a depiction of a simple Russian family. Most probably, the members of this woman's family are Russians who recentIy moved At the end of the chapter, the author stressed that the events described by him were very common, and admired the life of such farnilies: "God bless lives and deaths of these simple, good people!" (PSSP, 22 : 79). In fact, this is a continuation of the author's thoughts about simple Russian People, which were repeatedly stressed in the earlier January and February issues of -A Wnter's Diary, in chapters such as "Russian Society For the Protection of Animals," "About Love to the People," and "Peasant Marei." Without doubt "Little Pictures" and "A Hundred-Year-Old Woman" occupy an important place in the context of Dostoevsky's Diary. They relate to his principle of the power of real fact, which lies at the very basis of the writer's artistic system. The notion of "the power of facts" first appeared in A Writer's Diary, and then \vas further developed in other works by the witer. These facts also create the dramatic tension of an artistic work, they bring the fiction closer to the present tirne, and bring the tragedy of real events into art- Two Suicides In the October issue of the Diary, in a small chapter 'Two Suicides," Dostoevsky wrote about the tragic death of Liza Hertzen and the suicide of a young fernale tailor who jumped fiom the window of a ta11 building holding an icon in her hands. The writer mentioned the following note addressed to Hertzen's daughter, 'The final outline of the September issue. The Eastern Question. Ragozin. About Hertzen's daughter" (PSSP, 24 : 262). But the work on this literary material was started only at the time when the suicide of the Hertzen's daughter was followed by the news about the suicide of a young tailor. The notes about these suicides were put next to each other in the notebook, when the lies of these two women were presented as a comparisons: "1. Two deaths. The Hertzen's daughter. Cold darkness and boredom. The step-mother. 2. Then, out of the window, with an icon. The meek one commits a suicide" (PSSP, 22 : 275). Thus, the notes about these two deaths were put together in one chapter. In both of these cases, Dostoevsky saw a similar picture: the impossibility of fulfilling herself in the contemporary worId for a young person. However, he was not satisfied with this simple statement of fact. He required that there should be some inner generalizations and the philosophical interpretations of the fact, taken fiom life. The writer was not satisfied with the visual connections between these two tragedies, and tried to fmd some dceper common ground for these stones: "though they look simple, they are very different deaths" which gave the writer senous food for thoughts: "How different the two deaths are? And which, 1 ask, of these two souls bore more tonnent on this earth?" (PSSP,23 : 146). These two events ended with similar consequences -- the end of existence for IWO suffering souls who each suffered in different way. The statement of these two facts of iife did not satisQ the writer, and he makes an attempt to understand the sufferings of these two young people, the sufferings of their souls, and "to study the reasons" which brought them to the tragic end, as well as al1 the situation with suicides in the society (see Papemo 1998) Understanding the connection between the facts and the social background is an important feature of al1 Dostoevsky's works. He wrote the following in his notes speaking about the notion of fantastic in art: "By the way -- what is fantastic in art? The secrets of the spirit which are conquered and understood forever" (PSSP, 23 : 190). The contents of the chapter "Two Suicides" coutd be divided into two parts, with hvo conclusions: 1 - "The Sentence," and 2 - "The Meek One." At this time of this work, Dostoevsky used his drafts for his unfinished works, in particular his planned novel The Thinker, and other un finished novels (PSSP, 24 : 3 82). Dostoevsky tried to study the facts of Iife in al1 their complexity, and develop artistic possibilities for the facts, to realize the potential of the facts imaginatively: "N.B. The most important thing is to avoid psychology and just describe the facts" VSSP, 24 : 3 17). The only artistic depiction of life, according to the author, is possible by "following the hidden logic of the facts." Without doubt both, "The Sentence" and "A Meek One" create a kind of psychologica1 tension in A Writer's Diary, forcing the topic to its very expressive culmination. This is explained by the artistic manner of Dostoevsky's writing: starting From impressive facts, and continuing though the literary material to philosophical generalizations. These fragments in A Writer's Diary are related to each other in the dialogue about "Christian thought and separation" (Zakharova 1974 : 13 1-1 36) which \vas used in the context of the major theme in this work. These considerations bring the two monologues doser together, using a "dialogue situation" in both of them. This connection between the artistic aspect and factual background could be considered as one of the major principles of the structural organization of A Writer's Diary. In the long mn, this artistic principle in the creation of the Diary fomed a kind of unity in which both fictional and journalistic works are interconnected. The presentation of the artistic message of the text is achieved by revealing the artistic potential of fact and through its combination with the Iiterary material. Dostoevsky's fictional pages and his 188 references to the literary works were bascd on deep, major, inner mles of el 1 life as he saw it. Al1 of this was manifested in the logical organization of A Writer's Diary and \vas one of the major factors which, together with the artistic text, creates the reader's tension and interest in the work. Here we cmsee the absence of any one pure genre, and tliis esplains the peculiar combination of genres in A Writer's Diary. The artistic interpretation of facts brings them outside of the realm of traditional joumalism, but at the sarne tirne it is not enough to create a purely fictional work. Fiction and joumalism are the organic and naîural parts of the genre of A Writer's Diary. Conclusions. In this dissertation, 1 made the first monographie study of the textual unity and cohesion of A Wnter's Diary, one of the major Dostoevsky's works. Four chapters of the dissertation present four different approaches to the problem of unity of the literary text under investigation: I - conceptual cohesion, 2 - structural cohesion, 3 - referntial cohesion, and 4 - intellectual cohesion. In the first chapter on conceptual cohesion. 1 argue that Dostoevsky was deeply involved with his journalistic career at al1 stages of his life, and this aspect of his work foms an important part of his literary heritage: in his early joumalistic works of the 1840s-60s, Dostoevsky refined his cornmitment to the creation of a new kind of Russian journalism which would be later developed in A Writer's Diary. In his first journalistic works of the l84Os, Dostoevsky stressed the growing role of literatiire in Russian social Iife. indicating the necessity of a detailed and humane exploration of contemporary social issues. During the l86Os, Dostoevsky stressed the social role of literature and the national peculiarities of Russian literature; he spoke about the "t>picality" and "popular spirit" of Russian literature, and contributed to literary polemics on a nurnber of other theoretical questions, such as the artistic side of the literature, the nature of a literary talent, the connection between fiction and the contemporary life. During Dostoevsky's years as a journalist, several major periods of the creation of A Writer's Diary can be identified: 1 864. Notebook. 1867. Meditations on the concept and the general outfine. 1872. The explanation of the major message of the Diary in The Demons and at the same time a mention of The Diary of a Literary Artist; 1 873. Editorial work at The Citizen. The writer's decision to edit The Citizen was influenced by several factors, including his long-standing desire to do something of the sort, to have a break from a creation of literary fiction, to study contemporary Russian life in more detail and by the practical necessities of raising a farnily. The causes of the writer's resignation are interesting because they sketch his social position and intellectual development in candid detail. Dostoevsky's resignation was the product of a combination of factors. First, his health was poor, and he was physically exhausted by his work. Second, his views did not coincide with Meshchersky's and he could not collaborate with the pubIisherYsposition. Finally, and most importantly, he planned to continue to write novels, and therefore needed more time. The editor's work provided rich matenal for his future work, through his daily contact with the readers, his close attention to the daily news and his fiequent interactions with the press. The Citizen gave him a better chance to understand contemporary Russian iife. The diversity of the topics, which the writer brought together, and his numerous remarks about the unity of these diverse topics demonstrate that Dostoevsky perceived the Diary to be a single work, a whole, and that this single work took the form of a persona1 review of contemporary events, a diary. This work as a whole can be more easily understood when we analyze it as a special genre (fictionaljoirrnalism) consisting of several sub-genres (short stories, memoirs, journalism, literary cnticism, etc.). This genre of fictional journalism was completely new in world Iiterature. It combines traditional genres such as rnemoirs, fiction, literary cnticism, letters, joumalism, and political reviews, and yet, Dostoevsky considered the Diary to be a single and unified whole. The writer nevx treated his Diary as an anthoiogy, as a mechanical collection of different stories. On the contrary, Dostoevsky often repeated that it had one general message: it descnbed the major developments and events of current Russian life. Dostoevsky repeatedly stressed that the genre of the Diaxy surpassed conventional boundaries, and that he was engaged in a continual struggle to define his creation, thou& lie considered it as a whole, a single work. I believe that the work's self-imposed unity -- that is -- Dostoevsky's repeated definition of it as a work, a single piece -- defines it as a generic whole, a genuinely new form which may be identified asfictional joumalisnr. This name reflects the paradoxical features, which Dostoevsky integrated: an approach at once documentary and fictional. References to everyday life are abound in Dostoevsky's fiction; on the other hand, his documentary, journalistic works are profoundly marked by his instantly recognizable narrative voice, and by the fiequent intrusion of fictional elements. This relationship behveen the fictional and docurnentary sides of Dostoevsky's writing reached its peak in his Diary. In the second chapter on referential cohesion, I studied the mechanism of repeated references to tirne, space and narration type contribute to the textual unity of the Diary. Dostoevsky refers most fiequently in A Writer's Diary to such periods of time as a century, a year, a month, a week, a day, an hour, and a moment. I believe that these divisions of time are comected with particular events and facts in the Diary. For example, the use of years or decades is connected with historical epochs ("time of the 40s") or major events (French Revolution). The months and weeks are mentioned with connection to Dostoevsky's literary activity; and days or hours relate to highly persona1 moments from the author's expenenced and textually recollected persona1 history, as well as turning points in the narration. This interconnection between penods of time and semantic topics is another example of the coherence of the Diary as a whole. Al1 the above mentioned characteristics of Dostoevsky's temporal style are very significant feature of his writing. They contribute to the temporal cohesion of the Diary making it a piece of writing rnainly concentrated on the Russian contemporary life, on the present, which is one of the major features of the journalistic style. Space is used by Dostoevsky in A Writer's Diary as orie of the keys to text cohesion. The author uses several; major geographical locations in a consistent, recurrent manner, which adds to the coherence of A Wnter's Diary. The author created a Iiterary piece which is limited by geographical borders, and the creation of this space has its own peculiarities, in particular the limitations of the elFentsand plot developments in some particular spatial limits. Generally speaking. every literary work has its spatial limitations which do not exclusively define but greatly contnbute to its cohesion. For example, spatial boundaries of the Defoe's Robinson Crusoe are defined by an island in the Atlantic Ocean; or Joyse's Cnysses is Iimited by the streets of Dublin. In the same way, Dostoevsky's narrator and protagonists are limited to several major spatial boundaries, a limited number of temtories which are repeated throughout different chapters and sections of the Diqand which contribute to i ts general spatial cohesion. Among the major regions, areas, or space boundaries within A Wnter's Diary are the following: Russia (including St. Petersburg, Moscow, Russia as a nation);Westem Europe (England, France, and Germany); the Slavic World (Bulgaria, Poland, Serbia); -the Balkan Peninsula, which is closely connected with the so-called Eastern Question, and partia!Iy overlaps the Slavic and European countries, but also inciudes an additional power - Turkey; distant locations: USA, Japan, China, Afnca, etc. The image of Russia as geopphicai space is the most widely repeated one througho ut the text and it creates one of the strongest images of A Writer's Diary. It can be associated with other images: a great nation; the center of the Orthodox World; the biggest country in Europe, and so on. Dostoevsky uses many different points of view and types of narration in his Diary. The following factors could be singled out as very charactenstic feahires of this technique: point of view on the plane of phraseology; moving point of view; multiple point of view; inserted narration or point of view; actualhmaginary dialogue. AI1 this varied inventory of different types of narration and point of view of the narrator represents specific artistic device used by the author. These types of narration serve different purposes: they contribute to the polyphony and variety of viewpoints; they show the complexity of the situation; they create a special atmosphere of intimacy in conversation between the author, narrator and reader. These different types of narration recur throughout different sections and chapters, thus contributing to the overall cohesion of A Writer's Diary. In the third çhapter on structural cohesion, I distinguish two types of structural relationships in the text of A Writer's Diary: intra-textual, that is relationships between different fragments of the text (fiames); and extra-textual, that is references to other writers and other literary works. They contribute to the coherence of the Diary in the following way: consecutive frarnes show the linear connection of episodes, sections and chapters; general fiames show their overall, non-linear and semantic connections that is how several fragment of the text are United by one general topic. References to other Iiterary artists and works represent a very special, but widely repeated and characteristic aspect of the Diary's cohesion: they are scattered throughout the Diary thus making different chapters and sections related to one another. The author of the Diary repeatedly analysed the works of other authors. and he created a whole system of critena for such analysis, which was shown in the examples of articles dedicated to 1. Turgenev, George Sand and Leo Tolstoy. The author of the Diary. as a rule, began his article dedicated to another writer with an overview of his or her social position. This is especially obvious in the pieces about Turgenev and George Sand -- this technique was applied in the analysis of the works by other writers as well. Whether Dostoevsky studied the artistic merits of a particular work, or particdar literary images, or the social impact of the work on society, he combined journalistic, political and artistic analysis in which he expressed his point of view on the works by another writer. adding to it his own position and views on literature, art, politics, and society. I argued that the pages dedicated to the literary criticism are united by the general theme of the Diaxy, that is the topic of the contemporary Russian life. These numerous references relate to different aspects of literary cnticism: 1 - positive influences of French literature on Russian literature and George Sand's belief in human dignity and positive morals and progress, especially those of fernale characters (George Sand); 2 - peculiarities of the Russian culture and its connections with the West, and the Dostoevsky's views on Tolstoy's novel as the best achievement of Russian culture and literature (Anna Karenina); 3 - strong criticism of the views of Westemizers, and Turgenev's protagonist Potugin (Smoke by Turgenev). Al 1 these seemingly diverse topics on literary cnticism contributed to the cohesion of the Diav, first of al1 by discussing and highlighting different aspects of the topic of the contemporary Russian life; secondly, by numerous repeated references to the similar topics, scattered in different sections and chapters; and thirdly by expressing Dostoevsky's views on literature and art. As it was demonstrated by numerous examples, the author discusses a certain topic (literary criticism in this case) repeatedly, in different ways, in different chapters; these repeated references to the same topic contribute to the cohesion of the whoIe literary work. In particular, on the pages of A Writer's Diary dedicated to the literary criticism. Dosioevsky repeatedly stressed the active role of literature in society and dedicated many pages to meditations on the issue of the image of a writer as a historical type, "both as a person and an artist." This also adds to the structural and semantic cohesion of the Diary. In the fourth chapter on intellectual cohesion, 1propose that the fiction and joumalism in the Diary are so closely integrated as to be inseparable: the fictional works have numerous journalistic tendencies, and in the joumalism we cm see the constant presence of the artistic moment. I argue that there is an inseparable unity between the journalism, factual events and the fictional works in A Writer's Diary. In particular, I propose the following hypothesis about the creation of the stories about c hildren in 1 876 January section - that Dostoevsky, knowing real facts about the student at the Medical Academy (who was clearly mentioned in the early drafts for this topic), used him 3s the starting point for his fictional piece ( a short story) and then for his future meditations about the fate of the young generation in Russia. The notes about "a young boy with his hand out" are very rare in his drafts, and it is logical to suppose a hypothesis that they reflect not the actual fact reported in the Diary. but the development of the children's topic in general. Dostoevsky's artistic process developed as follows: the original fact of reality -- a student of the Medical Academy begging for money -- was modified in Dostoevsky's plans by events in his life. impressions of a Christmas party, his visit to an orphanage, and his meeting with poor children, who were even more touching than the original medical student. A11 of these impressions were then manifested in a fictional piece which was based on Rukkert's poem. The short story "The Boy at Christ's Christmas Party" was based on an original event and then developed; it was modified and infiuenced by other facts. ui this story, we can see the implementation of Dostoevsky's ideas about the depth of contemporary life, and the realization of the artistic potential of a fact removed fiom its quotidian context. The further study of other sections provides the analysis of the fulfillment of the artistic, fictional potential of facts in A Writer's Diary. This process provides further evidence for this dissertation's main hypothesis: that fact and fiction form an indissoluble unity in the Diary. Fictional elernents were used -- explicitly or implicitiy -- as means to reach general, theoretical conclusions by seeking out the potentially hidden depths within an everyday fact, in order to discern its broadest and most universal implications. A combination of various unrelated facts, current events, literary devices and philosophical meditations provided an understanding of the major topic: Russian life in general. I believe that the great ideological message of the Diary develops along several major lines, which were united at the end in the all-encompassing topic of the Russian people. Another case of going fkom a simple fact to the generalization by the means of fictional elements is the section "Russian Society for the Protection of Animais." It is based on a fact from everyday life, a report about the tenth anniversary of the Russian Society for the Protection of Animds. The plot provides an unexpected turn to the narration: the writer's account of the drunk Russian postal coumier beats his groom. The topic of animal abuse merges with the topic of the abuse of people, and then the emerging portrait of generalized cruelty is exemplified by a coumer. This inexplicable cruelty is discussed by the writer not as a single fact, but as a universal aspect of the decaying social order. The literary tactic of uniting a variety of several unusual circurnstances and events by means of a general topic is characteristic of the writer's style. The real events are not used as separate and unrelated occurrences, but as representations of a single uniQing theme. The contrary is also tme: as a mie, Dostoevslcy's universal, general themes are based on previously documented factuai material. Dostoevsky likewise also interpreted the story of the "Peasant Marei" as a syrnbol. This story was dedicated to a particular person and a particular event, but these histoncal facts supported the generalized picture. Sometimes the argument could be supported by real , or imaginary characters (Muzhik Marei, Vorobiev-Golubev, etc.) The pnnciple of "realizing the potential of a fact imaginatively'' was continued in many issues, and most of the chapten of the Diary, for example in a story of an old woman or a crafisman with a young boy, when the first part of story of a factual event, and the continuation is created by the author's imagination, or in the analysis of criminal cases. Dostoevsky contradicted the jury at the court house, convincing them that this case \vas more complicated than it appeared. He directed his readers '30 think more and to follow the facts." The connection between the imagination based on the logic of the real fact, and the rnaterial fiom real life lay in the hidden meaning of the real fact, which created a tragic, dramatic interpretation of reality, and manifested Dostoevsky's universal understanding of "the present, contemporary reality." Dostoevsky's most powerfûl pages are those in which journalism and fiction are iinked to each other, tha facts presented together with the fiction, and supported by a generalizing statement which reveals a theoretical meaning. It is valid to conchde therefore that literary facts CO-existwith fantasy; that the actual coexists with theoretical producing the very powerful moral message of A Writer's Diary. This CO-existencealso explains the peculiarities of the organization of the material in the Diary. An interesting principle of comecting fact and fiction was used in the story "A Hundred-Year-OId Woman" when, after the end of the "real story," there is an imaginary continuation. The whole chapter is divided into two parts: first, the historically true anecdote of a young woman meeting with an old woman, and second, a fictional story told by the author which completes the real event. These two parts are very closely connected to each other through the organization of details, the development of events, and the structure of each story. Additionally, the writer put this person into context with the events happening in the pst, present and fiiture. This device does not contradict the Iogic of artistic thought; indeed, it folIows the logic of Iife in its full realization of the fact itself. The unification of journalism and fiction in "Two Suicides," 'The Sentence" and "A -Meek One" create a kind of psychological tension in A Writer's Diary, forcing the topic to its very expressive culmination. This is explained by the artistic manner of Dostoevsky's writing. starting from an impressive facts, and continuing though the literary fictional material to philosophical generalizations on suicides. Finally, this artistic principles in the creation of the Diary formed the unity in which both fictional and journalistic works are intercomected. The presentation of the artistic message of the text is achieved by revealing the artistic potentiaI of fact and through its combination with the literary material. Dostoevsky's fictional pages and his references to the titerary works were based on deep, major, inner niles of the everyday Iife. The artistic interpretation of facts brings thern outside of the realm of traditional journalism, and creates a purely fictional work. Al1 this contributed to the cohesion of the work in general. The List of Ouotations in the Oriainal Russian. The abbrey.*iation "PSSPa stands for: AOCTO~BCKM~~0.M. ~oJIHo~ co6pa~xeCOVMH~HM~~ B 30 TOMàX, JIe~x~rpan:Hay~a, 1Ç75. TOM 1-30. CFAPTER 1. CONCEPTUAL COHESION, MH Aonmia neYzTaTbcR, Hanpmep, mnasa~s-Han (PSSP 28,l : 376). P.29, ~I~o~KT~~IMCHO~~ KHMrM ... BCerO 6yse~6 JïMCTOB B MecRu. (Literaturnoe nasledstvo, 1971 : 232). Xo~yM~G~B~TL, BO~OTRC~, HeyTo 9po~era3e~b1. (PSSP, 28- 2 : 224). P-34. OH B3Rn KR ce6s 3TM O~R~RHHOCTMBpeMeHHO, B BHAe OT-a OT XYAOE~CTB~HHO~~pa6o~u Pl PdAM B03MOXHOCTM 03HaKOMMTbC5I 6mme c ~eqlqeg~A~~~CTBMT~~~HOCT~~D (Dostoevskaya 1971 : ~OCTO~BCKM~~mulH53Jï Ha ce62 peAaKTOpCTB0 BïïOIlbDcaX, a mcnb 06 TOM noGan M~MKOB (Russki Vestnik, 1901, Nu.1 : 130). 3aTPYAHMTeJIbHO ... Tpe60~anMcbCpeACTBa AOBOJïbHO 3~a~x~enb~bxe(Dostoevskaya 1971 : 244). MHoroe Hano c~azia~b,y;nz Yero M K xypHarry npmKHyn (PSSP, 29 - 1 : 262). P.37. Bce BbnueCKa3aHHMe 06c~os~enbc~saTaK ymyuaroue H&CTBOB~~MHa Qezopa MMxafino~~~a,~TO yxe oceHbro 1873 roAa OH CTan TRrOTMTbCR PeAaKTOpCTBOM (Dostoevskaya 1971 : 254). P.40. np~naa0~M3 CMnbHbEX, POJTOBHaFI 60nb M M36MThi HOrM. (PSSP, 27 : 107) +enbe~o~3a Mecsq ... CBR~~HH&~c o64eM uenb~ofiPf~eeM (PSSP, 29-1 : 73). P.43. M3~al~"J[H~BHMK ~MC~T~JIS,"TrOAITMCKà Xe BeJïMKa, HO ïïOicynaKl?l OTAenbHO (no ce% POCCMM)ZOBOJïbKO MHOI'O. Bcero neYaTalo B 6000 e~3e~nrrrrpaxM Bce rrponam (PSSP, 29 - 2 : 75-76). CmPTER 2. Referential cohesion. P.54. Moe rxepBoe BcTynrreHMe Ha nMTepaTypHoe norrpmqe ... (PSSP, 21 : 8). P.56. TM nmax, KoTopue, no sepe Een~~c~oro,He Mornx He cp;enaTb CBOMX rrpec~ynne~~fi(PSSP, 21 : 12). P.58. OT~Uero 6m, KaxeTcx, neKapeM (PSSP, 21 : 10). P.62. B~~MHcK(MM)... 3a~e~Ee ceM~ac, 3a~e~ He TaK c~opo (PSSP, 21 : 252). A BOT noYeMy He cerom, noYeMy He za~~pa?(PSSP, 21 : 12). XOTL TeM CepAue OTBeW, YTO IIOCTOIO M TiOCMOTPED Ha pa6o?y, ~a~o~eq-TOM y Hac 6y~e~xo~s onHa xenes~acr:Aopora (PSSP, 21 : 12). Time as Category P.70. Moe nepBoe BcTynxeHxe Ha nMTepaTypHoe nonpmqe ... 60r 3HaeT CKOnbKO JIeT TOMy Ha3dA. (PSSP, 21: 8) 3a~onro~o nap~xc~oMpeBonmqMM 48-ro rosa. (PSSP, 21: 131) C MecRq ~a3ap,moyen x B lfPy~~~~~Mwe." (PSSP, 21: 124) O~MXmm - M Bce MenbKHyno B -axe. (PSSP, 21: 107) B nocrre~~xMroa ero XM~HMR yxe ne xo~mK HeMy. (PSSP, 21: 12) C Tex rrop KaIc R ce6s noma... MH ~H~JITIME~a~renxe c caMoro AeTcTsa... MHe 6mo Bcero necsrTb neT. (PSSP, 21: 134) Space and Cohesion. YAMBMT~~~H~me apxMTerrypa Haruero spe~e~tl!... Aa PI ~oo6ueapxMTeKTypa Bcero ITe~ep6ypra. (PSSP 21: 106) P, 84. Pocc~msenx ïie~ep6yprM MOCKB~.(PSSP 23 : 6) Russia and Europe. P.88. POCCMD CMeUanM C EsponoM, XOTR POCCMR COBCeM He E~pona. (PSSP 22: 41) P.89. Y HaC, B ~amefiPOCCMM, BLRKM~iT03T - HOBaTOP E~ponu. (PSSP 23: 32) p.89. BCEKMM ~BPOI-I~~~CKM~~MblCXMTeJïb ~a~60neeBcero 6b1~deT no-TeH B POCCMM, (PSSP 23: 8) POCCMR OK~X~TCRcMnbHee Bcex B EB~oB~.(PSSP 22: 122) P. 90. B Espone YHMYTOXaTCR BCe BEI?;IZCP, CP_PK?BbI, iZ OcTaHeTcSI OAMH KOJIOCC - POCCMSI. (PSSP 23 : 27) P.91. Bce ~TO~3-3a ~ameM yenmiemiocmz B esponefic~o2ceMbe HapOaOB. (PSSP 31: 70) Distant spaces P.95. ~TOGYA~T TTOJIMTMY~CKM~~ COD3, BPOALZe CO~AMH~HH~IX~T~TOB MJ-IM saxe nyyme. (PSSP 23: 50) Iloxanyfi, MEJ TOT xe KwraM, HO 6e3 ero nopxnKa. (PSSP 21: 7) P.96. A3m - ~TOHam MCXO~B 6y-e~. (PSSP 27 : 23 ) r~eB A~MM nOCenMTCR YpyC; TâM ceMqzc Xe CTaHOBMTCR 3em pycc~oro. (PSSP 27: 58) Point of view E~epa3axoAMn ripmmenb: Y ~e65icnor r?re~x~ecçr.(PSSP 21: 43 ) P. 101. H~YMH~DcnanizaTb ronoca. (PSSP 21: 43) 3a~e~ae~R~BMT~JI~H& ronoc... , BTOPMT eMy npyroti ronoc. (FSSP 21: 16) P.103. IIpo MacTepoBoro me rrpmo s ronosy. (PSSP 21: 108) CHAPTER 3. Structural Coherence. S. 1. Frames in A Wri ter's Diary. Brrpo~e~,06 aABoitaTax nMnb Asa cnosa ... - P-118-119. 5i yxe c~a3an,YTO... He 6yne~AOrOBapMBaTbCR no CTOJïïïOB. Ho c~om~,HacÂome rep~ynecosucTonnbI HaYMxaIoTcs TaM, rAe rocnoAMH Cnaco~~~... Korza O~I~~=CTBOnepecTaHeT CYAMTb O cna6u.x Vi YrHeTeHHblX. B 3a~nn~e~xer-s C~~COBMY roBopMT CJIOBO... 53 c~a3anmayane M ~IOBTOPID om~b... 2. General Frame. Extra-Textual References to Other Literary Artists and Critics and Other Literary Works: Dostoevs& as a Literary Critic Ho 06paqrcb nyme K ~arueAnwrepaType ... ce, YTO ecTb B H~MnpeKpacHoro - Bce B~RTOOT Hapona (PSSP, 22 : 43). Dostoevsky's Criticism about George Sand P.132. ~TOOAHa Pi3 HamMx COBpeMeHHRIMq, BïïOJïHe MAeaJIMCTKa 30-x M 40-x roAoB, OAHO ~3 Tex men xaurero Moryuero, CaMOHa~e3XHHOI'O M B TO Xe BpeMSi 60J?bEior0 CTOneTMR, KOTOPOe BO~HMKSIO TaM,.. M nepeMamKno MS ~anefiPOCCMM cnmmox MHO~O A~M,AI~~BM M Aoportzx y6ex~e~~M(PSSP, 23 : 70). OH^ Bepma B qenoseqecqm nxYHocTb Ge3ycno~~0,Aaxe no 6ecc~epTw1ee, ~os~bmranaM pa3a~~ranarrpeacTaBneHMe O se2 BCR) HIM3Hb CBOID, B KàXAOM CBOeM qOM3BeJJeHMM (PSSP, 23 : 37) , P.134 Moxe~GMT~ He 6m0 MaIcnMTem M nMcaTem, B ~a~oiicme noHmarowero, YTO He XJI~~OMeAMHm AMB YenoBeK (PSSP, 23 : 36). Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy MOM BneYaTneHm O Te- CO~MTm... OHM Kacamrcs PYCCKOM nHTepaTypbI: (PSSP, 25 : 195). P-138, POM~HWMHHJï pa3Mep @d~~a,KOTO~& MOr 6b1. OTBeTMTb 3d Hac E~pone(PSSP, 25 : 197-199). P.138. R He ~ory~CTMT~CR 3necb B nxTepaTypqio KPYITMW, M cKaary nmm ~e60nou10eCJ~OBO (PSSP, 25 : 200). P.139. Opra~xsaymTpyAa He cnaceT YenoBeYecTBo OT rrpo6new HeHOpMaJïbHOCTM, MI CneAOBaTenbHO OT BMHOBHOCTM M ïIpeCTyIIHOCTM. " (PSSP, 25 : 201) . Bhpaxe~o~TO B orpornofi nc~xonor~~ec~ofipa~pa6o~~e ~yrrrvr Y~JIOBOY~CKO~~(PSSP, 25 : 201). EC~My Hac ecTb npo~3se~e~ÿze~a~ofi cmb~ wcm, TO The Smoke by 1. Turgenev M OCYinAdeT YTO eMy AaHO HamexarqeM cse~e-.M awrop ~TO~OHe czenan (PSSP, 24 : 90) . P.142. "&HM," O KpacoTe. ~OT~~MH.Pyra~enbc~~a Ha POCCMD (PSSP, 24 : 73). no~yrm- ~TOCSM rocnomrH Typre~e~. MOXHC 6s Ham~IOT~~MH~~M 6u~bM nono6pee K POCMMM,M He Gpoca~bB Hee rpx3~3(PSSP, 22 : 25). Ham ~OV~MHH ~~CY~CTRTHapOA Haln HacMemKm, YTO pyccwe ~306pen~O~MH caMoBap (PSSP, 22 : 110). P.144. CT~T~PYCCKMM - 3HaYMT ïïepeCTaTb rïpe3MpaTb HapOA CBO~~, CT~BcoGoN, MH nonyw HaKoHes o6pas ~eno~e~ec~~fi,a He 06e3b~~~fio6pas YenoBeKa, a He pa6a, He iïo~yrma(PSSP, 2s : 23). CHAPTER 4. The Unity of Journalism and Fiction in "The Diary . " 4.1. The Topic of Children in A Writer's Diary: Cohesion of Journalistic Facts, Biographical Events and Fiction. Y Xp~c~aHa enKe. Ean. KO~OHMR (PSSP 22 : 137) Ha 6ane A~TCK(OM) M WOY. B ~lry6eXYnOXKMKOB. . . KO~OHMRxaanonemmx (PSSP, 22: 92). P.151. En~a. P~~~HoKy Pio~~ep~a, XPMCTOC, C~~OCMT~Bnaxmapa Pa+aturo~~~a30~osa (PSSP, 24: 102). P.154. Emca y Xp~c~a. Ban. Kono~m(PSSP, 22 : 137). Oenaberep~B 37 row, B ~~T~UIOK- ~TO raxe,., IKem~a M YeTBePO A~T~MIIPOCRT. ~PYAHEJ~, Ha PYKaX, C PYYKOM XO-T (PSSP, 24 : 100). Ta (~a~a)yMepna eue rrpexae ero; 06a c~~geïl~cby rocnona 6ora Ha ~e6e (PSSP, 22 : 245) . P, 159. OH XOAMn C PYYKOM, 3TO T~XHMY~CKM~~TePMMH, 3HdYMT npocvr~bMM~OCT~M~ (PSSP, 22 : 244) , OH XOHMJl C PY~Ko~~,3T0 T~XHMY~CKM~TePMMH, 3HaYMT mocxn moc~mm(PSSP, 22 : 73). P.159-160. 1. The Author's Manuscript. HO R POMaWMCT M, KaXeTCR, On- MCTOPMID CaM COYMHMJï... me Bce MepeqxTcs, YTO ~TOne-TO M ~orila-TO6~x0, miemro KaK pa3 HaKaWe poxaecTBa. Meperrg~~c~me ManbYxIc... (PSSP, 22 :14, 244) . 2 . First Printing. HO R POMaHElCT M, KaXeTCFE, OAHy MCTOPMD CaM COYXHHJï... me Bce mepemTcR, YTO ~TOrne-TO M ~or~a-TOCWYMJ-XOC~, MMeHHO KaK Pa3 HaKaWHe POXAeCTBa. M~~~WTCRMHe ManbYMK... (PSSP, 22 : 14, 258). 4.2. The Fictional Power of the Factual ~ournalistic Material as Presented in A Writer's Diarv by Dostoevsky p.167. i.&HST. 6an ry6ep~a~opc~~M,6an BMcIItero 061uec~sa,O KOTO~OM cnmam OT Xnec~a~osa,a no~e~y?A MMeHHO noToMy, YTO Cam He ~OXOXM~a xopomee 06uec~~o( PSSP , 22 : 11 ) . The Golden Age in Your Pocket p.169. Bce B HOBatx KOCTioMaX Pl HMKTO He WeeT HOCMTb KOCTQM, Bce BecemTcH M HMKTO He Becen (PSSP, 22 : 12). P.171. Ta- CmeB COTKM, TbiCRYM, TOJïbKO Pd3BePHMTe ra3eTbI (PSSP, 22: 29). P.172. Kypbep - 3T0 OAHa M3 KapTMH Moero AeTCTBa. MapeM. Kap~m-i~ax3 ZeTcTsa.,. BOT TT 6b1 rrponosemmaTb W~HHOCT~! (PSSP, 24 : 121-123). P.174. MHe rrptrmno B ronosy, YTO y Hero [~ac~epo~oro]Bcero TonEKo Mecsu TOMY, yMepna xeHa .,. [~enepbXe o~euc CUHOM XOAMRM ICYX~-HM~YA~AaneKo, Ha Bb160prc~ya, K K~KO~HM~YA~ OCT~BIK~~~CRPOACTBeHHMUe ... noc~a~trrrtrCaMOBap, I?OiDUïM qa%ICy] (PSSP, 21 : 111). The Kornilova Case. rrry6o~oropa36opa, ROTOP& MO^ 6~ HaXe ïïOCJïyXMTb K o6ner~e~~1orrpecTynHMqa (PSSP, 23 : 19) . Kor~aOHM 6y~y~npoqaTbcs Ha ~ene3~ofinopore (PSSP, 23 : 136). 4.3. The Factual Background of Fiction in the Diarv. "A Hundred-Year-Old Woman." P.180. Bc~pe~ac 104-ne~~eg c~apynritofi (PSSP 24 : 157). C~apynr~a,104 roAa (PSSP, 24 : 158). Bnarocno~M60r XM3Hb M CMePTb IïPOCThiX AO~P~CXJI~o~efi (PSSP, 22 : 79). no Suicides p.185. OKOHY~T~~~H&KOHCneKT C~HTR~P~CKO~ON. BOCTOYH~M Borrpoc. Paros~~y.O zoqepx repue~a. Cen~~y.O ~3m M ne~op~w(PSSP, 24 : 262)- 1. nse cMepTM. AOY~repue~a. Xonon~bM MpaK PI cicyKa, Ma~exa. 2. I~OTOMM3 oKxa C o6pa3o~. CM~IP~HHO~C~MO~~M~~CTBO (PSSP, 22 : 275) . p.187. 3~ecbNB. I.na~~oe- 6e3 ncmonormr, OAHO OnMcaHbe (PSSP, 24 : 317). 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