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Language, Power, and Race: a Comparative Approach to the Sociopolitics of English

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Language, Power, and Race: a Comparative Approach to the Sociopolitics of English Language, Power, and Race: A Comparative Approach to the Sociopolitics of English by Cristina Sherry Jaimungal A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the Master of Arts degree Graduate Department of Curriculum, Teaching, and Learning Ontario Institute for Studies in Education University of Toronto © Copyright by Cristina Sherry Jaimungal 2013 ` LANGUAGE, POWER, AND RACE: A COMPARATIVE APPROACH TO THE SOCIOPOLITICS OF ENGLISH Master of Arts 2013 Cristina Sherry Jaimungal Curriculum, Teaching, and Learning University of Toronto Abstract This thesis highlights the sociopolitics of English as a dominant/colonial language by focusing on the linkage between language, power, and race. Grounded in critical language theory, comparative education theory, and anti-racism research methodology, this research examines the inextricable relationship between language, power, and race. With this in mind, this thesis argues that language, specifically English, is not a neutral tool of communication but a highly contentious issue that is deeply embedded in sociopolitical ideologies and practices. The contexts of Japan and Trinidad and Tobago are used to illustrate how colonialism continues to impact English language policy, practice, and perceptions. In sum, this research aims to bridge the gap between critical language theory, comparative education theory, and anti-racism studies in a way that (1) highlights the complexity of language politics, (2) explores ideological assumptions inherent in the discourse of the “native” language, and (3) underscores the overlooked ubiquity of race. ii Acknowledgments This journey has been one of my greatest academic challenges filled with cold tears, steaming frustration, and many hot cups of espresso. The individuals present in this acknowledgement have been great sources of comfort, knowledge, and motivation for which espresso alone is certainly no match. I owe each of you my deepest gratitude. Foremost, this thesis has benefited immensely from the insightful thoughts, suggestions, and contributions of my incredibly brilliant and supportive thesis supervisor, Dr. Christine Connelly. I will forever be deeply grateful for the generosity of her time, meticulous input, and meaningful direction throughout all stages of the writing (and prewriting) process. I am extremely honoured to have had such an incredible supervisor who has been an exceptional academic resource and mentor. Without her unwavering support and thoughtful guidance, this thesis would not have come to fruition. With my highest esteem, I thank you Christine. It is with the utmost respect that I would also like to acknowledge the late Dr. Joseph Farrell’s contribution to this thesis. You will find that much of the comparative discussion and analysis is strongly influenced by his work and teachings. Joe (which is what everyone called him in and out of class) left me with wonderful memories of informal education musings and a thirst for the field of comparative education. I am honoured to have been his student. Thank you for your encouragement and inspiration, Joe. Another great inspiration and solid asset to this research is Dr. George Dei. His course entitled Advanced Seminar on Race and Anti-racism Research Methodology in Education was where I began to admire his rigorous style of teaching and advanced research work around race; it is also where I first became interested in exploring the intersections of language, power, and race. I am iii very grateful for his generous time and would like to recognize the extra care and diligence he took to provide me beneficial feedback during an especially busy time. With respect and admiration, thank you Professor Dei. I would also like to acknowledge Renée Figuera from the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics at the University of the West Indies (St. Augustine campus) for her kind assistance in sharing relevant language education policy related references that would later prove to be complementary resources and assets. With great pleasure, I would also like to extend my deep gratitude to two fellow graduate students, Alison Brooks and Vijay Ramjattan. Thank you both for your immense knowledge, thought-provoking insights, noteworthy suggestions on resources and methodology, and, of course, for your friendship. Above all, I would like to thank my parents, Paul and Korisha Jaimungal, along with my dear siblings/siblings-in-law, Curt, Sebastian, Shelly, Peter, and Silvanna for their unconditional love, support, and belief in me. iv Table of Contents Introduction …………………………………………………………………………...1 The Challenge of Situating (my) Linguistic Identity …………............4 Chapter Overview .........................................................................12 Chapter One: A Comparative Approach to (Global) English Language Policies on Cultural and National Identities ............16 Language Ideologies ……………………………………………17 Research Methods ……………………………………………20 Social Actors ……………………………………………22 The Spread of Englishes: A Colonial Discourse and Practice…....….... 23 What is Global English? …………………………28 A Revised Model of Education Inequality …………………………33 Case Studies …………………………………………………36 Malaysia …………………………………………………40 Singapore …………………………………………………43 South Korea …………………………………………………46 Hong Kong …………………………………………………50 Pakistan …………………………………………………52 South Africa …………………………………………………54 Chapter Two: The Context of Japan: An Exploration of National Identity Construction and “Native” English Language Ideology ..........61 We are Japanese: Examining Japanese National Identity …............61 English Language Education in Japan: An EFL Perspective …............71 Talking about Race: A Brief Anti-Racism Introduction …............78 v Chapter Three: The Context of Trinidad and Tobago: An Anti-racism Approach to English Language Education …………............82 Challenging Normalcy through Anti-Racism Research Methodology …………............82 The Realness of Race: An Everyday Practice …………............87 Historicizing Race …………............88 Where Language Meets Race …………............91 Resistance and Empowerment …………............99 English Education in Trinidad and Tobago: Yuh must learn to talk “proper” English …….…............103 Resistance and Transformation through Policy: A Look Ahead ……………….110 Chapter Four: Conclusion: Yuh nah done yet ….......114 Revisiting the Challenge of Situating (my) Linguistic Identity ….......114 Suggesting an Ideological Readjustment: Revising Kachru’s (1982) “Attitudinal Readjustment” ……………116 Limitations and Future Research Possibilities ……………117 Research Relevance: A Global Perspective ……………121 Figure 1: Lippi-Green’s (1997) Model of the Language Subordination Process ……………125 Appendix 1: Kachru’s (1996) Concentric Circle Typology ……………126 Appendix 2: Kachru’s (1982) “Attitudinal Readjustment” ……………127 References ………………………………………………………………………...128 vi Dedication First, I dedicate this thesis to my best friend and the love of my life— Jason Thirugnanam. Darling, from the bottom of my heart, I thank you for your unconditional love, patience, and moral support. You have been so much to me: my alarm clock, my personal chef, my doctor, my driver, and, most of all, my number one fan. Jason, I love you more than words could ever say. Second, I dedicate this thesis to my lovely nieces, Anelize and Vanessa Evangelista. You have brought me so much joy and inspiration, and as you grow into strong young women, I hope you develop a wholehearted love, value, and appreciation for your Trinidadian and Italian heritages as well as all languages for their complexity, beauty, and wealth of knowledge(s). vii Introduction This thesis intends to bridge the theoretical and philosophical gaps between critical language theory, comparative education theory, and anti-racism studies in a way that (1) highlights the complexity of language politics, (2) explores ideological assumptions inherent in the discourse of the “native” language, and (3) underscores the overlooked ubiquity of race within the aforementioned fields. This research makes an ambitious attempt to identify the intersections between the three fields of critical language theory, comparative education theory, and anti- racism studies. In particular, this thesis highlights the parallels of these three theoretically disconnected fields by applying multiple methodological approaches which are borrowed from critical language theory, comparative education theory, and anti-racism studies, respectively. By using multiple methodological approaches, this research is able to shed light on their connectedness, identify their theoretical gaps, and raise high-level philosophical questions that may be of interest to language politics scholars, language and education policymakers, and educational practitioners. As a whole, this thesis strives to be an insightful resource to help stimulate conversation around language policy and education policy in both theoretical and practical arenas. To begin this conversation, I preface with a brief auto-ethnographic account of my linguistic identity (identities). This discussion on linguistic identity provides readers with context as to how I, as a researcher, view and unpack particular experiences that have shaped the way I perceive language, power, and race. By first discussing the concept of linguistic identity from an auto- ethnographic approach, relevant themes of power, equality, language production, language commodification, racialized embodiments of language, and post-colonial histories of (re)making linguistic
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