Chili Pepper Carotenoids: Nutraceutical Properties and Mechanisms of Action
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molecules Review Chili Pepper Carotenoids: Nutraceutical Properties and Mechanisms of Action Maria Guadalupe Villa-Rivera and Neftalí Ochoa-Alejo * Departamento de Ingeniería Genética, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Unidad Irapuato, Guanajuato 36824, Mexico; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Academic Editor: Karel Šmejkal Received: 23 October 2020; Accepted: 21 November 2020; Published: 27 November 2020 Abstract: Chili pepper is a prominent cultivated horticultural crop that is traditionally used for food seasoning and is applied for the treatment and prevention of multiple diseases. Its beneficial health properties are due to its abundance and variety of bioactive components, such as carotenoids, capsaicinoids, and vitamins. In particular, carotenoids have important nutraceutical properties, and several studies have focused on their potential in the prevention and treatment of human diseases. In this article, we reviewed the state of knowledge of general aspects of chili pepper carotenoids (biosynthesis pathway, types and content in Capsicum spp., and the effects of processing on carotenoid content) and recent findings on the effects of carotenoid nutraceuticals, such as antioxidant, cancer preventive, anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular disorder preventive, and anti-obesity effects. Keywords: Capsicum; carotenoids; chili pepper; nutraceutical effects; antioxidant; cancer; cardiovascular disorders; anti-inflammatory; obesity 1. Introduction Chili pepper (Genus Capsicum, Family Solanaceae) is an important cultivated spice crop. During 2018, 4.2 million tons of dry chilies and peppers and 36.8 million tons of green chilies and ≈ ≈ peppers were produced worldwide (FAOSTATS 2018) [1]. The Capsicum genus comprises 38 different species, but only C. annuum, C. frutescens, C. chinense, C. baccatum, and C. pubescens have been domesticated [2–4]. Chili pepper fruits have abundant biochemical and mineral constituents of nutritional value. Additionally, chili peppers are good sources of bioactive compounds, such as carotenoids (lutein, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin, violaxanthin, capsanthin and capsorubin), vitamins C and E, and phenolic compounds, such as flavonoids (quercetin, luteolin and phenolic acids) and capsaicinoids [5–7]. The content of these bioactive compounds can vary considerably depending on the chili pepper cultivar and genotype [8]. Capsicum fruits have been used traditionally as flavoring agents and appetite stimulators, and also for the treatment of muscle pain and toothache, parasitic infections, rheumatism, wound healing, coughs and sore throat. Moreover, chili peppers also have antiseptic, antimetastatic, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects, all of which are associated with their antioxidant properties [7,9]. Pungency and color are the two main characteristics of chili pepper fruits that determine their quality. Capsicum comprises pungent and non-pungent fruits with a yellow, orange, or red color (Figure1)[ 2]. The diverse colors of mature pepper fruits result from the accumulation of different carotenoids in the pericarp [10]. Carotenoids are naturally occurring red, brown, orange, salmon Molecules 2020, 25, 5573; doi:10.3390/molecules25235573 www.mdpi.com/journal/molecules Molecules 2020, 25, 5573 2 of 23 Molecules 2020, 25, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 23 yellowand pigments yellow pigments found in found plants, in plants,microalgae, microalgae, bacteria, bacteria, archaea, archaea, and a and few a fewspecies species of fungi of fungi and and aphids [11,12].aphids [11,12]. FigureFigure 1. Commercial 1. Commercial bell bell pepper pepper fruits fruits of of CapsicumCapsicum spp.spp. showingshowing di differentfferent colors colors due due to the to presencethe presence of (a) chlorophylls and (b–d) carotenoids. of (a) chlorophylls and (b–d) carotenoids. Carotenoids are mostly 40-carbon molecules with conjugated double bonds. Based on their structures, theyCarotenoids are classified are as mostly carotenes 40-carbon (containing molecules carbon and with hydrogen conjugated atoms) anddouble xanthophylls bonds. Based (containing on their structures,carbon, they hydrogen, are classified and oxygen), as carotenes and, in (contain general,ing they carbon are lipophilic and hydrogen compounds atoms) and and usually xanthophylls form (containinghydrophobic carbon, micelles hydrogen, [13]. and oxygen), and, in general, they are lipophilic compounds and usually formCarotenoids hydrophobic participate micelles in important [13]. processes in plants such as photosynthesis, photomorphogenesis, photoprotectionCarotenoids participate and development. in important They also serve proce as precursorssses in forplants the biosynthesis such as of twophotosynthesis, kinds of photomorphogenesis,plant hormones (abscisic photoprotection acid and strigolactones) and developme and a diversent. They set of also apocarotenoids. serve as precursors Animals cannot for the biosynthesissynthesize of carotenoids two kinds de of novo, plan butt hormones they canget (abscisic them from acid di andfferent stri foodsgolactones) as sources and of antioxidantsa diverse set of apocarotenoids.and provitamin Animals A [14]. cannot synthesize carotenoids de novo, but they can get them from different Because of their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and photoprotective properties, carotenoids have foods as sources of antioxidants and provitamin A [14]. gained relevance, and diverse investigations have been focused on their ability to promote health. Because of their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and photoprotective properties, carotenoids In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the nutraceutical effects and mechanism of action haveof gained carotenoids relevance, from chili and pepper diverse fruits investigations (Table1). have been focused on their ability to promote health. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the nutraceutical effects and mechanism of action of carotenoidsTable from 1. Chili chili pepper pepper fruit fruits carotenoids (Table and 1). their nutraceutical effects. Carotenoid Health Effect Mechanism of Action Reference Table 1. Chili pepper fruit carotenoids and their nutraceutical effects. Gastric cancer Not determined (ND) [15] Carotenoid HealthCancer cells Effect Modulation ofMechanism apoptosis and multidrug of Action resistance [Reference16] Reduction acetylcholinesterase, Lutein EdemaGastric reduction cancer Not determined (ND) [17] [15] Increase seromucoids Modulation of apoptosis and Modulation of oxidative stress, RetinaCancer damage cells [18] [16] and pro-inflammatorymultidrug gene resistance expression Macular degeneration AbsorptionReduction of UV acetylcholinesterase, radiation, antioxidant [19] Edema reduction [17] Lutein Inverse correlation with prostate-specific Prostate cancer Increase seromucoids [20,21] Modulationantigen (PSA) of oxidative occurrence stress, and Retina damage [18] Gastric cancerpro-inflammatory ND gene expression [15] β-carotene Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, AbsorptionND of UV radiation, [22] Macularantinociceptive degeneration [19] Reduction acetylcholinesterase,antioxidant Edema reduction [17] InverseIncrease correlation seromucoids with prostate- Prostate cancer [20,21] Obesityspecific Promotion antigen of fatty acid (PSA) oxidation occurrence [23] Gastric cancer ND [15] Anti-inflammatory, β-carotene ND [22] analgesic, antinociceptive Reduction acetylcholinesterase, Edema reduction [17] Increase seromucoids Obesity Promotion of fatty acid oxidation [23] Inverse correlation with PSA β-cryptoxanthin Prostate cancer [20,21] occurrence Molecules 2020, 25, 5573 3 of 23 Table 1. Cont. Carotenoid Health Effect Mechanism of Action Reference Prostate cancer Inverse correlation with PSA occurrence [20,21] Gastric cancer ND [15] β-cryptoxanthin Cancer prevention Modulation of signaling pathways [24] Anti-inflammatory, ND [22] analgesic, antinociceptive Gastric cancer ND [15] Activation of AMP-activated protein (AMPK) Obesity [25] and inhibition of lipogenesis Zeaxanthin Macular degeneration Absorption of UV radiation, antioxidant [19] Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, Alzheimer disease [26] butyrylcholinesterase and β-secretase Cancer cells Modulation of apoptosis and multidrug resistance [16] Violaxanthin Anti-inflammatory, ND [22] analgesic, antinociceptive Colon cancer Inhibitory effect [27] Skin cancer Chemopreventive [28] Cancer cells Modulation of apoptosis and multidrug resistance [16] Oxidative stress, DNA damage, increase p53 and Cancer breast (MCF-7 cells) [29] Bax, lipid peroxidation Atherosclerosis increase in the cholesterol efflux [30] Reduction of acetylcholinesterase, Edema reduction [17] Increase seromucoids Suppression of hepatic lipogenesis, fatty acid Obesity oxidation, and gluconeogenesis. [31] Capsanthin Inhibit adipogenesis Inhibition of adipogenesis, Obesity and insulin increase of lipolytic activity, accelerated oxidation [32] sensitizing of fatty acids Decrease on serum levels of total cholesterol, Atherosclerosis triglycerides, low density [33] lipoprotein cholesterol, prebiotic Counteract the cytotoxic effect of UV radiation by Skin health [34] decreasing the formation of DNA strand breaks Improvement of glucose tolerance, improvement of Diabetes [33] insulin sensitivity Inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, Alzheimer disease [26] butyrylcholinesterase and β-secretase Cancer cells Modulation of apoptosis and multidrug resistance [16] Capsorubin Counteract