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Home , Pertinax, Reign of Marcus Aurelius, Salvius Julianus

Readings – Week 3

Anonymous, Epitome de caesaribus (Epitome of the Caesars), 16.1-20.10 [Epit. Caes. 16.1– 20.10]

16. Antonius ruled eighteen years. 2. He showed himself to possess all virtues and a celestial character, and was thrust before public calamities like a defender. For indeed, if he had not been born to those times, surely, as if with one fall, all of the Roman state would have collapsed. 3. Since there was never rest from arms, and wars were raging through all Oriens, Il- lyricum, Italy, and Gallia, and there were earthquakes not without the destruction of cities, inun- dations of rivers, numerous plagues, species of locusts which infested fields, there is almost nothing by which mortals are accustomed to be vexed with the most serious difficulties that is able to be described which did not rage while he was ruling. 4. I believe that it has been be- stowed by divine providence that, when the law of the universe or nature produces or something else unknown to men, they are appeased by the counsels of honest men as by the remedies of medicine.

5. With a new kind of benevolence, he admitted his own relative, Lucius Annius Verus, to a share of power. This is the Verus who, while journeying between Altinum and Concordia, died, in the eleventh year of power, as a result of a surge of blood, a disorder which the Greeks call apoplexy. 6. He was a poet, mostly of tragedies, studious, of a rugged and lascivious character.

7. After Lucius’ demise, Marcus Antoninus controlled the state alone. From the beginning of his life, he was extremely placid, so much so that from infancy he changed his expression neither from joy nor sorrow. Of philosophy and Greek literature he was a student [most expert]. 8. He al- lowed more illustrious men and his ministers alike to host banquets in the same splendor as did he himself. 9. When, with the treasury exhausted, he did not have the funds which he applied to the soldiers and did not wish to inflict anything on the provincials or senate, he removed by a confiscation made in the Forum of material of regal splendor, golden vases, crystalline and murrine goblets, and his own wife's silken and golden apparel, numerous ornaments of gems, and through two continuous months an auction was held and much gold was collected. 10. After a victory, however, he refunded the purchase prices to buyers who wished to return what had been bought. 11. In his time, Cassius attempted a coup and was killed.

12. Marcus was consumed by disease at Bendobona in the fifty-ninth year of his life. 13. When the announcement about his death reached , the city was convulsed with public lamenta- tion, and the senate gathered in the senate house, wrapped in mourning garb, weeping. 14. And although it is scarcely believable about Romulus, everybody agreed that Marcus had been re- ceived into heaven. In his honor temples, columns, and many other things were decreed.

17. Aurelius , son of Antoninus, and himself called Antoninus, ruled thirteen years. 2. What he was going to become, in the very beginning, he revealed. For when he was being ad- vised by his father in his will not to allow the barbarians, who were now exhausted, to regain strength, he had responded that, although negotiations could be completed over a period of time by a live man, nothing could be completed by a dead man. 3. He was quite fierce with sexual de- sire and greed, with cruelty, faithful to no one, and more savage toward those whom he had ex- alted with most splendid honors and enormous gifts. 4. So depraved was he that he often battled with gladiatorial weapons in the amphitheater. 5. Nevertheless, Marcia, of freedman stock, pre- vailed on this man by her beauty and meretricious arts, and, when she had thoroughly gained control of his mind, offered a drink of poison to him when he was emerging from the bath. Fi- nally, his throat crushed by a very strong wrestling instructor who had been let loose on him, he expired in the thirty-second year of his life.

18. Helvius Pertinax ruled eighty-five days. Forced to take power, he was given "Resister and Submitter" as nicknames. 2. Having risen from a humble origin, he advanced to the urban prefec- ture, was made emperor, and, by the viciousness of Julianus, was cut down with many wounds at the age of sixty-seven. His head was carried about the entire city. 3. By this death, there perished a man who is an example of human vicissitude, who, through all types of labor, reached the heights, to such a degree that he was called the "Pillar of Fortune." 4. For he was the product of a freedman father among the Ligurians on a humble estate of Lollius Getianus, in whose prefecture it was most happily fated that he become a client, and he became a teacher of the letters which are taught by grammarians. He was more pleasing than beneficial, hence men called him by the Greek name ["Smooth-talk"]. 5. Never was he drawn to vengeance by injuries he had received. He was a lover of simplicity, he presented himself as a common man by means of his speech, his dining, and his demeanor. 6. To him in death was decreed the name "Divine;" for his praise, there was acclaimed with repeated ovations until voices failed: "With Pertinax in control, we lived se- cure, we feared no one. To a dutiful father! To the father of the senate! To the father of all good men!"

19. , by birth of Mediolanum, ruled seven months. He was a man of the nobility, very skilled in law, factious, reckless, eager to rule. 2. At this time, near , Niger Pescen- nius and, at Sabaria in , were made Augusti. 3. By this Severus, Ju- lianus was led to the secret baths of the palace and, with his neck stretched out in the fashion of the condemned, was decapitated and his head placed on the rostra.

20. Septimius Severus ruled eighteen years. 2. He eliminated Pescennius, a man of utter base- ness. Under him Albinus, too, who in Gallia had made himself Caesar, was slain near . 3. Severus left as successors his own sons, Bassianus and . 4. In Britannia he extended a wall over a distance of thirty-two thousand paces, from sea to sea. 5. Of all the men who had lived before him, he was the most warlike. He was relentless in character, persevering to the end toward everything to which he had turned his attention. To whom he was well disposed, he ex- hibited a goodwill singular and abiding. He was thrifty when it came to his needs, lavish in largess. 6. Toward friends and enemies he was equally passionate, inasmuch as he enriched Lat- eranus, Cilo, Anullinus, Bassus, and several others -- and with buildings worthy of note, particu- lar examples of which we see which are called the "House of the Parthians" and the "House of Lateranus." 7. To no one, in his reign, did he permit offices to be sold. 8. He was sufficiently ed- ucated in literature, erudite in the Greek language, more at ease with Punic eloquence, inas- much as he was born near Leptis in the province . 9. When he was unable to endure the pain of all his limbs, especially of his feet, in place of a drug, which was being denied him, he too avidly fell upon a meal large and of very much meat; since he was unable to this, he was overcome by the indisposition and breathed his last. 10. He lived sixty-five years. Eutropius, Brevarium, 8.9–19 [Eutr. Brev. 8.9–19]

9. After him reigned MARCUS ANTONINUS VERUS, a man indisputably of noble birth; for his descent, on the father's side, was from Numa Pompilius, and on the mother's from a king of the Sallentines, and jointly with him reigned Lucius ANTONINUS VERUS. Then it was that the commonwealth of Rome was first subject to two sovereigns, ruling with equal power, when, till their days, it had always had but one emperor at a time.

10. These two were connected both by relationship and affinity; for Verus Antoninus had married the daughter of Marcus Antoninus; and Marcus Antoninus was the son-in-law of , having married Galeria Faustina the younger, his own cousin. They carried on a war against the Parthians, who then rebelled for the first time since their subjugation by Trajan. Verus Antoninus went out to conduct that war, and, remaining at Antioch and about Armenia, effected many im- portant achievements by the agency of his generals; he took , the most eminent city of Assyria, with forty thousand prisoners; he brought off materials for a triumph over the Parthians, and celebrated it in conjunction with his brother, who was also his father-in-law. He died in Venetia, as he was going from the city of Concordia to Altinum. While he was sitting in his char- iot with his brother, he was suddenly struck with a rush of blood, a disease which the Greeks call apoplexis. He was a man who had little control over his passions, but who never ventured to do anything outrageous, from respect for his brother. After his death, which took place in the eleventh year of his reign, he was enrolled among the gods.

11. After him MARCUS ANTONINUS held the government alone, a man whom any one may more easily admire than sufficiently commend. He was, from his earliest years, of a most tran- quil disposition; so that even in his infancy he changed countenance neither for joy nor for sor- row. He was devoted to the Stoic philosophy, and was himself a philosopher, not only in his way of life, but in learning. He was the object of so much admiration, while yet a youth, that intended to make him his successor; but having adopted Antoninus Pius, he wished Marcus to become Titus's son-in-law, that he might by that means come to the throne.

12. He was trained in philosophy by Apollonius of Chalcedon; in the study of the Greek lan- guage by Sextus of Chaeronea, the grandson of Plutarch; while the eminent orator Fronto in- structed him in Latin literature. He conducted himself towards all men at Rome as if he had been their equal, being moved to no arrogance by his elevation to empire. He exercised the most prompt liberality, and managed the provinces with the utmost kindness and indulgence. Under his rule affairs were successfully conducted against the Germans. He himself carried on one war with the , but this was greater than any in the memory of man, so that it is compared to the Punic wars; for it became so much the more formidable, as whole armies had been lost; since, under the emperor, after the victory over the Parthians, there occurred so destructive a pestilence, that at Rome, and throughout Italy and the provinces, the greater part of the inhabi- tants, and almost all the troops, sunk under the disease. 13. Having persevered, therefore, with the greatest labour and patience, for three whole years at , he brought the Marcomannic war to an end; a war which the Quadi, Vandals, Sarma- tians, Suevi, and all the barbarians in that quarter, had joined with the Marcomanni in raising; he killed several thousand men, and, having delivered the Pannonians from slavery, triumphed a second time at Rome with his son Commodus Antoninus, whom he had previously made Caesar. As he had no money to give his soldiers, in consequence of the treasury having been exhausted for the support of the war, and as he was unwilling to lay any tax on the provinces or the senate, he sold off all his imperial furniture and decorations, by an auction held in the forum of the em- peror Trajan, consisting of vessels of gold, cups of crystal and murrha, silk garments belonging to his wife and himself, embroidered with gold, and numbers of jeweled ornaments. This sale was continued through two successive months, and a great quantity of money was raised from it. After his victory, however, he gave back the money to such of the purchasers as were willing to restore what they had bought, but was by no means troublesome to any one who preferred to keep their purchases.

14. He allowed the more eminent men to give entertainments with the same magnificence, and the same number of attendants, as himself. In the display of games after his victory, he was so munificent, that he is said to have exhibited a hundred lions at once. Having, then, rendered the state happy, both by his excellent management and gentleness of disposition, he died in the eigh- teenth year of his reign and the sixty-first of his life, and was enrolled among the gods, all unani- mously voting that such honor should be paid him.

15. His successor, LUCIUS ANTONINUS COMMODUS, had no resemblance to his father, ex- cept that he fought successfully the Germans. He endeavored to alter the name of the month of September to his own, so that it should he called Commodus. But he was corrupted with luxury and licentiousness. He often fought, with gladiator's arms, in the fencing school, and afterwards with men of that class in the amphitheatre. He died so sudden a death, that he was thought to have been strangled or despatched by poison, after he had reigned twelve years and eight months after his father, and in the midst of such execration from all men, that even after his death he was styled "the enemy of the human race."

16. To him succeeded PERTINAX, at a very advanced age, having reached his seventieth year; he was appointed to be emperor by a decree of the senate, when he was holding the office of pre- fect of the city. He was killed in a mutiny of the praetorian soldiers, by the villiany of Julianus, on the eightieth day of his reign.

17. After his death SALVIUS JULIANUS seized the government, a man of noble birth, and emi- nently skilled in the law; he was the grandson of that Salvius Julianus who composed the perpet- ual edict in the reign of the emperor Hadrian. He was defeated by Severus at the Milvian bridge, and killed in the palace. He lived only eight months after he began to reign.

18. SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS then assumed the government of the ; a native of Africa, born in the province of Tripolis, and town of Leptis. He was the only African, in all the time before or after him, that became emperor. He was first praefect of the treasury, afterwards military tribune, and then rose, through several offices and posts of honour, to the government of the whole state. He had an inclination to be called Pertinax, in honour of that Pertinax who had been killed by . He was very parsimonious, and naturally cruel. He conducted many wars, and with success. He killed , who had raised a rebellion in Egypt and Syria, at . He overcame the Parthians, the interior Arabians, and the Adiabeni. The Arabians he so effectually reduced, that he made them a province; hence he was called Parthicus, Arabicus, and Adiabenicus. He rebuilt many edifices throughout the whole Roman world. In his reign, too, Clodius Albinus, who had been an accomplice of Julianus in killing Pertinax, set himself up for Caesar in , and was overthrown and killed at Lyons.

19. Severus, in addition to his glory in war, was also distinguished in the pursuits of peace, being not only accomplished in literature, but having acquired a complete knowledge of philosophy. The last war that he had was in Britain; and that he might preserve, with all possible security, the provinces which he had acquired, he built a rampart of thirty-two miles long from one sea to the other. He died at an advanced age at York, in the eighteenth year and fourth month of his reign, and was honoured with the title of god. He left his two sons, Bassianus and Geta, to be his suc- cessors, but desired that the name of Antoninus should be given by the senate to Bassianus only, who, accordingly, was named Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus, and was his father's succes- sor. As for Geta, he was declared a public enemy, and soon after put to death. Orosius Hist. 7.15-17

15. During the nine hundred and eleventh year of the City, Marcus Antoninus Verus, the four- teenth emperor in succession from , came to the throne with his brother Aurelius Com- modus. They occupied it jointly for nineteen years and were the first to govern the state on terms of equal authority. 2 They waged war against the Parthians with admirable bravery and success. Vologesus (III), the king of the Parthians, had invaded Armenia, Cappadocia, and Syria, and was causing frightful devastation. 3 Annius Antoninus Verus proceeded to the battle front and there, after performing great exploits with the aid of his energetic generals, captured Seleucia, an As- syrian city of four hundred thousand inhabitants situated on the Hydaspes River. He and his brother celebrated the victory over the Parthians by a joint triumph. Shortly afterward, while sit- ting with his brother in a carriage, Verus choked to death during an attack of a disease that the Greeks call apoplexy.

4 Upon the demise of Verus, Marcus Antoninus became sole ruler of the state. During the Parthian War, however, persecutions of the Christians arose for the fourth time since 's reign. These persecutions were carried on by the emperor's order with great severity in Asia and in Gaul, and many of the saints received the crown of martyrdom. 5 A plague now spread over many provinces, and a great pestilence devastated all Italy. Everywhere country houses, fields, and towns were left without a tiller of the land or an inhabitant, and nothing remained but ruins and forests. 6 It is said that the Roman troops and all the legions stationed far and near in winter quarters were so depleted that the war against the Marcomanni, which broke out immediately, could not be carried on without a new levy of soldiers. At Carnuntium,Marcus Antoninus held the levy continuously for three years.

7 This war was undoubtedly directed by the Providence of God, as is clearly shown by many proofs and especially by a letter of that very grave and judicious emperor, Antoninus. 8 Numer- ous barbarous and savage tribes, that is to say, the Marcomanni, the Quadi, the Vandals, the Sar- matians, the Suebi, in fact the tribes from nearly all of Germany, rose in rebellion.

The Roman army advanced as far as the territories of the Quadi. There the enemy surrounded it; but on account of the scarcity of water the army was in more immediate danger from thirst than from the enemy. 9 Publicly calling upon the name of Christ, certain of the soldiers with great constancy of faith poured forth their souls in prayer. Immediately there came so heavy a shower that the Romans were abundantly refreshed without suffering harm. 10 The barbarians, however, became terrified by the incessant bolts of lightning, particularly after the lightning had killed many of them, and they took to their heels. Attacking from the rear, the Romans slaughtered them to the last man and thus won a most glorious victory. With a small band of raw recruits but with the all-powerful aid of Christ, they had outdone nearly all the achievements of the past. 11 Several authors also state that a letter of the emperor Antoninus still exists in which he acknowl- edges that the thirst of the army was relieved and the victory won because the Christian soldiers had invoked the name of Christ. 12 This emperor associated his son Commodus with him in the government. He remitted the ar- rears of tribute in all the provinces and ordered all the accusing evidence of indebtedness to the treasury to be piled up and burned in the Forum. He also modified the severer laws by new en- actments. Finally, while staying in Pannonia, he died of a sudden illness.

16. In the nine hundred and thirtieth year of the City, Lucius Antoninus Commodus, the fifteenth in succession from Augustus, succeeded his father on the throne. 2 During his reign of thirteen years, he conducted a successful war against the Germans. However, he became thoroughly de- praved as a result of scandalous excesses and obscenities; frequently he fenced in public exhibi- tions with the weapons of gladiators, and often he encountered wild beasts in the arena. He also put to death a great many of the senators, especially those who, he noticed, were most prominent by reason of birth and ability. 3 The punishment for his crimes was visited upon the City; light- ning struck the Capitol and started a fire which, in its devouring course, burned the library that the fathers had founded in their enthusiasm for learning, and also other buildings adjoining it. Another fire, breaking out later in Rome, leveled to the ground the Temple of Vesta, the Palace, and a large part of the city. 4 Considered when alive an enemy of the human race, Commodus, who incommoded everyone, was strangled to death, so it is said, in the house of Vestilianus.

5 After Commodus, the Senate proclaimed the elderly Helvius Pertinax emperor. He was the six- teenth ruler in succession from Augustus. 6 Six months after his accession he was slain in the Palace at the instigation of the jurist Julianus. The latter thereupon seized the imperium; but in the course of a civil war he was soon defeated by Severus at the Mulvian Bridge and killed seven months after he had begun to rule. Thus Pertinax and Julianus between them occupied the throne for only one year.

17. In the nine hundred and forty-fourth year of the City, Severus, an African from the town of Leptis in Tripolis, gained the vacant throne. He wished to be called Pertinax after the emperor whose murder he had avenged. He was the seventeenth emperor in succession from Augustus and held the throne for eighteen years.

2 A cruel man by nature, he was continually harassed by wars, and he had to struggle hard to maintain his strong rule. At Cyzicus he defeated and killed Pescennius Niger, who had set him- self up as a usurper in Egypt and Syria. 3 When the Jews and the Samaritans tried to rebel, he put them down with the sword. He conquered the Parthians, the Arabians, and the Adiabeni. 4 He ha- rassed the Christians by a severe persecution, the fifth since Nero's reign, and in various prov- inces many of the saints received the crown of martyrdom.

5 Immediate vengeance from Heaven followed this wicked and presumptuous action of Severus against the Christians and the Church of God. Straightway the emperor was compelled to hasten, or rather was brought back, from Syria to Gaul for a third civil war. 6 He had already fought one war at Rome against Julianus, and another in Syria against Pescennius, and now a third was stirred up by Clodius Albinus, who had made himself Caesar in Gaul. Albinus had been an ac- complice of Julianus in the murder of Pertinax. In this war much Roman blood was shed on both sides. Albinus was overthrown at Lugdunum and lost his life. 7 The victorious Severus was drawn to the British provinces by the revolt of almost all of his allies. Having recovered part of the island after a number of stubbornly contested battles, he determined to shut if off by a wall from the other tribes that remained unsubdued. He therefore constructed a large ditch and a very strong rampart extending from sea to sea, a distance of one hundred and thirty-two miles. These works he fortified at frequent intervals by towers. 8 Severus died of a disease at the town of York in Britain. Two sons survived him, Bassianus and Geta. Bassianus, who assumed the name of Antoninus, took possession of the throne. , Hist. 1.7–8

The Five Good Emperors

7. After him several worthy sovereigns succeeded to the empire: , Trajan, and afterwards Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and the brothers Verus and Lucius, who reformed many abuses in the state, and not only recovered what their predecessors had lost, but made likewise some new addi- tions.

Commodus (180-192) & Pertinax

But Commodus, the son of Marcus, on becoming emperor, addicted himself not only to tyranny, but to other monstrous vices, until his concubine Marcia assumed the courage of a man and put him to death, and the empire was conferred on Pertinax. But the imperial guards being unable to submit to the strictness of his discipline, which caused them to mutiny and to murder him, Rome was on the point of becoming a seat of anarchy and disorder, while the praetorian soldiers, who were intended for the protection of the palace, attempted to deprive the senate of the power of appointing a sole ruler. And the empire being now put up as it were to sale, Didius Julianus, at the instigation of his wife, assisted by his own folly, produced a sum of money with which he purchased the empire; and exhibited such a spectacle as the people had never before witnessed. The soldiers who raised him to the dignity, by violence put him in possession of the palace and all that it contained. But he was called to account and deprived of life by the very men who were the means of his exaltation, nor was his life more than a momentary golden dream.

Septimius Severus (193-211)

8. At his removal, the Senate consulted whom to elect Emperor, and fixed on Severus. But Albi- nus and Niger pretending a right to the throne at the same time, a furious civil war broke out be- tween the competitors; the cities being divided between the different parties. On this great com- motions were excited in Egypt and the eastern parts of the empire, and the Byzantines, who es- poused the cause of Niger, and entertained him, were ready for the most dangerous enterprises, until he was vanquished by Severus and killed. After him Albinus likewise took leave of the em- pire and the world together, and thus the sole power now devolved on Severus. He therefore ap- plied himself to the correction of the enormities that had sprung up, punishing severely the sol- diers that had murdered Pertinax, and delivered the empire to Julianus. Having done this, and regulated the army, he marched against the Persians, and in this expedition took Ctesiphon and Babylon, over-ran the Arabians, called Scenites from their dwelling in tents, conquered the prin- cipal part of Arabia, and performed many other great achievements. He was besides inexorable to delinquents, and made public distribution of the property of those who were guilty of any heinous offence. , 72.33–36

33 Now if Marcus had lived longer, he would have subdued that entire region (Germania); but as it was, he passed away on the seventeenth of March, not as a result of the disease from which he still suffered, but by the act of his physicians, as I have been plainly told, who wished to do Commodus a favor. 34 When he was at the point of death, he commended his son to the protec- tion of the soldiers (for he did not wish his death to appear to be due to Commodus), and to the military tribune who asked him for the watchword he said: "Go to the rising sun; I am already setting." After his death he received many marks of honor; among other things a gold statue of him was set up in the senate-house itself. This then was the manner of Marcus' death.

Marcus was so god-fearing that even on the dies nefasti he sacrificed at home.

In addition to possessing all the other virtues, he ruled better than any others who had ever been in any position of power. To be sure, he could not display many feats of physical prowess; yet he had developed his body from a very weak one to one capable of the greatest endurance. Most of his life he devoted to beneficence, and that was the reason, perhaps, for his erecting a temple to Beneficence on the Capitol, though he called her by a most peculiar name, that had never been heard before. He himself, then, refrained from all offenses and did nothing amiss whether volun- tarily or involuntarily; but the offenses of the others, particularly those of his wife, he tolerated, and neither inquired into them nor punished them. So long as a person did anything good, he would praise him and use him for the service in which he excelled, but to his other conduct he paid no attention; for he declared that it is impossible for one to create such men as one desires to have, and so it is fitting to employ those who are already in existence for whatever service each of them may be able to render to the State. And that his whole conduct was due to no pretense but to real excellence is clear; for although he lived fifty-eight years, ten months, and twenty-two days, of which time he had spent a considerable part as assistant to the first Antoninus [Pius], and had been emperor himself nineteen years and eleven days, yet from first to last he remained the same and did not change in the least. So truly was he a good man and devoid of all pretense.

35 His education was of great assistance to him, for he had been trained both in rhetoric and in philosophical disputation. In the former he had Cornelius Fronto and Herodes for teach- ers, and, in the latter, Junius Rusticus and Apollonius of Nicomedia, both of whom professed 's doctrines. 2 As a result, great numbers pretended to pursue philosophy, hoping that they might be enriched by the emperor. Most of all, however, he owed his advancement to his own natural gifts; for even before he associated with those teachers he had a strong impulse towards virtue. 3 Indeed, while still a boy he so pleased all his relatives, who were numerous, influential and wealthy, that he was loved by them all; and when Hadrian, chiefly for this reason, had adopted him, he did not become haughty, but, though young and a Caesar, served Antoninus most loyally throughout all the latter's reign and without giving offense showed honor to the oth- ers who were foremost in the State. 4 He used always to salute the most worthy men in the House of , where he lived, before visiting his father, not only without putting on the at- tire befitting his rank, but actually dressed as a private citizen, and receiving them in the very apartment where he slept. He used to visit many who were sick, and never missed going to his teachers. 5 He would wear a dark cloak whenever he went out unaccompanied by his father, and he never employed a torch-bearer for himself alone. Upon being appointed leader of the equestri- ans he entered the Forum with the rest, although he was a Caesar. 6 This shows how excellent was his natural disposition, though it was greatly aided by his education. He was always steeping himself in Greek and Latin rhetorical and philosophical learning, even after he had reached man's estate and had hopes of becoming emperor.

36 Even before he was appointed Caesar he had a dream in which he seemed to have shoulders and arms of ivory, and to use them in all respect like his other members.

2 As a result of his close application and study he was extremely frail in body, though in the be- ginning he had been so vigorous that he used to fight in armor, and on the chase would strike down wild boars while on horseback; and not only in his early youth but even later he wrote most of his letters to his intimate friends with his own hand. 3 However, he did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both survived himself and preserved the empire. 4 Just one thing prevented him from being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his son in the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him. This matter must be our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 5.1-6 (excerpts) [Eus. HE, 5.1–6]

Introduction.

1. Soter, bishop of the church of Rome, died after an episcopate of eight years, and was suc- ceeded by Eleutherus, the twelfth from the apostles. In the seventeenth year of the Emperor An- toninus Verus, the persecution of our people was rekindled more fiercely in certain districts on account of an insurrection of the masses in the cities; and judging by the number in a single na- tion, myriads suffered martyrdom throughout the world. A record of this was written for poster- ity, and in truth it is worthy of perpetual remembrance.

2. A full account, containing the most reliable information on the subject, is given in our Collec- tion of Martyrdoms, which constitutes a narrative that is instructive as well as historical. I will re- peat here such portions of this account as may be necessary for the present purpose.

3. Other writers of history record the victories of war and trophies won from enemies, the skill of generals, and the manly bravery of soldiers, defiled with blood and with innumerable slaughters for the sake of children and country and other possessions.

4. But our narrative of the government of God will record, in letters that can never be erased, the most peaceful wars waged in behalf of the peace of the soul, and will tell of men doing brave deeds for truth rather than country, and for piety rather than dearest friends. It will hand down to imperishable remembrance the discipline and the much-tried fortitude of the athletes of religion, the trophies won from demons, the victories over invisible enemies, and the crowns placed upon all their heads.

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[Lengthy account of martyrdoms that took place in Gaul during the reign of Marcus Aurelius]

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5. It is reported that Marcus Aurelius Cæsar, brother of Antoninus, being about to engage in bat- tle with the Germans and , was in great trouble on account of his army suffering from thirst. But the soldiers of the so-called Melitene legion, through the faith which has given strength from that time to the present, when they were drawn up before the enemy, kneeled on the ground, as is our custom in prayer, and engaged in supplications to God.

2. This was indeed a strange sight to the enemy, but it is reported that a stranger thing immedi- ately followed. The lightning drove the enemy to flight and destruction, but a shower refreshed the army of those who had called on God, all of whom had been on the point of perishing with thirst. 3. This story is related by non-Christian writers who have been pleased to treat the times referred to, and it has also been recorded by our own people. By those historians who were strangers to the faith, the marvel is mentioned, but it is not acknowledged as an answer to our prayers. But by our own people, as friends of the truth, the occurrence is related in a simple and artless manner.

4. Among these is Apollinarius, who says that from that time the legion through whose prayers the wonder took place received from the emperor a title appropriate to the event, being called in the language of the Romans the Thundering Legion.

5. Tertullian is a trustworthy witness of these things. In the Apology for the Faith, which he ad- dressed to the , and which work we have already mentioned, he confirms the his- tory with greater and stronger proofs.

6. He writes that there are still extant letters of the most intelligent Emperor Marcus in which he testifies that his army, being on the point of perishing with thirst in Germany, was saved by the prayers of the Christians. And he says also that this emperor threatened death to those who brought accusation against us.

7. He adds further:

What kind of laws are those which impious, unjust, and cruel persons use against us alone? Which , though he had conquered the Jews, did not regard; which Trajan partially annulled, forbidding Christians to be sought after; which neither Adrian, though inquisitive in all matters, nor he who was called Pius sanctioned. But let any one treat these things as he chooses; we must pass on to what followed.

8. Pothinus having died with the other martyrs in Gaul at ninety years of age, Irenæus succeeded him in the episcopate of the church at Lyons. We have learned that, in his youth, he was a hearer of Polycarp.

9. In the third book of his work Against Heresies he has inserted a list of the bishops of Rome, bringing it down as far as Eleutherus (whose times we are now considering), under whom he composed his work. He writes as follows:

[Here follows a list of the bishops of Rome]