Lehigh Preserve Institutional Repository

Panama's Great Challenge: Reforming the Educational System Harris, Sabrina 2007

Find more at https://preserve.lib.lehigh.edu/

This document is brought to you for free and open access by Lehigh Preserve. It has been accepted for inclusion by an authorized administrator of Lehigh Preserve. For more information, please contact [email protected]. ’S GREAT CHALLENGE: REFORMING THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM Sabrina Harris

Esta es la oportunidad de garantizar el presente y el futuro de nuestras generaciones. — Martín Torrijos

Introduction decade, both the World Bank and the Inter- American Development Bank (IDB) have spon- Panama is striving to become a flourish- sored projects to assist Panama in ing democracy, to build a stronger economy, improving the quality of its educational system. and to reduce poverty among its population. With their most recent projects, these agencies The attainment of these goals, however, is being are attempting to improve both the quality and hindered by significant deficiencies in the coun- coverage of education in Panama. At the same try’s educational system. Recognizing that a time, they are also focusing on traditionally dis- solid education and the skills it generates are advantaged groups (such as the indigenous key to economic growth and poverty reduction, population) in order to close existing gaps in the Panamanian government has become very education. involved in efforts to reform its educational sys- After providing a brief introduction to tem. For example, the Ministry of Education Panama’s educational system and its history, in has developed a program (“the Government this article I examine why the system is in need Program”) stretching from 2004 to 2009, which of reform and what the most pressing areas for is intended to tackle several of the many chal- reform are. I then analyze the main reform lenges that Panama’s educational system is cur- efforts currently led by the World Bank, rently facing. (Gobierno Nacional) Over the last Panama’s Ministry of Education, and the IDB

15 in order to examine how the country seeks to school, students can take either of two educa- address various educational issues. While any tional paths: an academic or a vocational one. assessment of the effectiveness of these projects Almost three quarters of the student population can only be preliminary, past experiences can chooses the academic route, consisting of two give an indication as to what one can expect in three-year cycles of general and then of more terms of the outcome of these reforms. focused studies. The vocational route, on the other hand, provides students with the techni- Historical Background cal skills needed for direct employment. In order to attend , students have to In order to explain the roots of the current obtain the bachillerato (awarded after comple- challenges to Panama’s educational system, I tion of the upper cycle of the academic course provide in this section a brief overview of its his- of studies), which is an emblem of middle-class tory. Soon after gaining independence from status. (“Education”) In this article, I focus on Colombia in 1903, Panama implemented a sys- elementary education through the completion tem of public education. This system, however, of high school. These years are the ones that lay segregated students by social class. As the First the foundation for higher-level education, and Panamanian Educational Assembly declared in they are thus key to the political, economic, and 1913, “Education should be different in accor- social development of Panama. dance with the social class to which the student should be related.” (“Education”) This elitist Current Challenges of Panama’s system, which largely perpetuated social Educational System inequalities, was replaced in the 1920s by a more inclusive one while Panama was under Panama’s educational system is today still U.S. influence. Universal plagued by significant inequalities in both cov- became one focus of the government’s efforts erage and quality of education between urban to drive down illiteracy rates throughout the and rural areas. Coverage of education refers to country. Although initial improvements were the degree to which students in a specific geo- made, a few decades later gains had slowed sig- graphical area have access to schooling. While nificantly, and a great disparity in literacy rates universal access to education and high educa- persisted. This disparity was especially pro- tion quality are both important goals, reform- nounced between the urban and rural popula- ers face a constant trade-off between the two tions. In 1998, for example, a study showed that since resources are limited. An additional con- “94 percent of city-dwelling adults were liter- straint comes into play because changes in the ate, but fewer than two-thirds of those in the quality of education are extremely difficult to countryside were.” (“Education”) Additionally, measure. (Sanguinetty, p. 35) It is easier to doc- rural areas in Panama are inhabited mostly by ument the building of more schools and class- the indigenous people, who are therefore rooms than it is to assess the impact of disproportionately affected by educational improved teaching methods. As the reform inequality. efforts analyzed below illustrate, however, At the same time, the Panamanian con- Panama is seeking to address both issues of cov- stitution establishes that “all have the right to erage and quality to improve its educational an education” and that “educational institu- system. tions, whether public or private, are open to all students without distinction of race, social posi- Lack of Coverage in Education tion, political ideology, religion.” (“”) Not only do all have Rural regions tend to be inhabited most- the right to an education, but it is also their ly by poorer families as well as by Panama’s duty to obtain at least a basic education; in various indigenous peoples, both of whom con- other words, primary education is compulsory. tinue to be greatly disadvantaged in terms of After completing the six-year cycle of primary access to education. Rural and indigenous pop-

16 ulations often live very far away from the near- The Importance of Education est primary school. At the same time, they need their children for work at the farm to assist with Education is crucial for the development their subsistence agriculture. These circum- of both Panama’s economy and its democracy. stances lead to far lower primary school com- Studies have shown that increased spending on pletion rates, especially among the indigenous education positively affects a country’s business population. In 2002 only about six percent of climate and that the resulting improved per- Panama’s non-indigenous population failed to formance by at-risk students allows them to complete primary education, compared to more make greater contributions to the economy. than 45 percent of the indigenous people. (Schweke, p. 2) In addition, it is also important (“Quantity without Quality…,” p. 11) to invest in the right areas. According to When it comes to middle school coverage, Schweke, major improvements that should be the situation is even worse. As the IBD Report considered are reducing class sizes, introduc- on the reformulated Educational Development ing technology into the classroom, and improv- Project notes, “There are no opportunities in ing teacher training as well as accountability rural or indigenous areas for students who have structures. (Schweke, p. 2) Closer analysis of completed primary school to advance to the Panama’s education reforms illustrates how the middle school level.” (“Short Procedure,” p. 5) country is addressing some of these problems. For example, the Kuna, one of Panama’s indige- Additionally, education is a major factor in nous groups who live on the islands off the determining the level of civic engagement and country’s northeastern shore, have only very political participation of the people, which in limited access to schools unless they move to turn are essential for a healthy democracy. the mainland. During a conversation I had with Recent studies conclude that educated people a group of Kuna in May 2006, one Kuna woman are more likely to be involved politically and explained that there are fifty different commu- civically than those with less education. (Zukin, nities on the islands, and most have an p. 133) Some scholars, such as Nancy Burns, elementary school. However, there are only six even go as far as to label formal education as middle schools and just one high school “the single most important resource for politi- available to these students. If a family does not cal participation.” (Burns, p. 8) live on an island with a school, the child will The consequences of the current defi- either not go to school, instead helping the ciencies of Panama’s education system are thus parents make a living, or will be sent off to far-reaching. The rural (poor) and indigenous another island with a school and live with a peoples especially face extreme difficulties in an foster family. The one high school available has effort to improve their standard of living and to a concentration only in agriculture. Therefore, advance in society. At the same time, they are if a student wants to pursue another field, he or not contributing to Panama’s economic growth she must move to the mainland of Panama. as much as they could if they had a better edu- While such an inadequate infrastructure cation. Having recognized the need for univer- dramatically limits the Kuna’s access to educa- sal primary education, the UN established that tion, they are just one example of a group one of its Millennium Development Goals facing this problem. There are numerous other should be to “ensure that, by 2015, children indigenous groups and rural areas that lack everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to adequate schools and for whom education complete a full course of primary schooling.” beyond the elementary level is barely accessi- (“Achieve Universal…”) Current reform efforts ble. As a result, Panama’s primary school enroll- overseen by the Panamanian government also ment rate is 97 percent, while middle school focus on this issue of inequality of schooling coverage is only 64 percent. Additionally, the between urban and rural areas and between illiteracy rate among those aged 15 and above non-indigenous and indigenous populations. is seven percent in urban areas and 16 percent A later section in this article addressing the in rural and indigenous areas. (“Short reform efforts of the Ministry of Education will Procedure,” p. 4) highlight the steps it is taking in this regard.

17 Lack of Quality in Education poorly equipped schools are two of the results of this spending pattern. Furthermore, expen- A second major problem of Panama’s edu- ditures per student are strikingly low at both cational system pertains to student achieve- the elementary and levels ment levels. For example, more than 40 when compared to the university level. And percent of Panamanian students did not fulfill while most funding overall goes to primary expectations in national tests in 2004, but schools, the investment per student is still com- rather performed below the goals set for their paratively low. For example, in 2002 and 2003 grade level.” (“Short Procedure,” p. 5) While three to four times as much money was spent Panama has yet to participate in regional or per student in than that spent world-wide tests of basic education that allow in primary education, while the world average for comparison with other countries, especial- ratio is between two and three. (“Quantity with- ly with its neighbors, this percentage is alarm- out Quality…,” p. 22) As a World Bank report ing. Regional data, however, that compare noted, “Public resource allocation for educa- Panama to its neighboring countries are avail- tion in Panama has the effect of heightening able at the university level. With regard to per- disparities in income distribution.” formance on the Academic Aptitude Test (ATT) (“Panama…,” p. iii) Almost twice as much taken by students applying to university, funding goes to the richest 20 percent of Panamanian students lagged behind the region- Panamanians as goes to the poorest 20 percent al average by 130 points and behind Uruguayan of the population. The underlying reasons for students (who scored the highest overall) by this disparity come from the fact that funding 315 points. (“Short Procedure,” p. 6) These is primarily allocated for higher education, but numbers are strong indicators of the poor qual- very few students from disadvantaged back- ity of Panama’s educational system. grounds pursue higher education. Less funds are available for lower level education, which is Educational Expenditures precisely where the poor and minority students are greatest in numbers. (“Panama…,” p. iii) Public education expenditures have been decreasing in Panama over the last few years, Panama’s Experiences with Previous with only about eight percent of total govern- Education Reforms ment expenditures going to education in 2003 compared to almost 21 percent in 1996. In 1995 the World Bank put together an (“Quantity without Quality…,” p. 43) Over the extensive report analyzing educational issues same time, average spending on education for in Panama and providing recommendations for Latin American countries overall has dropped improving the system. Although its assessment by only one percentage point, from 16 percent was made before Panama’s government cut to 15 percent. In 2002 the U.S. devoted 17 per- spending on education, the World Bank report cent of total government expenditures to edu- indicated the need for additional resources. One cation, compared to Panama’s eight percent. of its main conclusions was that “the existing (“Human Development Reports”) While it is system must become more cost-effective, and alarming that Panama is devoting a decreasing innovative ways must be sought to achieve edu- percentage of its expenditures to education, the cational goals.” (“Panama…,” p. iv) In order to manner in which the funds are allocated is also achieve these goals, the report further sug- a problem. gested “utilizing the private sector where pos- A breakdown of where the funding goes sible, introducing user charges where feasible shows that only 20 percent of education expen- and reorienting the sizeable scholarship and ditures are used for new investment (like loan program away from one based almost schools, technology, etc.) while most expendi- exclusively on merit, towards one based pri- tures go towards salaries. A lack of innovation marily on need.” (“Panama…,” p. iv) The main (with regard to new technologies, improved challenge to successful implementation of teaching methods, etc.) and a great number of these goals has been that education in Panama

18 has traditionally been subsidized by the gov- information and assessment systems through- ernment (including education at the universi- out the country. Decentralization is also intend- ty level) and that the introduction of fees would ed to give local communities more power and not be politically feasible. Furthermore, those flexibility (and thereby ownership) with regard who are most vocal and politically powerful also to education. tend to be those who are well off, placing the A preliminary status report from 2006 poor at a disadvantage in the competition for indicates that the project is largely on schedule resources. The World Bank recommendations despite early delays in implementation. The also included the expansion of school coverage, report specifies further that those areas in most especially in rural and lower-income urban need for change are “the activities linked to areas, improvement of the quality of basic edu- school construction and decentralization of cation, and a reallocation of resources from management, where … the milestones are still higher education to basic education. below target.” (“Status of Projects…,” p. 1838) The report provided the foundation for a later collaborative effort between the World Reform Efforts through the Ministry Bank and the Panamanian government. The of Education World Bank’s First Basic Education Project for Panama ran between 1996 and 2002. The Education projects such as those project consisted of three main components: described above can only be successful if the improving educational quality and expanding national government fully endorses them. In access to education, expanding edu- addition to supporting agencies like the World cation, and the strengthening of Panama’s Bank, Panama’s Ministry of Education has also Ministry of Education. (“Implementation taken an increasingly active role in reforming Completion Report…,” p. 2) the educational system with a program of its In 2003, a year after completion of this own that started in 2004 and will run until project, the World Bank published the results. 2009. For example, to increase coverage the Significant improvements in coverage and Ministry of Education plans to build 395 addi- quality of education had been made. At the tional classrooms for 11,900 preschool chil- same time, these initial successes also taught dren. The plan also calls for 26 new primary that disadvantaged populations need to be schools to be built for 1,300 students and 50 targeted more specifically in order to have the telebásica (distance) schools, benefiting over greatest impact on those with the greatest 2,000 more students who live too far from the needs. nearest school. (Gobierno Nacional, p. 43) Furthermore, about 1.5 million textbooks with The World Bank’s Second Basic didactic guides are being distributed. The Education Project in Panama project also calls for restoration, expansion, and repair of schools. To continue these initial efforts, a second Another reform effort, addressing the lack World Bank project has already been put into of quality in Panama’s educational system, is place and is scheduled to be completed in 2007. Conéctate al Conocimiento (“Connect to Its goals are similar to those of the original Knowledge”). This program is a presidential ini- project, but with greater effort directed toward tiative which started in early 2005 and is being disadvantaged groups. Enhanced teacher carried out through the Governmental training, provision of textbooks and other Innovation Secretariat of the Presidency instructional materials, poverty-based scholar- (SENACYT). The project’s mission is to create ships, and renovation of school buildings are “an innovative and integral quality education all part of this project. In remote areas where in all of Panama” in order to “promote mean- schools are not available, distance learning ingful learning through the integration of inno- (telebásica) will be provided. Additionally, the vative educational technologies in the schools.” project seeks to further decentralize the (Barrios) To achieve these goals, Conéctate al Ministry of Education in an effort to expand Conocimiento provides a two-week program of

19 teacher training whereby teachers learn to tion and experiences. (Gobierno Nacional, employ a scientific method of teaching focused p. 51) Overall, these various strategies of the on investigation and application. (“Short Ministry of Education address the major chal- Procedure,” p. 10) Then teachers are trained to lenges facing Panama’s educational system. translate this knowledge into hands-on activi- These efforts are being financed through a com- ties and projects in the classroom. bination of government expenditures and loans To provide additional incentives for the from such international organizations as the improvement of education, a national system IDB and World Bank, as well as private sector to evaluate teaching will be created. It will mea- contributions. sure students’ academic performance on Since the project has not yet been com- national and international tests. Part of this pleted, it remains to be seen how successful goal is also for Panama to take part in the PISA these approaches prove to be. However, accord- studies, which assess the knowledge and skills ing to Irvin Halman, Director of the of 15-year-olds every three years via tests given Panamanian Chamber of Commerce, “There in various countries. In an effort to improve has been progress in replacing sub-standard education among the indigenous population, infrastructure for schools, the introduction of in both Spanish and their English as a second language, better leadership native tongue will be fostered through the dis- and communication processes leading to tribution of textbooks in both languages, to be administrative improvements, training in con- given out to 200 selected centers throughout ceptual maps and technology, among others.” Panama. (Gobierno Nacional, p. 48) (Halman) Yet another reform effort taken by the government is to simplify and decentralize the The Educational Development bureaucratic aspects of the educational system, Project through the IDB including the distribution of funds to schools. This will be done to increase ownership of the Another large-scale attempt to improve project by local communities, which ensures Panama’s educational system is the Educational that they feel they are part of the process. As Development Project (PRODE) led by the scholars such as de Cerreno have pointed out, Inter-American Development Bank. In 1998 the “Schools are more likely to be responsive to the IDB had launched its first project, which communities in which they exist, and parents targeted the efficiency and coverage of and students are more likely to involve them- Panama’s educational system. These efforts selves in the school system if they can have a proved to be largely unsuccessful, however, greater impact.” (p. 6) Furthermore, decen- since eight years later only 32 percent of the tralization will also allow parents and the local approved amounts had been disbursed. (The community to hold teachers and other officials normal execution period for these projects is more accountable for their actions (Grindle, less than five years.) The problems regarding p. 41) the project’s implementation can be attributed High schools will also modify the areas of to the IDB’s operating largely independently of concentration they offer to include, for exam- the Ministry of Education, as well as the lack of ple, an industrial concentration in telecom- clarity about the functions of this agency and munications and one in maritime ports and how it was expected to collaborate with the transportation. Such additions are a reaction Ministry of Education. The IDB also acknowl- to demands by the job market for students with edged that, because its country strategy for an education in these areas as Panama’s econ- Panama had changed since the design of its omy develops. Beyond that, close connections project several years earlier, the project with companies will be formed in an effort to needed to adapt to the new problems facing the prepare students for their careers beyond educational system in Panama. school: 77 enterprises have already “adopted” Therefore, in early 2006 the IDB decided 328 schools, benefiting a total of 75,000 stu- to reformulate the original project to deal with dents by providing them with hands-on instruc- some of these problems. As the IDB’s reformu-

20 lation document states, the purpose of the to preschool and primary education in rural updated project design is to focus especially on and indigenous areas as well as through efforts poor rural and indigenous populations “to to combat illiteracy among both youths and ensure that activities financed by the project adults. New classrooms will be built to accom- are aligned with the Ministry’s priorities, and modate more children. Additional resources to increase the level of ownership of the project will be utilized to train outreach workers and and commitment to it by the officials of the teachers and to provide educational materials Ministry of Education.” (“Short Procedure,” and furniture for schools. (“Short Procedure,” p. iv) Clearly, the IDB has shifted its focus to p. 8) These educational materials will be pay special attention to the most disadvantaged adapted to bilingual and intercultural settings groups in Panama. In addition, there is a high for the indigenous population. However, even degree of collaboration planned between the when preschool and primary education reach- IDB and Panama’s Ministry of Education. With es all of Panama’s school-aged children, gaps the recognition that a failure to communicate will remain. For example, there are still no and collaborate had contributed to the earlier middle or high schools in rural and indigenous education project’s unsatisfactory performance, areas to provide further education for those this project stresses the importance of the IDB who complete elementary school. (“Short and the Ministry of Education working Procedure,” p. 5) together. The objective of the reformulated IDB Quality Improvement project is to improve both educational oppor- tunities and learning conditions for all, but A second component of the IDB education especially for those from disadvantaged back- project targets the problems of quality and inclu- grounds. (“Short Procedure,” p. iv) This is to sion in learning in Panama. As the IDB explains be achieved through the creation of new edu- in the project description, “Improvement in the cational opportunities for these groups, quality of education requires the application of through increased quality and inclusiveness of inclusive and effective teaching practices, as well education and through the establishment of as periodic assessments of student learning, in adequate learning facilities, as well as through order to obtain feedback on those practices.” a reform. At the time of (“Short Procedure,” p. 9) To this end, resources this writing, the IDB is still reviewing bids for will be set aside for school improvements in the infrastructural plans and is conducting cur- some 200 poor urban schools that show defi- riculum studies in order to finalize plans for ciencies in the quality of learning. Officials also the secondary education reform. According to recognize that certain groups of students (in par- Mr. Jeremy Gold from the IDB, a first report will ticular, those with disabilities) remain excluded most likely be submitted in late 2007, and a from the educational system. As a result, they more comprehensive evaluation will take place plan to include children with disabilities in reg- when the halfway point of execution is reached ular classroom settings and to train teachers in 2008. (Gold) While plans for developing this accordingly. In addition, Panama will participate secondary education reform are still in in assessment tests and become part of the progress, the other three components of the LLECE (The Latin-American Laboratory for the reformulated project are analyzed more in Evaluation of the Quality of Education, which is detail below. part of UNESCO). The IBD will also support the training of 300 teachers through SENACYT and Improved Access to Education its Conéctate al Conocimiento project, described earlier. First, the IDB seeks to expand education- al opportunities especially for the poor and Improvement of Infrastructure indigenous school-aged population. Focus will be directed largely towards improving literacy. The third component of the IDB’s strategy This is to be achieved by providing more access seeks to establish a better learning infrastruc-

21 ture. (“Short Procedure,” p. 11) Put simply, more tain level of flexibility is also necessary, as is the classrooms need to be built while most schools willingness to adjust goals to the situation in the indigenous areas also require major ren- found in Panama’s rural areas. As a result, alter- ovations and repairs. More specifically, the IDB native solutions such as distance learning need will contribute to the construction of about 340 to be considered more fully to complement preschool and middle school classrooms and to more traditional reform approaches in order to the renovation of at least 1,700 classrooms in accommodate the living conditions of various 450 different schools. (“Short Procedure,” p. 11) populations. Those who design and implement devel- Conclusions opment projects must place increasing importance on collaboration with the local pop- This article has highlighted how Panama’s ulation. If reforms are to be accepted by the Ministry of Education has become increasing- Panamanian population, the creators of these ly proactive in reforming the country’s educa- reforms must ensure they have the support of tional system. With the financial help of both those whose lives they are affecting. This the World Bank and the IDB, the lack of cover- requires not just collaboration with Panama’s age and the poor quality of Panama’s educa- elites. From the growing consensus that tional system are now being addressed. Both emphasis needs to be placed on the most dis- agencies have realized that full commitment by advantaged groups, namely the rural and the national government is key to a successful indigenous populations of Panama, it follows implementation of these projects. Both the gov- that these groups also need to be included in ernment and loan providers have complemen- both the planning and execution of any tary goals, but face significant challenges in reforms. The current reforms will most likely implementation due to institutional constraints not be the last ones implemented in the coun- and the difficulty of reaching the more remote try. Great shifts in the educational system can- areas of the country. not be expected to happen quickly, but the Although Panama’s past education increased focus on disadvantaged rural and projects never achieved all of their original indigenous populations by all parties offers goals, progress has been made over time. hope for continued positive change. Whereas plans and projects that specify strate- gies for reform are essential for success, a cer-

22 REFERENCES

“Achieve Universal Primary Education.” Millennium Jackson, Eric. “Teachers Go Back to Work, Having Won Very Development Goals. The World Bank Group. 2004. Little.” The Panama News (Business and Economy). Online. ddp-ext.worldbank.org/ext/GMIS/gdmis.do? Vol. 12, No. 18, September 17–October 7, 2006. siteId=2&goalId=6&menuId=LNAV01GOAL2. Online. www.thepanamanews.com/pn/v_12/issue_ Accessed September 23, 2006. 18/business_01.html. Accessed December 6, 2006. Barrios, José del Carmen. Master/Facilitador Proyecto “Panama: Issues in Basic Education.” World Bank. 1995. Conéctate al Conocimiento. Personal electronic www.worldbank.org/reference. Accessed September correspondence with the author, August 9, 2006. 22, 2006. Burns, Nancy, et al. “The Private Roots of Public Action: “Quantity without Quality — A Report Card on Education Gender, Equality, and Political Participation.” in Latin America.” PREAL-Partnership for the Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, Educational Revitalization on the Americas. 2006. 2001. Online. www.thedialogue.org/programs/policy/social/ de Cerreno, Allison L.C. and Cassandra A. Pyle. “Educational education/. Accessed September 23, 2006. Reform in Latin America.” Council on Foreign “Right to Education.” UNESCO Education-Panama. 1995. Relations. December 1996. Online. www.ciaonet.org/ Online. portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php- frame/wpsfrm.html. Accessed November 3, 2006. URL_ID=12309&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_ “Education.” U.S. Library of Congress, Country Studies, SECTION=201.html. Accessed September 23, 2006. 1998. Online. countrystudies.us/panama/39.htm. Sanguinetty, Jorge A. “Educational Crisis in Latin America: Accessed September 23, 2006. Financial Constraints and the Dilemma of Quality Gobierno Nacional. Ministerio de Educación. “Los versus Coverage.” A Concept Paper prepared for the Panameños y Panameñas Merecemos una Educación U.S. Agency for International Development. de Calidad.” Online. www.meduca.gob.pa/. Accessed Development Technologies, Inc., August 20, 1991. September 26, 2006. Schweke, William. “Smart Money Education and Economic Gold, Jeremy. Personal electronic correspondence with the Development.” July 2004. Economic Policy Institute. author, October 3, 2006. Online. www.epinet.org/content.cfm?id=1839. Grindle, Merilee S. “Despite the Odds: The Contentious Accessed October 21, 2006. Politics of Education Reform.” Princeton: Princeton “Short Procedure.” Reformulation Proposal. Inter-American University Press, 2004. Development Bank. 2006. www.iadb.org/countries/ Halman, Irvin. Personal electronic correspondence with Home.cfm?language=English&id_country=PN& the author, November 17, 2006. parid=1. Accessed September 22, 2006. “Human Development Reports.” United Nations “Status of Projects in Execution — FY06 SOPE.” Operations Development Programme. Online. hdr.undp. org/ Policy and County Services. World Bank. September statistics/data/indicators.cfm?x=103&y=1&z=1. 19, 2006. Accessed October 19, 2006. Zukin, Cliff, et al. “A New Engagement? Political “Implementation Completion Report on a Loan in the Participation, Civic Life, and the Changing American Amount of US $35.0 Million to the Republic of Citizen.” Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. Panama for a Basic Education Project.” World Bank, May 10, 2003.

23