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A Chinese-drawn world map depicts between 1157 and 1166, and reveals Sino-Europe maritime routes already existing in the millennia before Christ

By Sheng-Wei Wang* 28 May 2021

Abstract

This paper reports that a Chinese-based world map ‒ the Kunyu Wanguo Quantu《坤舆 万国全图》or Complete Geographical Map of All the Kingdoms of the World published by in 1602 in ‒ depicts Europe in the period between 1157 and 1166, during the Southern Song Dynasty (南宋; 1127-1279), and that a network of routes ‒ the Maritime routes connecting China and Europe ‒ existed already before Christ. The findings are based on: 1) a comparison of key geographical features in the European portion of the Kunyu Wanguo Quantu with major European and Arabic maps from antiquity to the late sixteenth century; 2) a comprehensive examination of the geographical and historical information of each named European kingdom, principality, , republic, state, confederation, province, county, region, autonomous or semi- autonomous region, city/town, peninsula, island, ocean, sea, lake and river depicted on the Kunyu Wanguo Quantu; 3) a historical record of China-Byzantine interactions during the rule of the Shenzong (神宗; 1048-1085) of the Northern Song Dynasty (北 宋; 960-1127); 4) archaeological findings from the “Nanhai One (南海一号)” shipwreck dated around the of the Southern Song Dynasty and discovered in the in 1987; and 5) the latest archaeological surveys made by T. C. Bell in and the United Kingdom, revealing that the Chinese had actually operated in as early as 2850 B. C., and suggesting the existence of the Sino-Europe maritime routes almost 5000 years ago.

Keywords: China, Europe, Kunyu Wanguo Quantu, Nanhai One, Maritime Silk Road, Song Dynasty

1. Introduction

For over four hundred years, the world map ‒ Kunyu Wanguo Quantu《坤舆万国全 图》, abbreviated here as KWQ 1 ‒ with Chinese characters and latitudinal and longitudinal lines, has been generally regarded as a map drawn in 1602 by Matteo Ricci (an Italian Jesuit priest and one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China missions) and his Chinese collaborators, based on the European maps which Ricci brought with him to China in 1582.2 Recently, researchers have provided analysis and evidence3 to show that most of KWQ was actually based on the knowledge obtained by the Ming (明代; 1388- 1644) mariners before the seventh voyage of Admiral (郑和) to the Western Ocean in the 1430s. Hence, KWQ used Chinese maps as source maps (these no longer exist) and KWQ is not a direct or adapted copy of other contemporary European maps. However, these analyses have not thoroughly been extended to the European part of 2

KWQ, abbreviated here as Europe-KWQ. Hence, it is important to re-examine the Europe-KWQ to determine the era of Europe which this map depicts, to see whether the Europe-KWQ is also based on the knowledge of the Ming mariners.

2. The Europe-KWQ is not a direct or adapted copy of the two major European maps in the sixteenth century

Fig. 1 shows the Europe-KWQ extracted from the KWQ (a collection item at the United States Library of Congress's Geography & Map Division);4 Fig. 2 shows the map of Europe extracted from the 1569 World Map by Gerardus Mercator;5 and Fig. 3 shows the map of Europe extracted from the 1570 World Map by Abraham Ortelius.6 Both Figs. 2 and 3 were thought by some scholars to be the source maps of the Europe-KWQ.

Fig. 1 The Europe-KWQ extracted from the 1602 KWQ (public domain).7 The “toe” and “heel” of “’s boot” of the Italian Peninsula are poorly represented.

We can see very clearly that the “toe” and “heel” of “Italy’s boot” of the Italian Peninsula are poorly depicted on the Europe-KWQ in Fig. 1, in comparison with the two European maps in Figs. 2-3. It seems that the Europe-KWQ is an older and less accurate map and not a direct or adapted copy of these two sixteenth-century European maps. In the Appendix of this paper, I list all the geographical terms shown on the Europe- KWQ in Fig. 1, and specifically denote those not appearing on the 1569 World Map by Gerardus Mercator or the 1570 World Map by Abraham Ortelius. The denotation is based on the Chinese book entitled Li Ma Dou Shi Jie Di Tu Yan Jiu《利玛窦世界地图研究》 or Research on Matteo Ricci's World Map, written by Huang Shijian (黄时鉴) and Gong Yingyan (龚缨晏). Of the 117 geographical terms analysed in this paper, 30 (about 26 percent) do not appear on these two European maps. 3

Moreover, among the geographical terms depicted on the Europe-KWQ, “黃魚島” (Yellow Fish Island) is a Chinese-based name (Item 97 in the Appendix). The name is used to describe a kind of fish which lives around the island of . This Chinese name has no connection with the island name’s pre- roots. “太海” (Tai Hai; Big Ocean; today’s ) is also a Chinese-based name (Item 104 in the Appendix). “Black Sea” today is the name of the sea in Turkish during the (1299- 1922) era. The name "Black Sea" does not appear on the Europe-KWQ, indicating that the map originated earlier than 1299 A. D. and also implying that Matteo Ricci has nothing to do with the name of this inland sea.

Fig. 2 The map of Europe extracted from the 1569 World Map by Gerardus Mercator (public domain);8 the “toe” and “heel” of “Italy’s boot” of the Italian Peninsula near the figure’s bottom can be clearly identified.

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From the above analysis and simple comparisons, we can conclude that the Europe-KWQ cannot be a copy or adapted copy of the two prominent European maps in the sixteenth century in Figs. 2-3. Since the Europe-KWQ seems to be an older and less accurate map in comparison with the sixteenth century European maps, I decided to examine major European and Arabic maps earlier than the sixteenth century to make further comparisons with the Europe- KWQ. The purpose is to see whether any different conclusion can be reached. This is done in the following section.

Fig. 3 The map of Europe extracted from the 1570 World Map by Abraham Ortelius (public domain);9 again, the “toe” and “heel” of “Italy’s boot” can be clearly identified near the bottom of this figure.

3. The Europe-KWQ is also very different from the major European and Arabic maps of the twelfth to fifteenth centuries

I next compare the Europe-KWQ with major European maps drawn before the sixteenth century in reverse chronological order. The left panel in Fig. 4 shows the map of Europe extracted from the 1459 Fra Mauro map,10 while the right panel is extracted from a modern reproduction of the 1375 .11 Fig. 5 shows the 1258-1291 map called Carta Pisane.12 It appears that on all the maps of the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries, the European cartographers knew how to draw the “toe” and “heel” of “Italy’s boot”. Hence, there remains a puzzle: why did Matteo Ricci not know how to correctly draw the shape of the Italian Peninsula on the Europe-KWQ in 1602? It is also interesting to ask why and how the Europeans could already draw the Mediterranean region so well in the thirteenth century as shown in Fig. 5.

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Fig. 4 At left is the map of Europe extracted from the 1459 Fra Mauro map (shown upside-down as the original had South at the top; public domain).13 At right is the map of Europe extracted from the modern production of the 1375 Catalan Atlas (public domain).14 Both show good depictions of the “toe” and “heel” of “Italy’s boot”.

Fig. 5 A picture of the Carta Pisane (public domain),15 which was probably made around 1258-1291. We can recognize the “toe” and “heel” of “Italy’s boot”.

History books record that Chinese developed navigational compasses as early as the eleventh or twelfth century (during the Song Dynasty; 960-1279), and that later, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the compass arrived in Europe. After they learned how to use the compass, the Europeans developed the Portolan charts which are nautical charts related to harbours. On these charts, “compass roses”, also called “wind roses” or 6

“roses of the wind” are drawn at various significant geographical locations with a network of rhumb lines that focused on the coasts and islands.16 Sailing along any of these lines can lead ships to a harbour; hence, the maps were important guides for the sailors. A drawback of the Portolan charts is that they did not take into account the spherical shape of the Earth; instead, they regarded the sea as a flat surface over which sailors could sail in a straight-line direction to reach their destination. As a result, the Portolan charts cannot provide effective sailing directions on a curved surface such as a vast ocean. But in the small and nearly flat , the charts were very useful. 17 The Carta Pisana (a Portolan chart) shows high accuracy in presenting the Mediterranean and is regarded as the cumulative work of the local fishermen and coastal merchants over the years. However, when stepping back to the twelfth century, we notice that the Arabic cartographers were doing much better in their overall depiction of the world than the European cartographers. The Moroccan geographer, Muhammad al-Idrisi, created in 1154 the , which was the most accurate map of the world at the time. He incorporated into his map the knowledge of Africa, the and the gathered by Arab merchants and explorers with the information inherited from the classical geographers.18 The right panel of Fig. 6 shows the Italian Peninsula extracted from his world map.19 Although the Tabula Rogeriana was regarded as the most accurate world map for the next three centuries, the Italian Peninsula is so distorted that it looks more like an elephant.

Fig. 6 At left is the Italian Peninsula extracted from the Europe-KWQ (public domain).20 At right is the Italian Peninsula extracted from the Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by al-Idrisi in 1154, shown upside-down as the original had South at the top (public domain).21

From the above comparisons we know that the Europe-KWQ is also not a direct or adapted copy of the major European and Arabic maps during the twelfth to the fifteenth centuries. 7

Since the Europe-KWQ contains many country names, I sensed that a comprehensive understanding of the history and geography of Europe would most likely lead me to figure out the political landscape embedded in the Europe-KWQ, and from there I should be able to determine the era of the map’s content. With this goal in mind, I started to make a full analysis of the history and geography of each named European kingdom, principality, duchy, republic, state, confederation, province, county, region, autonomous or semi-autonomous region, city/town, peninsula, island, ocean, sea, lake and river depicted on the Europe-KWQ, and from there to extract the era of the map. This is an arduous process requiring thorough examination of the complicated European history and geography. But the effort paid off. My results are presented in the following sections and in the Appendix.

4. Medieval European history and geography are keys in determining the era represented by the Europe-KWQ

The or medieval period of Europe lasted from around the third to the late fifteenth century. After the fall of the Western (395–476)22 came the tumultuous Dark Ages of the tenth and eleventh centuries, which later transitioned into the Renaissance and the in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (or even the early seventeenth century). After the western part of the Roman Empire fell, it was replaced by a series of kingdoms ruled by the , but Roman identity and culture had spread to the Germanic tribes. The eastern part continued to exist as the (395–1453) for over 1000 years. The above brief review is evidenced by Europe in Fig. 7 which shows that by 814, a unified Frankish Empire (or the Kingdom of , or Frankland; 481-843) already existed in Western and . However, the Europe-KWQ in Fig. 1 does not show the same political landscapes as in Fig. 7. They clearly represent Europe in different eras. Also notice that the Europe-KWQ does not draw the territorial boundaries of a kingdom (the only exception is , which will be discussed later). Figure 7 and Figs. 8 and 9 shown below are historical maps formed by drawing countries that existed in 814, 1142 and 1190 into modern European maps, respectively.23 The Kingdom of Franks remained united until 843 when the Treaty of Verdun partitioned it. Later in 987, became the Kingdom of ; however, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as “King of the Franks” well into the (from around 1000 to 1250). The first king to call himself “King of France” was Philip II, in 1190.24 The Kingdom of the Franks was the largest post- in Western Europe, and the (800-888; the had ruled as kings of the Franks since 751) is considered the first phase in the history of the (800-1806), leading later to the modern states of France and .25 We should also be aware that the largest territory of the Holy Roman Empire after 962 was the , while the Holy Roman Empire also included the Kingdoms of , of Italy, of , and numerous other territories.

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Fig. 7 Europe in 814 (public domain).26

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Fig. 8 Europe in 1142 (public domain).27

Fig. 9 Europe in 1190 (public domain).28

From this history, we conclude that the political landscape of Europe in 814 must belong to an older era than that of the Europe-KWQ, because the Europe-KWQ depicts Francia (拂郎察; the future France) and (入尔馬泥亞; the future Germany) as separate kingdoms, which was the situation after the unified Frankish Empire ended. After the fall of the Frankish Empire in the ninth century, Europe entered into the Central and High Middle Ages29 and experienced the political era of the and the Papal . By the mid-to-late twelfth century, a new political landscape of Europe gradually stabilized as shown in Fig. 8 for Europe in 1142 and Fig. 9 for Europe in 1190. Generally speaking, on these two maps there are several kingdoms on the , the (or France) in Western Europe, the Holy Roman Empire ruling over much of Western and Central Europe (and extended to the northern Italian Peninsula) characterized by strong Papal authority, several independent city states on the Northern and Southern Italian Peninsula, many countries in Eastern and , and the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) taking over the Balkan Peninsula and areas beyond. This political landscape seems to correlate better with the Europe-KWQ in Fig. 1, yet there are still distinct differences which after investigation 10 have enabled me to determine the political landscape and era presented by the Europe- KWQ. This investigation is detailed in the next section and the Appendix.

5. The Europe-KWQ depicts Europe between 1157 and 1166

In the following, I shall list my key analyses which led me to determine the era of Europe as depicted in the Europe-KWQ:

I. On the Europe-KWQ, the boundary of Sweden’s territory (蘇亦齊界; Item 77 in the Appendix) extends to the entire coastal region of southern and central (沸你刪突; Item 76). The Swedish colonisation of Finland started c. 1150,30 and the year 1362, just six years before the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) of China expired, 31 is generally considered the year of incorporation of Finland into the Kingdom of Sweden.32 Such an extended Swedish territorial extent depicted in Fig. 1 is not seen in Fig. 8 of Europe in 1142, but is seen in Fig. 9 of Europe in 1190. This difference strongly supports that the Europe-KWQ depicts a Europe after c. 1150.

II. At the western end of the Iberian Peninsula in Figs. 8 and 9, the name “Portugal” (葡 萄牙) is denoted, not the old name 波爾杜瓦爾 (Portucale, Portugale, or Portugália; Item 1 in the Appendix) shown on the Europe-KWQ in Fig. 1. Actually, the originated from the (1096–1139) which was a semi- autonomous county of the Kingdom of León (910-1230). Independence from León (利昂; Item 11 in the Appendix) took place in three stages:33 1) in 1139, Portugal's independence was claimed internally; 2) in 1143, Portugal's independence was recognized by the Kingdom of León and the (1065-1230; 加西郎; Item 5 in the Appendix); and 3) in 1179, Portugal's independence was recognized by Alexander III.34 In Figs. 8 and 9, the name Portugal is used. However, on the Europe-KWQ, the use of the ancient name 波爾杜瓦爾 also makes sense, because the independent status of 波 爾杜瓦爾 had not yet received the Pope’s confirmation which came only in 1179. (The Europe-KWQ may actually be drawn a few years later allowing for the travel time of news back to China; but the Europe it depicts on the map still reflects the political landscape of Europe in 1179). Combining this date with the earliest possible date of Sweden’s territorial expansion into Finland, c. 1150, we can infer that the Europe-KWQ depicts an era of Europe between c. 1150 and 1179, which overlaps with the early Southern Song Dynasty of China (1127-1279).

III. Castile (加西郎; Item 5 in the Appendix), which originally was an eastern county of the Kingdom of León (利昂; Item 11 in the Appendix; however, its location is misplaced to the far northeast of Castile on the Europe-KWQ), became an independent realm from 1065. However, between 1072 and 1157, it was again united with the Kingdom of León. Confusingly, in Fig. 8, the map of Europe in 1142 seems to still draw the two kingdoms in two different colours, as if they were not united. Later, from 1230 this union became permanent, and the Kingdom of Castile and León came to be known collectively as the .35 In Fig. 9, we do see that there is separately the Kingdom of Castile and the Kingdom of León, because the year 1190 falls between 1157 and 1230, when the 11

two kingdoms were not united. Since 加西郎 (the Kingdom of Castile) and 利昂 (the Kingdom of León) also appear as two separate kingdoms on the Europe-KWQ, this would support an era of Europe between 1157 and 1230. Combining this finding with the previous inference in II that the Europe-KWQ depicts an era between c. 1150 and 1179, leads to a new era of Europe between 1157 and 1179, which still overlaps with the era of the Southern Song Dynasty of China.

IV. Granada (厄辣捺達; Item 3 in the Appendix) is in southern and in the eastern and middle part of Andalusia, but on the Europe-KWQ, 厄辣捺達 (Granada) is depicted too westward on the Iberian Peninsula and too close to the Strait. In Fig. 9, it is better located. Granada was under the rule of the Almohad Empire (1121-1269; a North African Berber Muslim empire)36 from 1166.37 Since the Almohad Empire is not depicted in Fig. 1, we know that the Europe-KWQ must represent Europe before 1166. Combining this finding with the previously inferred era between 1157 and 1179 (discussed in III) gives a final era of Europe between 1157 and 1166.

V. The Europe-KWQ gives the names of the kingdoms, but does not draw their territorial borders, except for Sweden. However, the Appendix gives the relevant history and geography of each named geographical feature on the Europe-KWQ. Although the names of the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire are not explicitly written, you will notice several kingdoms on the Iberian Peninsula, as well as Francia (拂郎察; future France) in Western Europe, the territories over much of Western and Central Europe (and extended to the northern Italian Peninsula) ruled by the Holy Roman Empire and characterized by strong Papal authority, several independent city states on the Northern and Southern Italian Peninsula, many countries in Eastern and Northern Europe, the Balkan Peninsula and areas beyond taken over by the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire). The political landscape represented by the Europe-KWQ in consistent with the Europe known between 1157 and 1166.

VI. However, it is odd that both 苏亦微亚 (Switzer) and 十三郡 (the thirteen cantons) show up on the Europe-KWQ. These names denote the ancient of different era. As explained in the Appendix (Item 23), the was a loose confederation of independent small states within the Holy Roman Empire. It is the precursor of the modern state of Switzerland. Only by 1513 did the federation expand to thirteen members (the thirteen cantons), and Switzer (苏亦微亚) was only used during the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. But on the Europe-KWQ, “Switzerland” is denoted by three names: 赫尔勿妻亞 (Helvetia), 苏亦微亚 (Switzer) and 十三郡 (the thirteen cantons). 赫尔勿妻亞 is the transliteration of Helvetica. This Latin term Helvetia was used to name an ancient region of central Europe between the and the Jura Mountains before the Roman conquest. It was the only name used before the sixteenth century to describe that region. Since the Europe-KWQ depicts a political landscape of Europe in the era between 1157 and 1166, it appears that it was Matteo Ricci who added 苏亦微亚 and 十三郡 next to 赫尔勿妻亞 on the Europe-KWQ to describe the same nation, Helvetia. 12

From the analysis presented in Sections 2-5 and the Appendix, I can now conclude that the Europe-KWQ is not a direct or adapted copy of major European and Arabic maps from the twelfth to the sixteenth centuries; however, it depicts the political landscape of Europe in the era between 1157 and 1166 which overlaps with the early Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279) of China, and provides many additional geographical terms (about 26 percent) not present in the two major European maps. Given that Song China was the world’s strongest nation (its GDP accounted for 80 percent of the world’s GDP), far surpassing Europe at that time, and given its much advanced maritime capability, I would not be surprised that the Chinese mariners in the Southern Song Dynasty had explored Europe;38 also, the Chinese cartographers were able to depict Europe on map(s) with information that they gathered from these mariners. In the next section, I shall list other evidence which gives further support from different , showing that the content of the Europe-KWQ is based on maritime information in the early Southern Song Dynasty or long before that.

6. China-Europe interactions can be traced to the millennia before Christ

In this section, I shall list a few examples of the China-Europe interactions in and trade in the Song Dynasty, and Chinese exploration of Europe in the millennia before Christ:

I. There exist historical records of China-Byzantine interactions during the era of the Emperor Shenzong (神宗; 1048-1085) of the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127):39 in October 1078, the Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates sent his envoys to seek an alliance with Taugus (“唐家子” Tangjiazi; Chinese people in the were known to the Europeans as Taugus, and in China appeared in the seventh century, during the Tang Dynasty). He was hoping that China in the east would be willing to form an alliance with him to fight against the Turkic people. The envoys took the Silk Road routes by land along the Aegean Sea and the ancient Anatolian Plateau to finally arrive at the Northern Song capital Kaifeng (开封) in late 1081. However, at that time, Emperor Shenzong had just been defeated by neighbouring Western Xia (西夏 or Xixia; 1038-1227); hence, he was not in the mood to heed the request of these ambassadors. 40 When the envoys returned home, they found that Nikephoros III Botaneiates had already been overthrown by Alexios I Komnenos.41

II. Chinese wooden ships had sailed the Maritime Silk Road routes from Southeast China to the Indian Ocean, the Arabic countries, the east coast of Africa and most likely Europe in the Southern Song Dynasty: a wooden shipwreck – Nanhai One (南海一号) – was discovered in 1987 in the South China Sea. Archaeologists date it to around the 1160s.42 This type of ship, 41.8 m x 11 m x c. 4 m/137 ft x 36 ft x c. 13 ft,43 is a sharp-bottomed sea-going ship, which is famous for sailing in the South China Sea and the open sea. The wreck contains 180,000 artifacts; most of the porcelains were from the famous Jingdezhen (景德镇) and other Chinese kiln families; many were made in Western and Arab cultural styles to satisfy foreign customers. Moreover, through the copper coins found on the Nanhai One (see Fig. 10), it can be roughly inferred that China's copper alloy coins were the main currency for regional trade at that time. 13

Fig. 10 shows copper alloy coins collected from Nanhai One. It is also worth noting that Chinese coins have a smooth round shape because they were manufactured by being cast in molds; European coins were typically cut and hammered manually or in later times milled, hence they were not easy to form with a smooth round shape.

Fig. 10 Left: Southern Song coins collected from “Nanhai One”.44

In short, the discovery of Nanhai One is witnesses of the development of maritime trade in the Song Dynasty, especially in the Southern Song Dynasty. After its north-western transportation link with Central Asia was blocked by the Xixia, Uyghur, and Liao regimes, the Song imperial court had to turn to sea to develop trade relations with many countries and regions in South Asia, Central Asia, Africa, the Middle East and Europe. The widespread use of compasses in the Song Dynasty and the new breakthroughs in the technology of manufacturing sea-going ships made all these maritime possible and successful, and China became a maritime power in the Song Dynasty. The currently implemented by China to connect the economies of various countries and regions are a modern form of the Maritime Silk Road routes in the Southern Song Dynasty.

III. British surveyor T. C. Bell has discovered that ancient Chinese had operated on the western coast of Europe since antiquity, based on the following evidence:45 1) In Ireland, the Chinese presence on Innis Mor, an island in Galway Bay, was confirmed using magnetic anomaly which located sand-covered wrecks of two Chinese Junks of size 47 m x 11 m/154 ft x 36 ft and their unique anchors, and two matching adjacent Chinese standard slot harbours. 2) In Scotland, he discovered in Rhins of Galloway a 130 m x 38 m/426 ft x 125 ft Chinese and, flanking it, a 70 m x 27 m/230 ft x 89 ft Chinese Junk. Both are sand-covered and tidal, and both were located by magnetic anomaly at low tide. Adjacent 14 was a large sand-covered Roman harbour and several Chinese slot harbours, capable of taking 70 m x c. 28 m/230 ft x c. 92 ft vessels. There was a massive 240 m/787 ft harbour wall behind which the massive Chinese catamaran and 70 m/230 ft junk were anchored. Moreover, nearly every bay down the Rhins of Galloway held Chinese slot harbours, some with shipwrecks. There was even one with stone cannon balls on the beach. All had barracks for the Chinese crews, some had Chinese towns, and several had small cliff-top forts overlooking the bays. 3) In Scotland, one of the three bays he surveyed in Wester Ross had a large double walled field with visible wall foundations and Chinese barrack foundations, overlooking a six-bay Chinese harbour (with stonework in place). There was also a farmer’s excavation, c. 1 m/c. 3 ft deep, where drainage revealed burnt brush wood; this was carbon dated by a major Scottish laboratory to 2850 B. C. 4) Again in Scotland, a fleet of four shipwrecks located in Gruinard Bay on the west coast and one wreck confirmed by satellite, were apparently part of the first Chinese fleet sent out to survey the world c. 5000 years ago. 5) In Cumbria (the most northwesterly county of England), Bell located a large metallic ore exploitation site, and in southern England what he considers to be a Chinese shipyard and a sunken Super Junk (located by Google Earth). In summary, he found that the Chinese appear to have entered the United Kingdom in two waves: the first occurred in the millennia before Christ; the second wave took place during the Roman period c. 44-41046 (he found Roman forts alongside a Chinese barracks and harbour sites to defend them). He has located sand-covered Chinese shipwrecks from both periods. Bell is currently writing a book entitled The Chinese Discovery of Britain to give more details of his investigations.

IV. Ancient Sino-Europe maritime routes must have long existed. This is not only evidenced by T. C. Bell’s survey findings in Ireland and the United Kingdom, but also by some of the sea names depicted on the Europe-KWQ. They are in ancient Latin (from 75 B. C. to 300 A. D.) such as 上海 (Mare Superum) and 下海 (Mare Inferum), also known in more recent medieval Latin (from late third to late fifteenth century) as Mare Adriaticum (today’s Adriatic Sea) and Mare Tyrrhenum (today's Tyrrhenian Sea), respectively. Also, the Chinese name – 太海 – is used in place of the much later name – Black Sea – during the Ottoman Empire period (1299-1922) and 入尔馬尼海 (Mare Germanicum; before 75 B. C.) is used to depict the southern arm of the (this name was first used in the eleventh century). All these observations indicate that the Chinese had sailed along the waters surrounding the European continent before and after Christ and used the ancient Latin names or the Chinese invented names to denote the waters they had sailed through.

8. Conclusion

In Sections 2 and 3, I have shown that Europe depicted on a Chinese-based world map ‒ Kunyu Wanguo Quantu《坤舆万国全图》or Complete Geographical Map of All the Kingdoms of the World ‒ published by Matteo Ricci in 1602 in China, is not a direct or adapted copy of the prominent European or Arabic maps from the twelfth to the sixteenth century. Then in Sections 4 and 5, based on the understanding of the Medieval-European 15 history and geography, I was able to analyse each named geographical term depicted on that map to extract the era of Europe being presented. My conclusion is that the Europe- KWQ depicts Europe in the era between 1157 and 1166, a period overlapping with the early Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279). This conclusion is further supported in Section 6 by the known historical records of the Northern Song Dynasty and the latest archaeological findings of the Nanhai One shipwreck of the Southern Song Dynasty. Furthermore, the survey findings made by T. C. Bell in Ireland and the United Kingdom reveal that the Chinese had actually operated on the western coast of Europe as early as 2850 B. C., which suggest the existence of Sino-Europe maritime routes almost 5000 years ago.

* Ph.D.; Founder and President of China-U.S. Friendship Exchange, Inc.; www.ChinaUSFriendship.com * © Sheng-Wei Wang, for republication of this paper, please send request to: [email protected] * The author's related book and other papers are as follows: Book The last journey of the San Bao Eunuch, Admiral Zheng He https://www.amazon.com/s?k=the+last+journey+of+the+san+bao&i=digital- text&ref=nb_sb_noss_1 Papers https://1421foundation.org/chinese-explored-cape-breton-island-long-before-the- europeans/ https://1421foundation.org/chinese-explored-australia-new-zealand-and-antarctica-long- before-the-europeans/ * To contact the publisher for the author’s book entitled The last journey of the San Bao Eunuch, Admiral Zheng He, see https://www.proversepublishing.com/ or send a letter to Proverse , P.O. Box 259, Tung Chung Post Office, Tung Chung, Lantau, Hong Kong, or send email to: [email protected]

Acknowledgements

The author thanks Mr. T. C. Bell for communicating his valuable survey results in Ireland and the United Kingdom and allowing their publication in this paper, and for approving the present paper before publication. The author also thanks Ian Hudson, Director of the 1421 Foundation, and Professor Klaus Hermann of the Max Planck Society in Berlin, Germany for reviewing this paper prior to publication. Special thanks are given to Professor Chen Fenglin (陈奉林), History Department, Normal University, for inviting me to present the Chinese version of this paper to the Thirteenth Symposium on “History of Eastern Diplomacy” to be held in Shandong, China, in September 2021; and to Professor Jimin Sun ( 孙 继 敏 ), Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, for reviewing my paper despite his busy schedule. Finally, I am grateful for Professor Emeritus Michel A. Van Hove for his technical assistance in preparing all the figures in this paper in published form, and Mia Hayes-Shuptar of the 1421 Foundation for assisting with the website publication.

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Appendix

Items preceded by “●” are geographical terms which do not appear on the 1569 World Map by Gerardus Mercator or the 1570 World Map by Abraham Ortelius. The European regional grouping is according to The World Factbook.47 The Europe-KWQ uses almost entirely Chinese traditional characters; this paper uses modern Chinese simplified characters except in cases when geographical terms used by the Europe- KWQ are mentioned.

Europe depicted on Kunyu Wanguo Quantu Item Name Pin- Etymology History and geography My comments # yin Southwest Europe (Iberian Peninsula) 1 波爾 Bo Er The old name of The Kingdom of Portugal The geographical position 杜瓦 Du Portugal; Latin: originated from the County of 波爾杜瓦爾 (Portucale, 48 爾 Portucale; it of Portugal (868-1139) which Portugale or Portugália) is Er evolved into was a semi-autonomous correctly depicted on the Portugale (波尔 county of the Kingdom of Europe-KWQ. The use of 杜瓦尔) during León (Item 11). the old name on the Independence from León Europe-KWQ means that the seventh and 49 eighth centuries. took place in three stages: the map was drawn before By during the 1) in 1139, Portugale’s the independence of ninth century, independence was claimed Portugale (波爾杜瓦爾) Portucale, internally; 2) in 1143, into Portugal (葡萄牙); the Portugale and Portugale’s independence earliest date can be Portugália, were was recognized by León and regarded as 1139 and the used to refer to Castile (Item 5) through the latest date can be regarded the region Treaty of Zamora; and 3) in as 1179, depending on how between the rivers 1179, Portugale’s the cartographer views the independence was recognized Douro and Minho 50 situation. (parts of today’s by Pope Alexander III. border of Spain and Portugal. 2 曷利 He Spanish: Galicia; During the Middle Ages, the The Europe-KWQ 擦 Li Ca Portuguese: (409- correctly depicts the 52 Galiza; the term 1833) was occasionally geographical position of 曷

was derived from ruled by its own kings, but 利擦 (Galicia) and the co- the Latin toponym most of the time it was 51 existence of the kingdoms Callaecia. leagued to the Kingdom of of Galicia, León and León (910- 1230), and later Castile between 1157 and to the Kingdom of Castile 1166, when Galicia was 53 (1065-1230), while leagued to León or Castile. maintaining its own legal and However, the Europe- customary practices and KWQ misplaced León to culture. From 1230 on, the far northeast of Castile. Galicia was under the control of the Crown of Castile. (1230-1715),54 because that year León united with Castile and formed the Crown of Castile. 3 厄辣 E La Granada; Latin: This was the region On the Europe-KWQ, 捺達 Na Granātum surrounding today’s city of Granada is depicted too Da Granada in the community of westward on the Iberian Andalucía. The Almoravid Peninsula and too close to 17

Dynasty (1040-1147) ruled the Gibraltar Strait. In Fig. Granada from 1090 to 1147, 9 (Europe in 1190) it is and the Almohad Dynasty correctly located. Since the (1121-1269; a North African is not Berber Muslim empire)55 depicted on the Europe- ruled from 1166.56 By 1171, KWQ (as opposed to Fig. all of the Muslim Iberian 9), this is the main reason Peninsula was under the that the Europe-KWQ Almohad.57 The Emirate of depicts Europe in an era Granada (1230-1492) became before 1166. a tributary state to the Kingdom of Castile from 1238.58 ●4 多勒 Duo Toledo; Latin： In the early eleventh century, Toledo became an 篤 Lei Toletum independent kingdom. It was conquered by Castile in Du 1085 and the Kingdom of Toledo (1085-1833) was created in the central Iberian Peninsula. The Muslim-led Kingdom of Toledo became a subordinate to the Christian-led southern realm of the Crown of Castile after 1230, but had its own court and rulers.59 ●5 加西 Jia Xi Castile; Spanish: Castile, originally an eastern county of the Kingdom of 郎 Lang Castilla León, in the eleventh century, became an independent realm (1065-1230). Between 1072 and 1157, it was again united with León, and after 1230, this union became permanent. It added Toledo in 1085 and integrated the Kingdom of León in the Crown of Castile in 1230.60 Both 利昂 (Item 11) and 加西郎 (Castile) appear on the Europe-KWQ, indicating an era after 1157 and before 1230. Hence, it is consistent with the Europe-KWQ revealing an era between 1157 and 1166. However, the location of 加西郎 (Castile) is too far south, and it also occupies an area that should belong to 俺大魯西 亞 (Item 6; Andalusia), such that the latter’s geographic location is grossly misplaced (see discussion in Item 6). ●6 俺大 An Andalusia; Andalusia is the 魯西 Da Spanish: southernmost region of the 亞 Lu Xi Andalucía. Iberian Peninsula. After the Ya The name of abrupt end of the rule of the Andalusia is Kingdom of the derived from the (an early Germanic people) Arabic name in 711, the region was under “Andalus” , Muslim rule. The name “Al- Fig. A-1 Map of Andalusia Andalus” was originally (in red).63 , سلدنألا :Arabic transliteration: al- applied to the Iberian Andalus, during Peninsula, and later it The geographical location Muslim rule.61 referred to the parts not of Andalusia on the Europe- controlled by the Gothic KWQ differs substantially states in the North of the from historically known Peninsula until January Andalusia.64 If Matteo Ricci 1492.62 drew it in 1602, it would be quite inconceivable that he made such an error! 7 曷剌 He La The Kingdom of The 甕 Weng Aragon; Latin: existed from 1035 to 1516. Regnum The Kingdom gave the Aragoniae; name to the Crown of 18

Spanish: Reino de Aragon (1162-1716) 65and Aragón became a member of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1479, the Crowns of Aragon and Castile were united to 66 form modern Spain. Fig. A-2 Map of Aragon (in red).67

On the Europe-KWQ, the Kingdom of Aragon (曷剌 甕) is depicted at its correct geographical location in the era between 1157 and 1166. 8 葛荅 Ga Catalonia; The earliest known use of 籠亞 Da Spanish: “Catalonia” for the counties Long Cataluña; in the northeast of Iberia Ya Catalan: was in 1117. The Count of Catalunya; Barcelona ruled Catalonia Medieval Latin: from the end of the ninth Cathalonia, or century until 1410. During Fig. A-3 Map of Catalonia Cathalauni. most of the Principality of 70 Catalonia began Catalonia’s history it was in (in red). to be used for the dynastic union with the homeland of the Kingdom of Aragon, 葛荅籠亞 (Catalonia) is Catalans in the constituting together the incorrectly placed to the late eleventh .69 south of 曷剌甕 (Aragon) century.68 on the Europe-KWQ (it should be to the east). 9 迷施 Mi Biscay; Biscay is a historical region in Spain, lying on the south 葛亞 Shi Basque: Bizkaia; shore of the eponymous bay. It was a dependency of the Ge Spanish: Vizcaya Kingdom of Pamplona in the eleventh century, then became Ya autonomous71 and finally a part of the Crown of Castile (1230-1715).72 迷施葛亞 (Biscay) showing up as an autonomous region on the Europe-KWQ is consistent with the era of Europe between 1157 and 1166. 10 那勿 Na Navarre; Spanish: The 那勿蠟 (Navarre) is not 蠟 Wu Navarra (824-1941) was a Basque landlocked on the Europe- 73 La kingdom. In 1200, Navarre KWQ. This is consistent lost the key western Basque with the era, between 1157 districts to Castile, leaving and 1166 (before 1200), of 74 the kingdom landlocked. Europe revealed by this map. 11 利昂 Li León; Latin: Leō75 The Kingdom of León (910- On the Europe-KWQ, 利昂 Ang 1230) was an independent (Kingdom of León) is kingdom situated in the incorrectly placed in the northwest region of the northeast region of 以西把 76 Iberian Peninsula. It was 你亞 (Item 12; the Iberian the most important kingdom Peninsula), being too far of the Iberian Peninsula away from 加西郎 until the two kingdoms of (the Kingdom of Castile). León and Castile were split However, the fact that they in 1157; already in 1139 the are two separated kingdoms County of Portugal had won on the Europe-KWQ is independence to become the 19

Kingdom of Portugal. In consistent with the history 1230, the kingdoms of León of Europe between 1157 and and Castile had the first 1166. joint sovereign.77 12 以西 Yi Xi Spain; Latin： In the eighth century, nearly The term 以西把你亞 把你 Ba Ni Hispania. all of the Iberian Peninsula (Hispania) shown on the 亞 Ya Hispania was the was conquered by largely Europe-KWQ is used to Roman name for Moorish Muslim armies denote the collective names the Iberian from . Later, of the Iberian Peninsula Peninsula and its the Reconquista kingdoms. This implies that provinces, which (Reconquest) was the the era of the Iberian was often used centuries-long period in Peninsula on this map during Antiquity which Christian rule was re- cannot be later than the last and the Low established over the Iberian years of the twelfth century Middle Ages as a Peninsula. The Kingdom of when the term “Spain” geographical León was the strongest began to replace “Hispania”. name,78 and the Christian kingdom for collective names centuries. In 1492, the of the Iberian combined forces of Castile Peninsula and Aragon ended the last kingdoms of the remnant of a 781-year Middle Ages. By presence of Islamic rule in the late twelfth Iberia. century the whole Iberian Peninsula became known as “Spain”. 79 Summary A-1: Items 1-12 present the history and geography of 以西把你亞 (Iberian Peninsula) on the Europe-KWQ, which is consistent with what we know of Europe between 1157 and 1166. During this short period, there existed on the peninsula six kingdoms: 曷利擦 (Galicia), 多勒篤 (Toledo; ruled by Muslims), 加西郎 (Castile), 曷剌甕 (Aragon), 那勿蠟 (Navarre), 利昂 (León); a region: 俺 大魯西亞 (Andalusía; also ruled by Muslims; not controlled by the Gothic states in the north of the Peninsula); an autonomous region:迷施葛亞(Biscay); a semi-autonomous region: 波爾杜瓦爾 (Portugale); a principality:葛荅籠亞 (Catalonia) and a Muslim ruled city: 厄辣捺達 (Granada). The Kingdom of Aragon was the only member of the Holy Roman Empire on the Iberian Peninsula. On the Europe-KWQ, territorial borders are not drawn. Western Europe 13 多羅 Duo Toulouse; Latin: The city Toulouse was the capital of the County of Toulouse 80 薩 Luo Tolosa during the Carolingian era (800–888). In the twelfth Sa century, the city obtained considerable autonomy.81 ● 曷計 Ge Ji Aquitaine; Latin: It is a historical region in southwestern France. In the Middle 82 14 荅尼 Ta Ni Aquitania Ages (from around the third to the fifteenth century), 亞 Ya Aquitaine was a duchy (602-1453), whose boundaries fluctuated considerably.83 In 1058, the Duchy of Vasconia (Gascony; 瓦斯工; Item 17) and Aquitaine merged under the rule of the of Aquitaine. Aquitaine passed to Francia in 1137, hence Fig. 8 shows Aquitaine as part of France in 1142. But from 1154, the area became an English possession, a part of the Angevin Empire, until the end of the Hundred Years’ War in 1453, when it was annexed by France.84 But during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Angevin Empire was the most powerful vassal in France. Fig. 9 no longer shows Aquitaine since it is possessed by the Angevin Empire. But the Europe-KWQ still shows 曷計荅 20

尼亞 (Aquitaine) and 瓦斯工 (Gascony). Does this mean that the Europe-KWQ reflects Europe in 1154-1166, instead of 1157-1166? The answer is “no”, because the did last until 1453, although it was not ruled by Francia. ● 羅尺 Luo Lutetia; Latin: The name Paris appears for On the Europe-KWQ, both 15 剌 Chi Lutetia Parisiorum. the first time in the third 罗尺剌 (at left) and 路得棲 86 and La Both 罗尺剌 and 路 century. By the end of the 亞 (at right) denote Lutetia, 路得 and 得棲亞 are the today’s Paris, because the Lu around the fifth century, the 棲亞 transliterations of River Seine cuts the city De Qi the Latin Lutetia, town was known as Parisius, into two parts: the Rive Ya a Latin name that would later Gauche (the Left Bank, which means 87 “marsh” or become Paris in French. By south of the Seine) and the “swamp”. The term the end of the twelfth Rive Droite (the Right was used to indicate century, Paris had become Bank, north of the Seine). the small island in the political, economic, The Europe-KWQ correctly the middle of the religious, and cultural capital reflects the geographical River Seine where of France. condition around modern Paris Lutetia/Paris between 1157 originated.85 and 1166. 16 波尔 Bo Er Burgundy; French: During the fourth century, the founded the 89 卧尼 Wo Bourgogne; Latin: Kingdom of the Burgundians (411-534), which was Ni Burgundia. It takes conquered in the sixth century by the Franks. The Duchy of its name from the Burgundy (918-1428) emerged in the tenth century and Burgundians, an lasted until 1428.90 The original territory of the Duchy of East Germanic Burgundy was in what is now eastern France (see Fig. 8). people who moved But on the Europe-KWQ, 波尔卧尼 (the Duchy of westwards beyond Burgundy) in the era between 1157 and 1166 is incorrectly the during the located near the . Only in the fourteenth century 88 late Roman period. did the territory of the expand further north in the ; by then the entire duchy was called Burgundian (1384-1482). 91 17 瓦斯 Wa Si Gascony: French: Gascony is a historical region in southwestern France. The 92 工 Gong Gascoigne The history of Duchy of Vasconia (Gascony) from 1058 is already detailed in Item 14. Again Fig. 8 (Europe in 1142) shows both Gascony and Aquitaine at their correct geographical locations. But Fig. 9 (Europe in 1190) no longer shows them, because both places had become the possessions of the Angevin Empire. The Europe-KWQ still shows both places regardless of who ruled them. However, 瓦斯工 (Gascony) is mistakenly located in northeast Francia, next to 波尔卧尼 (Burgundy), although 曷計荅尼亞 (Aquitaine) is correctly depicted in southwest Francia. 18 拂郎 Fu France; Latin: The Kingdom of West Francia (843-987) is also known as 93 察 Lang Francia; it means The Kingdom of the West Franks. France originated from Cha “land of the the Kingdom of West Francia in 987, which was the western Franks”. The Franks half of the Carolingian Empire (the empire of the Franks). were a group of However, the territory remained known as Francia and its . ruler as “King of the Franks” well into the High Middle Originally Francia Ages. The first king calling himself “King of France” was applied to the was Philip II, in 1190.94 In the early-mid twelfth century, the whole Empire of the French kings controlled little more than Paris and the Franks, from surrounding region.95 Indeed, on the Europe-KWQ, 拂郎察 southern France to seems to cover only Paris and the surrounding region; it eastern Germany. correctly reflects the political landscape of the Kingdom of 21

Francia in the era between 1157 and 1166. Summary A-2: Items 13-18 present the history and geography of Western Europe including a kingdom: 拂郎察 (Francia); four : 多羅薩 (Toulouse), 曷計荅尼亞 (Aquitaine), 波尔卧尼 (Burgundy) and 瓦斯工 (Gascony); as well as the geographical information surrounding Paris (羅尺 剌 and 路得棲亞). The Europe-KWQ correctly reflects the political landscape of Europe between 1157 and 1166. But 波尔卧尼 (Burgundy) is mistakenly depicted near the North Sea in the era between 1157-1166 A. D. The Europe-KWQ shows no borders. Central and Southern Europe (including Northern and Central Italian Peninsula) ● 麻尔 Ma ; Latin: Marseille, located on the Mediterranean coast, has been a 96 97 19 西里 Er Xi Massilia, Marsilia trading port since antiquity. It became part of the County of 亞 Li Ya (which was part of the Holy Roman Empire after 1032).98 20 突尔 Tu Er Dauphin; French: Dauphin is a historical territory in southeastern France.100 101 蜚諾 Fei Dauphiné; Latin: The Dauphiné was originally the Dauphiné of Viennois. Nuo delphinus99 Later it took the name of Dauphiné. It became a state of the Holy Roman Empire in the eleventh century. After 1461, Dauphiné united with France. 21 百尔 Bai ; Latin: After the fall of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the 入革 Er Ru Belgium. ‘Belgium’ Middle Ages, the territories which presently form Belgium Ge comes from Gallia became part of the Holy Roman Empire and would remain as Belgica (a Roman such until the eleventh and twelfths centuries.103 province in , where the , a mix of Celtic and Germanic peoples, lived).102 ● 赫尔 He Er 赫尔勿妻亞 is the Helvetia is derived from the Helvetii, the name of 22 勿妻 Wu transliteration of the Gaulish tribe inhabiting the Swiss Plateau before the 104 亞 Qi Ya Helvetica. The Latin Roman conquest. This Latin name is still used in today’s term Helvetia was Switzerland. an ancient region in central Europe between the Alps and the Jura Mountains. 23 蘇亦 Su Yi The English name In 800, Switzerland was part Switzer (苏亦微亚) was 微亚 Wei “Switzerland” is a of 's empire. used during the sixteenth to and Ya compound After his death, the eastern nineteenth centuries, and the 十三 and containing Switzer, part of Switzerland became use of Thirteen Cantons (十 Shi an obsolete term for part of the Holy Roman 郡 三郡) started from 1513 San the Swiss, which Empire together with when the OSC had thirteen Jun was in use during Germany, and Italy, members. But the Europe- the sixteenth to while the western part 106 KWQ reveals the era nineteenth centuries. became part of Burgundy. between 1157 and 1166, 苏亦微亚 can be In 1291 three provinces which is much earlier than considered as the (called cantons) joined the sixteenth century. It together to form the nucleus transliteration of appears that 苏亦微亚 and Switzer. The Latin of the Old Swiss 十三郡 were added onto the words Confederacy (OSC). In the Europe-KWQ to denote the Confoederatio sixteenth century, the OSC 赫尔 Helvetica mean had thirteen members (the same country named 107 Swiss Thirteen Cantons), and 勿妻亞 (Helvetia) by Confederation.105 between 1353 and 1481, it Matteo Ricci in 1602. had only eight members.108 22

● 沙勿 Sha ; Italian: The (1013-1416) was a State of the Holy 24 牙 Wu Savoia. The name Roman Empire. It emerged in the eleventh century, along Ya Savoy stems from with the free communes of Switzerland, from the collapse of the Late Latin the Kingdom of the Burgundians.110 , referring to a fir forest in the Western Alps.109 ● 別蒙 Bie ; Italian: It is a historical region in northwest Italy. After the fall of the 25 突 Meng . The name Western Roman Empire, the region was successively Tu comes from invaded by the Burgundians, , East Romans, medieval Latin , and Franks. In the ninth-tenth centuries, Pedemontium or Piedmont was part of the within the Holy Pedemontis, i.e., ad Roman Empire, subdivided into several marches and pedem montium, counties.112 In 1046, Piedmont was added to the County of meaning “at the foot Savoy (1013-1416), which was a State of the Holy Roman of the mountains” Empire. (referring to the Alps).111 26 惹怒 Re Genoa; Italian: Before 1100, Genoa was an independent city-state. Later, the 襪 Nu Genova; Latin: was the overlord; however, the actual Wa Genua. The place is power was wielded by a number of “consuls” annually on the Gulf of elected by popular assembly.113 Genoa in the Ligurian Sea. 27 隆拔 Long ; Italian: Lombardy is a historical By the end of the fourteenth 勒地 Ba Le region in . century, and 亞 Di Ya During the early Middle emerged as rival hegemons Ages, “Lombardy” referred in Lombardy. The duchies to the Kingdom of the of Milan117 and Mantua118 Lombards (568-774).114 In were two centres of the the tenth century, Lombardy, European Renaissance under the rule of the Holy culture, trade and banking Roman Empire, was divided activities in northern into small, autonomous city- Europe. However, neither is states.115 Hence, the name shown on the Europe-KWQ, “Lombardy” was used to because this is consistent denote the whole of northern with the era between 1157 Italy until the fifteenth and 1166, revealed by the century and sometimes map, which was long before later.116 the European Renaissance. 28 勿耨 Wu ; Italian: The city is in northeast Italy. It is composed of many small

茶 Ru Venezia; Latin: islands that are separated by canals and linked by hundreds Cha Venetia of bridges. The city was the capital of the Republic of 119 Venice (697-1797). Of all the northern Italian city states, Venice is the only one that was not a part of the Holy Roman Empire. 29 羅馬 Luo ; Latin: Roma From the fourth century, the The original annotation on Ma Lateran Palace in southeast the Europe-KWQ has this Rome was the principal text: residence of the , and continued so for about a 此方教化王不娶專行天主 thousand years. However, 之教在邏馬國歐邏巴諸國 from 1309 to 1377, the popes 皆宗之 lived at Avignon in France and on their return to Rome My translation is as follows: they chose to live at the 23

Vatican. Later, they moved to The enlightened king – the the Quirinal Palace in Rome Pope – at this place (Rome), in 1583. But on the Capture does not get married, but only of Rome (the final event of practices the religion of God. In the long process of Italian the (邏馬國; the 120 unification ) in 1870, they State of the Church),121 all the retired to the Vatican. Note territories were under the direct that the Treaty of Venice sovereign rule of the Pope. made official the independence of Papal States Although the Europe-KWQ from the Holy Roman does not show the borders Empire in 1177. While the of the Papal States, the map Pope is elected by the does depict 羅馬 (Rome; the College of Cardinals, the residence of the Pope) and Holy Roman Emperor was 邏馬國 (the Papal States) to first elected by a small body show their difference. of the greatest princes of the Empire, then followed by his coronation as Emperor by the Pope. ● 麻勒 Ma Marche;122 Latin: Marche is a historical region in central Italy. Marche was 30 葛 Le Ge Marca part of the Papal States, but most of the territory was under local lords, while the major cities ruled themselves as free communes. In the twelfth century, the commune of Ancona (a city and seaport in the Marche region),123 was a maritime republic on its own.124 31 意大 Yi Da Italy; Italia was the Italia was the ancient name of the Italian Peninsula, 里亞 Li Ya Latin and Italian originally applied only to a part of today’s Southern Italy. In name for the Italian the eighth century, the Franks helped the formation of the Peninsula.125 Papal States in Central Italy. Until the thirteenth century, Italian politics was dominated by the relations between the Holy Roman Emperors126 and the Papacy.127 Major renaissance cities in Italia such as Florence and the region are not depicted on the Europe-KWQ, indicating that the map depicts Europe before its renaissance, consistent with the era between 1157 and 1166. Summary A-3: Items 19-31 present the history and geography of Central and Southern Europe (including the northern and central Italian Peninsula) under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire in the Middle Ages. The geographical terms on the Europe-KWQ include trading port: 麻尔西里亞 (Marseille); a county: 沙勿牙 (Savoy); four regions: 突尔蜚諾 (Dauphin), 百尔入革 (Belgium), 別蒙 突 (Piedmont) and 隆拔勒地亞 (Lombardy); a confederation: 赫尔勿妻亞 (蘇亦微亚/十三郡; Switzerland); a semi-independent city-state: 惹怒襪 (Genoa); an independent city-state: 勿耨茶 (Venice); the Pope’s residence: 羅馬 (Rome); 邏馬國 (the Papal States), and 麻勒葛 (Marche) which was part of the Papal States. Among all the city-states in northern Italy, only 勿耨茶 (Venice) was not part of the Holy Roman Empire. The Europe-KWQ correctly reflects the political landscape of this part of Europe between 1157 and 1166, although the name of the Holy Roman Empire is not depicted. On the Europe-KWQ, no country border is drawn. Southern Europe (Southern Italian Peninsula) 32 那波 Na Naples; Italian: The city was the capital of the Duchy of Naples (661–1139). 里 Bo Li Napoli In 1137, Naples was under Norman control and thus joined the Kingdom of (1130-1816).128 Naples was conquered by the Swabians in 1194.129 The Europe-KWQ correctly depicts 那波里 (Naples) of the era between 1157 and 1166. 24

33 步尔 Bu Er Apulia; Italian: Apulia is a historical region 牙 Ya Puglia located in the Southern Italian Peninsula. In the north, the Gargano promontory extends out into the Adriatic like a “spur”, while in the south, the Salento peninsula forms the “heel” of “Italy's boot”.

Apulia became an Fig. A-4 Apulia on the autonomous duchy in 1059, 132 Italian Peninsula (in red). but was disestablished in

1130 to become part of the The nickname given to Italy .130 After is the “boot” and Apulia is 1282, when the Kingdom lost the region that stretches as the island of Sicily itself, the “heel” of “Italy’s boot”. Apulia remained part of the 步尔牙 (Apulia) is poorly remnant , and remained so until the depicted on the Europe- unification of Italy in 1861. KWQ, so it is hard to 131 imagine that the map was drawn by Matteo Ricci in 1602. 34 葛辣 Ge La Calabria; Calabrian: Calabria is a historical region 比 Bi Calàbbria in the Southern Italian Peninsula. In the seventh century, the Byzantine Empire created the Duchy of Calabria and continued to use the name Calabria for their territory in ancient Bruttium.133 Calabria is the "toe" of “Italy’s boot”. Fig. A-5 Calabria on the Italian Peninsula (in red).134

On the Europe-KWQ, 葛辣 比 (Calabria) does not seem to have toes (see left figure in Fig. 6). Summary A-4: Items 32-34 present the history and geography of Southern Europe (Southern Italian Peninsula) including the city 那波里 (Naples), and the “heel” 步尔牙 (Apulia) and “toe” 葛辣比 (Calabria) of “Italy’s boot”. All are consistent with the era of Europe between 1157 and 1166, but the Europe-KWQ does not correctly depict the shape of “Italy’s boot”. Western and Central Europe (including regions near the Baltic Sea and the North Sea) 35 拂朗 Fu ; German: It is a historical region in Germany (principally in ). 殼泥 Lang Franken, the term At the beginning of the tenth century, a Duchy of 136 亞 Ke comes from the Franconia was established which included most of today's Ni Ya plural form of Franconia. Franconia remained a royal domain nurturing no Franke, a member strong ducal dynasty, and supported German kings and Holy of the Germanic Roman . By the twelfth century, the name had tribe known as the come to refer only to East Franconia.137 Franks.135 36 帕襪 Pa Bavaria; New Latin: Bavaria (a landlocked region) became a stem duchy in the 138 利亞 Wa Bavaria sixth century and a part of the Holy Roman Empire from the 25

Li Ya tenth century. It became an independent kingdom after 1806.139 37 物斯 Wu ; It is a historical region of north-western Germany. 法畧 Si Fa German: Westfalen Westphalia was originally a district of the Duchy of Lue (Item 45) which was part of the Holy Roman Empire.140 The creation of the Duchy of Westphalia started from 1180 and expanded to 1445.141 On the Europe-KWQ, 物斯法畧 (Westphalia) is depicted along the North Sea; this is incorrect; it is landlocked. 38 非里 Fei Li ;142 Latin: Frisia is a historical coastal On the Europe-KWQ, 物斯 西亞 Xi Ya Frisia region in Germany and the 法畧 (Westphalia) is Netherlands, along the south- depicted along the North eastern corner of the North 143 Sea, whereas 非里西亞 Sea. Frisia was inhabited (Frisia) becomes a by the Frisians (a West landlocked region. In Germanic ethnic group). The reality, the opposite is true. Frankish Empire subjugated Frisia in 734. After the fall of the Frankish Empire, the Frisia lands owed their allegiance to the Holy Roman Emperor.144 39 虎西 Hu Xi Prussia; Latin: Prussia is a historical region The Europe-KWQ 145 亞 Ya Borussia on the south-eastern shore of incorrectly depicts 虎西亞 146 the Baltic Sea. From 1147 (Prussia) as a land-locked to 1166, the Polish tried to region. However, Figs. 8 147 subdue Prussia to no avail. and 9 in the main text The Old Prussia was under correctly depict Prussia, the rule of the Holy Roman placing it near the Baltic 148 Empire. Sea and bordering 波羅尼亞 (; Item 51 in the Appendix). When depicting the kingdoms or regions of this part of Europe, we will see other errors made by the Europe-KWQ. ● 肥良 Fei ; Latin: Flanders was a county and an On the Europe-KWQ, 百尔 149 40 的亞 Liang Flandria ancient Dutch-speaking 入革 (Belgium; Item 21 in Di Ya northern territory in Belgium the Appendix) and 肥良的 that existed from 862 until its 亞 (Flanders) are depicted at absorption by the French widely separated First Republic in 1795.150 geographical locations. This 百尔入革 Like Belgium ( ), kind of error shows that the Flanders (肥良的亞) was cartographer who drew the under the rule of the Holy Europe-KWQ was not very Roman Empire during the familiar with Europe’s eleventh and twelfth internal geographical centuries. information. 41 波亦 Bo Yi Bohemia; Latin: The was established in 870 and promoted 米亞 Mi Bohemia, a name to the (the predecessor of the modern Ya derived from the ) in 1198. From 1004 to 1806, Bohemia was Celtic tribe of Boii part of the Holy Roman Empire. who resided there in antiquity.151 26

42 喎闌 Wai Holland; Latin: From the tenth to the 地 Lan Hollandia. It is a sixteenth century, Holland Di region and former proper was a unified political province on the region within the Holy western coast of the Roman Empire as a county Netherlands. ruled by the counts of Holland. The name “Holland” was first used for the region around Haarlem, and by 1064 it was used as Fig. A-6 North and South the name of the entire Holland (in orange) shown county.152 together within the Netherlands.153 43 則闌 Ze The County of Zeeland 地 Lan (1012-1796) was a county of Di the Holy Roman Empire in the Low Countries. It roughly corresponded to the modern Dutch province of Zeeland. The County of Zeeland did not include the region of Flanders which was part of Flanders; but the modern Province of Zeeland does not include Fig. A-7 County of Zeeland 155 Sommelsdijk, historically around 1350 (in red). part of the County of Zeeland154. The original annotation next to 喎闌地 (Holland) and 則 闌地 (Zeeland) on the Europe-KWQ has this:

西洋布此二島最妙

My translation is:

It is most interesting that these two islands are located in the Western Ocean.

However, Holland (Item 42) is not an island, and Zeeland included many islands in the past (they are now connected by dikes). Moreover, only until the , the Chinese started to use geographical terms 西洋 (the Western Ocean) and 东洋 (the Eastern Ocean) to denote oceans, the above- mentioned annotation appears to be added in 1602 by Matteo Ricci and his 27

Chinese collaborators. 44 噢失 O Shi Austria; German: The name “Ostarrîchi” has been in use since 996. Austria 突利 Tu Li Ö sterreich. The initially emerged as a margraviate around 976 and developed 156 亚 Ya word “Austria” is a into the Duchy of Austria (1156-1453), which was a Latinisation of the medieval principality of the Holy Roman Empire. German name and was first recorded in the twelfth century. 45 沙䨏 Sha Saxony; Latin: The were originally a small tribe living near the 157 158 泥亞 Suo Saxonia North Sea between the and Rivers. Saxony has Ni Ya a long history as a duchy (804-1296), an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire (the ). In 1180, the was divided and its territory sharply reduced.159 46 入尔 Ru Er Germania; Latin: Germania was a large The Europe-KWQ depicts 入 馬泥 Ma Germania. historical region east of the 尔馬泥亞 (Germania) in 亞 Ni Ya (for the people) and Rhine in Central Europe, Central Europe and 拂郎察 Germania (for the which was associated with 160 (Francia) in Western Europe, area where they the Germanic peoples. which clearly shows the east– lived) became the The Kingdom of Germany west division, enforced by the common Latin (843-911) denotes the German-Latin language split words for Germans mostly Germanic-speaking since the ninth century. The and Germany. Eastern Frankish Kingdom. political landscape exhibited After 962, on the Europe-KWQ became part of the Holy correctly reflects the era Roman Empire, which also between 1157 and 1166. The included the Kingdom of original annotation at the far Italy and, after 1032, the right of 入尔馬泥亞 on the as Europe-KWQ is: well as the various states

located in Western Europe 161 入尔馬泥亞諸國共一總王也 during the Middle Ages. By the twelfth century, East 世繼者七國之王於中常共推 Francia was called the 一賢者為之 Kingdom of the Germans.162 My translation is:

The kingdoms of Germania are ruled by a single chief king. In the hereditary monarchy, the chief king is often the one considered to have attained wisdom among the kings of the seven kingdoms. Summary A-5: Items 35-46 give the history and geography of Western and Central Europe (including regions near the Baltic Sea and the North Sea). The geographical terms under analysis include a huge area consisting of many small kingdoms collectively being called 入尔馬泥亞 (Germania); four duchies: 拂朗殼泥亞 (Franconia), 波亦米亞 (Bohemia), 噢失突利亚 (Austria) and 沙䨏泥亞 (Saxony); a stem duchy: 帕襪利亞 (Bavaria); three counties: 肥良的亞 (Flanders), 喎闌地 (Holland) and 則闌地 (Zeeland); and three regions: 物斯法畧 (Westphalia), 非里西亞 (Frisia) and 虎 西亞 (Prussia). All were under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, consistent with the depiction of the Europe-KWQ in the era between 1157 and 1166. On the Europe-KWQ, no border is shown, nor does it indicate the name of the Holy Roman Empire. Central and Southeast Europe 47 翁阿 Weng Hungary; Latin: The On the Europe-KWQ, the 28

利亞 A Li Hungaria163 existed in Central Europe geographical location of the Ya from 1000 A. D. into the Kingdom of Hungary is 20th century. By the incorrectly depicted to the twelfth century, it became northwest, instead of directly a European middle power south, of 波羅尼亞 (Item 51;

within the Western world. the Kingdom of Poland). 164 ● 䨏利 Suo ; Medieval Croatia is located in the 48 亞 Li Ya Latin: Croātia Balkan Peninsula and at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe on the Adriatic Sea.165 The Croats arrived in the sixth century and Croatia became a kingdom in 925. The Kingdom of Croatia Fig. A-8 Kingdom of Croatia (and Dalmatia) was a and Dalmatia (1190; in province within the green).167 Kingdom of Hungary since 1102 and lasted The Europe-KWQ until 1526.166 erroneously depicts Croatia as a landlocked kingdom. ● 大尔 Da Er Dalmatia;168 Latin: Dalmatia is a narrow belt along the east shore of the 169 170 49 馬齊 Ma Dalmatia Adriatic Sea, and one of the four historical regions of 171 亞 Qi Ya the Kingdom of Croatia (925-1102) from the eighth century. Dalmatia was located at the very south of Croatia in the Balkan Peninsula. The Kingdom of Croatia (and Dalmatia) was a province within the Kingdom of Hungary from 1102 to 1526.172 50 突浪 Tu Transylvania; Transylvania is a historical region that is located in today’s

西尔 Lang Medieval Latin: central Romania. Between 1003 and 1526, Transylvania 襪尼 Xi Er Ultrasylvania, later was a voivodeship in the Kingdom of Hungary, led by a Wa Transylvania.173 voivode appointed by the King of Hungary.174 亞 Ni Ya Summary A-6: Items 47-50 gives the history and geography of Central and Southeast Europe (including a portion of the Balkan Peninsula). This contains a kingdom: 翁阿利亞 (Hungary) and three provinces: 䨏利亞 (Croatia), 大尔馬齊亞 (Dalmatia) and 突浪西尔襪尼亞 (Transylvania). The Europe-KWQ correctly reflects the political landscape of this part of Europe between 1157 and 1166. But the geographical locations of 翁阿利亞 (Hungary) and 䨏利亞 (Croatia) are erroneous. The Europe-KWQ shows no borders. Eastern Europe 51 波羅 Bo Poland; Latin: The Kingdom of Poland Although the Europe-KWQ 175 尼亞 Luo Polonia started from 1025 and correctly depicts 波羅尼亞 Ni formed a union with (the Kingdom of Poland) to Ya Lithuania in 1385. The the east of 波亦米亞 (the union bound the two Kingdom of Bohemia became countries together for the 176 the predecessor of the modern next four centuries. Czech Republic), the two realms are drawn too far apart. ● 墨亞 Mo ; Czech: Moravia is a historical 墨亚尼亚 (Moravia) should 52 尼亞 Ya Morava region in the east of the be located between 波亦米亞 Ni Czech Republic and one (the Duchy of Bohemia; Item Ya of three historical Czech 41) and 波羅尼亞 (the lands, with Bohemia and 29

Czech . Moravia Kingdom of Poland; Item had varying degrees of 51). But on Europe-KWQ, it autonomy from the ruler was wrongly depicted in the of Bohemia and reached eastern part of 波羅尼亞 its height of autonomy in (Kingdom of Poland). As a 177 1182. result, 墨亚尼亚 (Moravia) and 波亦米亞(the Duchy of Bohemia) are far apart. Summary A-7: Items 51-52 give the history and geography of 波羅尼亞 (the Kingdom of Poland) and one of the three historical – 墨亞尼亞 (Moravia; a semi-autonomous region) – in Eastern Europe. The Europe-KWQ correctly reflects the political landscape of this part of Europe between 1157 and 1166, but mistakenly depicts the geographical location of 墨亞尼亞 (Moravia) to the east of 波羅尼亞 (the Kingdom of Poland). The Europe-KWQ shows no borders. Southeast Europe (mainly the Balkan Peninsula) 53 羅馬 Luo Romania; French: Romanians (or Valchs) established their presence on the 泥亞 Ma originally Roumania, Balkan Peninsula, in the lands to the north of the Lower Ni Ya later evolved into Danube, from the eleventh century.178 Although it was a Rumania; only after Hungarian conquest named Transylvania (a historical World War II was the region in central Romania) from the end of the tenth to the name officially sixteenth century,179 the “Valchs’ lands” in southern replaced by Transylvania still existed as autonomous Romanian “Romania”. communities until the early thirteenth century.180 54 比產 Bi Byzantium;181 Italian: The Byzantine Empire (395-1453), also referred to as the 182 齊何 Chan Bisanzio; Latin: Eastern Roman Empire or Kingdom of the Romans in its Qi He Byzantium183 own time or simply Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in its eastern provinces. The capital city was (founded in 324 on the site of an already-existing city, Byzantium, and now called Istanbul). 184 55 蘭被 Lan Yambol;185 Hiambouli Yambol was a town in south-eastern Bulgaria under 187 礼 Bei (Ηιάμβόυλι; in Byzantine rule (1018-1185). Its name derived from a Li Byzantine nearby ancient city Kabile or Kabyle, whose name evolved chronicles).186 from Diospolis, Hiambouli, etc., to become Yambol. 56 亞尔 Ya Er (region); The first undisputed The Europe-KWQ depicts 亞 188 百泥 Bai Latin: Arbanun. mention of Albanians 尔百泥亞 (Albania) as facing 亞 Ni Ya During the Middle who lived in the territory the Black Sea, and 步尔葛利 Ages, the Albanians of Albania on the Balkan 亞 (Item 60; Bulgaria) facing called their country Peninsula dates back to the Adriatic Sea. The reality Arbëri or Arbëni. historical records from is just the opposite. 1079 or 1080.189 ● 厄勒 E Le Greece; Latin: Graecia 厄勒齊亞 (Graecia; Greece) was under the rule of the 190 57 齊亞 Qi Ya and Graecus Byzantine Empire from the fourth century until 1453. Greece suffered from the dislocation of barbarian invasions and retained formal control of only the islands and coastal areas. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries Greece was able to retain stability and strong economic growth.191 58 馬則 Ma Macedonia; Greek: Macedonia is a historic region that spans parts of northern 193 多泥 Ze Μακεδονία, Greece and the Balkan Peninsula. From the beginning of 192 亞 Duo Makedonía the sixth century, Macedonia – then part of the Byzantine Ni Ya Empire – became a subject to frequent raids by Slavic tribes. Little is known of the provincial organization in the twelfth century.194 ● 班諾 Ban Pannonia;195 Latin: Pannonia was a province of the Roman Empire bounded 30

59 尼 Nuo Pannonia196 on the north and east by the Danube.197 The Kingdom of Ni Hungary by the eleventh century comprised the entire Pannonian basin.198 Hungary was not under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, and peace was concluded with the Byzantine war of 1127-1129 A. D.199 班諾尼 (Pannonia) is a landlocked region, but the Europe-KWQ mistakenly depicts it as facing the Adriatic Sea. 60 步尔 Bu Er Bulgaria; the name is The First (681-1018) was a medieval 201 葛利 Ge Li derived from Bulgars, Bulgar-Slavic state in Southeast Europe. From 1018, the 亞 Ya a Turkic tribe which local Slavic inhabitants were called Bulgarians by the founded the country.200 Byzantines. But the Bulgarians kept their nationality until the was formed in 1185.202 The Europe-KWQ incorrectly depicts the geographical location of Bulgaria as facing the Adriatic Sea. ● 莫勒 Mo Morea; the name is Morea was the name of the Peloponnese Peninsula in 61 亞 Le Ya first recorded in the southern Greece during the Middle Ages and the early tenth century in the modern period.203 Byzantine chronicles. Summary A-8: Items 53-61 give the history and geography of Southeast Europe (mainly the Balkan Peninsula). The geographical terms include a kingdom: 步尔葛利亞 (Bulgaria); a province: 馬則多 泥亞 (Macedonia); three regions: 亞尔百泥亞 (Albania), 厄勒齊亞 (Greece) and 班諾尼 (Pannonia); a peninsula: 莫勒亞 (Morea); a city: 比產齊何 (Byzantium); a town: 蘭被礼 (Yambol); and a semi- autonomous region: 羅馬泥亞 (Romania). The Europe-KWQ correctly reflects the political landscape of this part of Europe under the rule of the Byzantine Empire in the era between 1157 and 1166; however, the geographical locations of 亞尔百泥亞 (Albania), 步尔葛利亞 (Bulgaria) 和班諾尼 (Pannonia) are incorrect. The Europe-KWQ shows no borders. The name of Byzantine Empire is also not indicated. Western European islands in the North Atlantic 62 諳厄 An E England; Latin: England became a unified state in the tenth century.205 Later, the 利亞 Li Ya Anglia; it was Kingdom of Great Britain (1707-1801), officially called Great the medieval Britain, was a sovereign state formed by uniting the kingdoms of Latin name for England (which includes ) and Scotland (Item 64) to form a England that single kingdom.206 The original annotation next to 諳厄利亞 was part of (Anglia) on the Europe-KWQ has this: today’s United Kingdom.204 諳厄利亞無毒蛇等蟲雖別處攜去者到其地即無毒性

My translation is:

Anglia has no venomous snakes or other poisonous insects; even those which were brought in from elsewhere become non-toxic once they have arrived there.

Among the three types of snakes native to Britain, only one native reptile, the adder, is venomous. However, the adder’s bite generally does not cause death.207 63 婆林 Po Belerion; Latin: Belerion, Bolerium or Belerion (婆林日) is the ancient Celtic 日 Lin Belerion or name for the westernmost tip of Cornwall (the westernmost part Ri Bolerium or of England). After a period of Roman rule, by the middle of the 208 Belerion ninth century, Cornwall had fallen under the control of Wessex.209 Later in 1337, the title Duke of Cornwall was created by the English monarchy.210 64 思可 Si Ke Scotland; Latin: Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. From the ninth 齊亞 Qi Ya Scotia century, Scotia referred to only the part of Britain lying north of 31

the River Forth – the (843-1707).211 65 喜百 Xi Ireland; Latin: Beginning from the seventh century, all of the Irish kingdoms had 泥亞 Bai Hibernia, which their own kings, but were nominally subject to the high king. Ni Ya was taken from Later the Kingdom of Ireland was created in 1542 and lasted until Greek 1800.213 geographical accounts.212 Summary A-9: Items 62-65 give the history and geography of the Western European islands in the North Atlantic. The geographical terms include a state: 諳厄利亞 (England); a kingdom: 思可齊亞 (Scotland); many small kingdoms collectively being called 喜百泥亞 (Ireland); and a region: 婆林日 (Belerion). The Europe-KWQ correctly depicts their political landscape and geographical locations between 1157 and 1166. However, ancient Latin names or a Greek name were used for these places, indicating that this part of the world may have been known to the Chinese in the millennia before Christ, consistent with the findings of T. C. Bell’s surveys. No border is shown on the Europe-KWQ. Northern Europe ● 玉良 Yu Jutland; Latin: Jutland is a peninsula in 66 氐 Liang Lutlandia; Northern Europe which Di Danish: forms the continental portion Jylland; of and a part of German: .214 Jütland

Fig. A-9 Regions of Denmark; Jutland is is highlighted in green.215 67 大泥 Da Ni Denmark; Throughout the High and The original annotation to the 亞 Ya or Latin: Dania (1000- right of 玉良氐 (Jutland) on the Di Na (named for the 1250 and 1250-1500), the Europe-KWQ is: or 216 第那 Ma Dani tribe) Kingdom of Denmark (eighth 瑪尔 Er Jia Denmark in century? -1397) consisted of 大泥亞即第那瑪尔加 Spanish is a peninsula, Jutland, and an 加 Dinamarca archipelago of 443 named My translation is: (transliterated islands, and also included 217 as 第那瑪尔 present-day south Sweden. Dania is also known as Dinamarca. 加), the name shown in an The Europe-KWQ erroneously annotation on depicts Denmark as only a the Europe- peninsula, without islands. KWQ. 68 诺尔 Nuo ; Latin: The Kingdom of Norway was established in 872 as a merger of 物入 Er Northuagia many petty kingdoms and has existed continuously for 1149 218 亚 Wu years. Ru Ya ● 羅多 Luo Lutuoli This place cannot be identified. 69 里 Duo Li 70 非馬 Fei Finnmark;219 Finnmark is a historical region in the northern part of Norway.221 祁亞 Ma Latin: Coastal areas of Finnmark were colonized by Norwegians Qi Ya Finmarchia220 beginning in the tenth century.222 71 思祁 Si Qi Scricfinnia223 Scricfinnia lies between Lapland and the Arctic Ocean. It was a 224 非尼 Fei ni region in the northern part of Norway. 亞 Ya 32

72 臥的 Wo Götaland, also Gothia lies in the south of Sweden. Parts of the area were at that 226 亞 Di Ya Geatland, time, between 1157 and 1166, either Danish or Norwegian. Gothia, Gothland, Gothenland or Gautland225 73 蠟皮 La Two Case 1: Lapland is the northern parts of and Finland 亞 Pi Ya possibilities: 1) with the Kola peninsula in Russia, where Sami people live, also Lapland; Latin: called Laplanders.228 Lapponia; or 2) Case 2: Lapia is in Southern Finland with a small population. Lapia in But the Europe-KWQ wrongfully depicts 蠟皮亞 in Southern Southern Sweden (蘇亦齊; Item 75). This has made the determination of 227 Finland. the precise location of 蠟皮亞 uncertain. 74 比葛 Bi Ge ;229 Until the sixteenth century, Bjarmaland usually referred to the 謎亞 Mi Latin: Biarmia southern shores of the White Sea in north-western Russia and the Ya or Byarmia basin of the Northern Dvina River in Finland as well as some of the surrounding areas. 75 蘇亦 Su Yi Sweden; the The Swedish lasted roughly from the eighth century 231 齊 Qi name of to the eleventh century. However, it is not known when and Sweden was how the Kingdom of Sweden was born. The Swedish colonisation latinized of the coastal areas of Finland started during the twelfth century. as Suecia.230 During the seventeenth century, Sweden emerged as a European great power.232 76 沸你 Fei Finland; Latin: Finland became a common name for the whole country around 233 刪突 Ni Finnia the twelfth century. Swedish colonisation of Finland took place Shan during the Northern Crusades from the twelfth century. Tu Colonisation focused on the Finnish archipelago and some of its coastal regions.234 Finland was part of Sweden for almost 700 years from around 1150 until the Finnish War of 1809 that saw Finland becoming an autonomous part of the Russian Empire.235 The year 1362 is often considered to be the time when Finland was incorporated into the Kingdom of Sweden.236 ● 蘇亦 Su Yi Jie (界) means On the Europe-KWQ, Finland is poorly drawn. The Europe- 77 齊界 Qi Jie “boundary”. 蘇 KWQ generally does not contain territorial boundaries, but 亦齊 is Sweden Sweden is an exception: the Europe-KWQ clearly depicts a (see Item 75). region across the Baltic Sea as Sweden’s territorial boundary which extends to the entire coastal region in the south and middle portion of Finland. This fact by itself reveals the political landscape of this part of Europe between c. 1150 and 1362 (when Finland was completely incorporated into Sweden). However, after analysing other regions on the map, the date is narrowed to between 1157 and 1166. Summary A-10: Items 66-77 give the history and geography of Northern Europe including four kingdoms: 大泥亞/第那瑪尔加 (Denmark), 诺尔物入亚 (Norway), 蘇亦齊 (Sweden) and 沸你刪突 (Finland); five regions: 非馬祁亞 (Finnmark), 思祁非尼亞 (Scricfinnia ), 臥的亞 (Gothia ), 蠟皮亞 (Lapland or Lapia) and 比葛謎亞 (Bjarmaland ); and a peninsula: 玉良氐(Jutland ). The Europe- KWQ correctly reflects the political landscape of this part of Europe between 1157 and 1166. However, the map erroneously depicts 大泥亞/第那瑪尔加 (Denmark) as only a peninsula without islands; it also places 蠟皮亞 in Southern Sweden, instead of Lapland or Lapia, while 羅多里 cannot be identified. The Europe-KWQ shows no borders except for Sweden with its territorial border extending to the coastal area in the southern and central parts of 沸你刪突 (Finland). Eastern Europe ● 葛 Ge Le Kvenland; Caienska (Kvenland) is an ancient name for an area in 237 78 勒 Shi Latin: Caienska Fennoscandia and Scandinavia. The established research 33

施 Ge Semla, which is firmly situates Kvenland in Northern Finland.238 葛 a synonym of the non-Finnic name Kvenland. 79 諾 Nuo Nordenborg239 The place cannot be identified. 尔 Er 京 Jing ● 矮 Ai The Kingdom of In the , homeland of the dwarfs could mean 240 80 人 Ren Dwarfs. Svartalfaheim (also known to its natives as Niðavellir). But on 國 Guo the Europe-KWQ, the map shows the existence of a real 矮人國 (Kingdom of Dwarfs). The original annotation to the left of 矮人 國 on the Europe-KWQ is:

國人男女長止尺餘五歲生子八歲而老常為鸛鷂所食其人穴居 以避每候夏三月出壞其卵雲以羊為騎

My translation is:

The men and women of the Kingdom of Dwarfs are only a little more than a foot tall. They give birth to children at age five and become old at eight. They often become prey of stork harriers and live in burrows to avoid them. Every year they wait for the three summer months to come out to destroy the birds’ egg nests. They ride on sheep.

It can be seen that the dwarfs are not as powerful as the storks, but fortunately they are smarter, knowing to dig out the birds’ eggs to maintain ecological balance. 81 諾 Nuo Novgorod; The Novgorod Republic242 was a medieval East Slavic state 勿 Wu Latin: (1136-1478) stretching from the Gulf of Finland in the west to Wa Novogardia241 the northern Ural Mountains in the east, including the city of 瓦 243 的 Di Ya Novgorod in modern Russia. However, on the Europe-KWQ, Novgorod is mistakenly drawn as a landlocked state. 亞 82 葛 Ge Er Cargapowl244 or Kargopol, located north of Moscow, was first chronicled in 1146. 尔 Ge Kargopol It was the most significant trade station of the Novgorod Bo Li Republic and one of the most northerly permanent Slavic 曷 245 波 settlements. 利 83 札 Zha Zawonia246 Zawonia is a village On the Europe-KWQ, 札勿泥亞 勿 Wu in the administrative (Zawonia) is erroneously placed 泥 Ni Ya district of Gmina near the coast, instead of at its Chlewiska, within 亞 correct geographical location in Szydłowiec County, landlocked southwestern Poland. Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.247 ● 臥 Wo Lithuania; the For centuries, the south-eastern shores of the Baltic Sea were 84 尔 Er Chinese name is inhabited by various Baltic tribes. The region of today’s 丁 Ding not a Lithuania is first mentioned in 1009. Later, the Grand Duchy of Ran transliteration of Lithuania was a European state that lasted from the thirteenth 然 Lithuania, but century to 1795.248 the geographical location of 臥尔 丁然 matches Lithuania. 34

● 孛 Bei ; the The region that is now Belarus was first settled by Baltic tribes in 85 漏 Lou name is closely the third century. Around the fifth century, the area was taken 生 Sheng related with the over by Slavic tribes. In the ninth century the territory of modern term Belaya Belarus became part of Kievan Rus’, a vast East Slavic state Rus’, i.e., White ruled by the Rurikid Dynasty. The lands of modern Belarus Rus’.249 avoided the brunt of the Mongol invasion in the thirteenth century invasion and eventually joined the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1236-1785) in 1242.250 86 魯 Lu xi Rus’; Latin: The establishment of the first East Slavic states was in 862. In 西 Ya Ruthenia; it is the tenth to eleventh centuries, Kievan Rus’ (879-1240) became 亞 derived from one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. But Rus’, a Kievan Rus’ disintegrated in the Mongol invasion of 1237-1240. medieval state The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the populated Golden Horde, which ruled Southern and Central Russia for over primarily by the two centuries.251 East . 87 波 Bo Podolia or Podolia is a vast historic region in East Europe, located in the 252 多 Duo Podilia west-central and south-western parts of modern and in 里 Li Ya north-eastern Moldova (Moldova is the Romanian name; Moldavia is the correct English name; Item 88). During the Great 亞 (a period during and after the decline of the Western Roman Empire), many nationalities passed through this territory or settled within it for some time,253 until the Polish colonisation beginning in the fourteenth century.254 88 莫 Mo Moldavia;255 Moldavia lies in the north-eastern corner of the Balkan region of 大 Da Moldavia and Europe. The inhabitants of the Moldavian region were 未 Wei Moldova derive Christians. The Principality of Moldavia existed from 1346 to Ya their names 257 亞 1859. The Europe-KWQ erroneously depicts 莫大未亞 from the (Moldavia) as a peninsula. Moldova River in Moldavia, Romania. 256 89 契 Qi Li Crimea258 Crimea is a peninsula The Europe-KWQ depicts 契利未 利 Wei located on the northern 牙 (Crimea) in the inland region and 未 Ya coast of the Black Sea in 瓦茶里亞 (Gazaria; Item 90) as a 牙 Eastern Europe. The peninsula. This has caused great Byzantine emperors confusion. As explained in Item 90 controlled the southern below, 瓦茶里亞 (Gazaria) refers to shores of the Crimea an area on 契利未牙 (Crimea; a peninsula (the theme of peninsula lying between the Black Cherson) until the 260 thirteenth century.259 Sea and the Sea of Azov), which was initially occupied by the Khazars. 90 瓦 Wa Gazaria;261 the Gazaria is a word derived from Khazaria, which refers to an area 263 茶 Cha word is derived on Crimea initially occupied by the Khazars in the eighth Li Ya from century.264 Later, different parts of Crimea were colonized or 里 262 亞 Khazaria. occupied by various empires, or invaded by steppe nomads. In 1783 the Russian Empire annexed all of Crimea.265 91 古 Gu The name Cumania was a Turkic confederation (tenth century-1241) in the 馬 Ma Cumania western part of the Eurasian Steppe. It ended its existence in the 泥 Ni originated as the middle of the thirteenth century, with the Great Mongol Invasion Latin exonym of Europe.267 for the Cuman– Kipchak confederation.266 35

● 兀 Wu Usting268 The place cannot be identified. 92 失 Shi 丁 Ding 入 Ru ● 勒 Le Ryazan269 An older city, now named Staraya Ryazan (Old Ryazan), was 93 贊 Zan located near modern-day Ryazan during the late Middle Ages, and served as the capital of the Grand Principality (Duchy) of Ryazan (1097–1521).270 Ryazan was a Russian principality from the twelfth to the early sixteenth century, and only became an independent princedom in the early twelfth century. Summary A-11: Items 78-93 give the history and geography of Eastern Europe including the Balkan Peninsula and the Black Sea coastal area. The geographical terms include a kingdom: 矮人国 (the Kingdom of Dwarfs ); a republic: 諾勿瓦的亞 (Novgorod ); six regions: 葛勒施葛 (Caienska/ Kvenland), 臥尔丁然 (Lithuania ), 孛漏生 (Belarus ), 波多里亞 (Podolia ), 莫大未亞 (Moldavia ) and 瓦茶里亞 (Gazaria ); a trade station: 葛尔曷波利 (Cargapowl); a village: 札勿泥亞 (Zawonia); a duchy: 勒贊 (Ryazan); a state: 魯西亞 (Rus’); a peninsula: 契利未牙 (Crimea ); and a confederation: 古馬泥 (Cumania ). The Europe-KWQ correctly reflects the political landscape of this part of Europe in the era between 1157 and 1166. However, the geographical locations of 諾勿瓦的亞 (Novgorod; Item 81), 札勿泥亞 (Zawonia; Item 83) and 莫大未亞 (Moldavia; Item 88) are erroneously depicted. Also, 瓦茶里亞 (Crimea; Item 89) is not correctly depicted as a peninsula, and 諾尔京 (Nordenborg; Item 79) and 兀失丁入 (Usting; Item 92) cannot be identified. The Europe- KWQ shows no borders. Islands (other than near Britain) 94 甘 Gan Di Candia The largest among the Greek islands, Crete was commonly 的 Ya known as Candia after its capital, Candia (modern Heraklion). 亞 After 900 years as a Roman and then Eastern Roman (Byzantine) island, Andalusian Muwallads established the Emirate of Crete (824/827-961).271 In 961, the island returned to Byzantine rule after expelling the until 1205 when the Duchy of Candia became an overseas colony of the .272 ● 漚 Ou Bai Euboea is the As the second largest Greek island, this ancient name Euboea 95 白 Ya ancient and (漚白亞) remained in use by classic authors until the sixteenth 273 亞 current name of century. After Constantinople was founded in 330, Greece the second- became part of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Byzantine largest Greek Empire was in existence from 330 to around 1453.274 island. 96 西 Xi Qi Sicily; Italian: Sicily is the largest The original annotation next to 西齊 齊 Li Ya island in the 里亞 (Sicily) on the Europe-KWQ 里 Mediterranean Sea. The is: Kingdom of Sicily 亞 275 (1130-1816) was a 此岛有二山一常出大火一常出烟 successor state of the 昼夜不绝 County of Sicily, which

had been founded in My translation is: 1071.276 The Kingdom

of Sicily, also called the There are two (volcanic) mountains on Norman Kingdom of the this island, one (Mount Etna which Two Sicilies, was dominates the eastern third of Sicily) formed by combining the often emits big fires, the other often County of Sicily with the emits smoke, day and night, without Duchy of Apulia and stopping. Calabria, as well as with

36

the Maltese Islands.277 In fact, aside from Etna, other Sicilian volcanoes that are always active are Stromboli and Vulcano.278 97 黃 Huang 黃魚島 (Yellow The sea surrounds the island produces small, oily forage fish 魚 Yu Fish Island) is which have a light yellow shiny longitudinal band on their upper 280 島 Dao the island of body. Hence, the ancient Chinese named the island as 黃魚島 Sardinia.279 The (Yellow Fish Island). The Chinese name is not connected with name Sardinia its pre-Latin roots. The original annotation next to the island is: has pre-Latin roots coming 此島生珊瑚樹長 from the pre- Roman My translation is: ethnonym s(a)rd-, This island produces corals,281 and trees are tall.282 later Romanised as sardus. The term “sardine” may come from the island of Sardinia, around which sardines were once abundant; this name was first used in English during the early fifteenth century, not between 1157 and 1166. 98 瑪 Ma Er Malta is the largest of the three major The Malta Island should 兒 Da islands that constitute the Maltese be some 80 km/50 mi 大 archipelago. Malta was ruled by the south of the island Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, of Sicily across Byzantines and Arabs before it was the Malta Channel. occupied by the County of Sicily in However, on the 1091. The island then became part of Europe-KWQ, 瑪兒大 the Kingdom of Sicily until it was (Malta) is displaced to given to the Order of Saint John the far west of Sicily along with Gozo and Tripoli (North and to the southeast of 283 Africa) in 1530. the island of Sardinia. 99 哥 Ge Er Corsica; Latin: Corsica is an island in the Mediterranean Sea. Corsica was ruled 尔 Xi Ke Corsica by the Popes from 1077. The Pope yielded civic administration 西 to Pisa in 1090, but contention between the Pisans and Genoese soon engulfed Corsica.284 Corsica was finally removed from the 克 fighting by annexation to the Papal States in 1217.285 100 米 Mi Menorca; Latin: Menorca is one of the Balearic Islands located in the 諾 Nou Li Insula Minor, Mediterranean Sea. Menorca was annexed to the Caliphate of 286 287 里 Ge later Minorica Córdoba in 903, until the rule of the last Muslim ra’îs in 1287. 革 101 馬 Ma Mallorca; Mallorca is the largest island in the Balearic Islands located in 岳 Yue Li Classical Latin: the Mediterranean Sea. The island came under rule as an 里 Ge Insula Maior; independent Taifa from 1087 to 1114, and was later ruled from Medieval Latin: North Africa until 1176. The ruling was replaced by the 革 Maiorica, Almohad Dynasty until 1229, and finally annexed by the Crown meaning “the of Aragon in 1230 until the eighteenth century.288 larger one”. 102 伊 Yi Jia Iceland; Latin: Iceland was founded more than 1000 years ago during the 289 加 Li Ya Islandia. The Viking age of exploration beginning in the second half of the Dao oldest known ninth century. The place was settled by a mixed Norse and 里 291 亞 record of the Celtic population. The Kingdom of Norway (872–1397) name “Iceland” owned Iceland until 1415,292 when the kingdoms of Norway, 島 is an eleventh- Denmark and Sweden were united. century rune carving from Gotland.290 37

103 都 Du Li Thule293 Thule is the northernmost It has been confusing where Thule 力 location mentioned in is located. On the Europe-KWQ, ancient Greek and Roman 都力(Thule) is depicted as an literature and island off the coast of Norway. 294 . Thule now is a military base in northwest Greenland. Summary A-12: Items 94-103 give the history and geography of the major islands in Europe (other than near Britain). These islands are 甘的亞 (Candia), 漚白亞 (Euboea), 西齊里亞 (Sicily), 黃魚島 (Sardinia), 瑪兒大 (Malta), 哥尔西克 (Corsica), 米諾里革 (Menorca), 馬岳里革 (Mallorca), 伊加里 亞島 (Iceland) 和都力 (Thule).The Europe-KWQ correctly depicts their names, geographical locations and characteristics in the era between 1157 and 1166, except the geographical position of the 瑪兒大 (Malta) Island. Seas, Oceans, Lake, River and the name of Europe 104 太 Tai “太” meaning “大” or The Black Sea was known around 400 B. C., based on 海 Hai “big”; 太海 (Black Sea) the dating of a Greek merchant vessel discovered on the floor of the sea, which is the oldest known intact is the world's largest 296 inland body of water.295 shipwreck ever located. The sea was first named by In Europe, until 1570, the ancient Greeks who called it “Inhospitable Sea”, the map Asiae Nova because it was difficult to navigate, and hostile tribes Descriptio from inhabited its shores. Later, the name “Black Sea” was Abraham Ortelius's believed to be given by the Turkish during the Ottoman Theatrum Orbis Empire period (1299–1922) when it was called Bahr-e Terrarum labels this sea Siyah or Karadeniz, which means “the Black Sea” in the 297 Mar Maggior (Great Ottoman Turkish. The name also referred to a system Sea). of colour symbolism representing the cardinal directions, with black or dark for north. The Black Sea is to the north of the Ottoman Empire, hence, “Black Sea” meant “Northern Sea”.298 For sailors, the sea was black due to severe storms in the winter. For Chinese, the Black Sea is named as 太海 (Big Sea) on the Europe-KWQ, implying that the Chinese knew that this sea was the largest inland body of water, most likely because they had actually explored it to realise its size, and used a suitable Chinese name 太海(Big Sea) to describe it. 105 上 Shang In the Latin of the Both Mare Superum and Mare Adriaticum (Adriatic 海 Hai Romans (Ancient or Sea) are names for designating the body of water Classical Latin used separating the Italian Peninsula from the . The from 75 B. C. to 300 A. Adriatic Sea generally refers to the Adriatic Sea's full D.) the sea was Mare extent, spanning from the Gulf of Venice to the Strait of Superum (the “upper Otranto,300 whereas Mare Superum normally consisted sea”, meaning 上海; here of both the modern Adriatic Sea and the sea off the 上 means “upper” and 海 Apennine Peninsula's southern coast, as far as the Strait 301 means “sea”); in of Sicily. The name Mare Superum existed in Ancient medieval Latin (from Latin, and Mare Adriaticum in the later medieval Latin. around late third to late On the Europe-KWQ, 上海 (Mare Superum) is used, fifteenth century), the implying that the knowledge of this sea came from the sea was Mare period of around 75 B. C. to 300 A. D. (during the era of Hadriaticum or Mare the Western Roman Empire). Today's large city Adriaticum.299 Shanghai, located on the Chinese coast, bears exactly the same Chinese name with a little different meaning: 上 (Shang; “upon”) and 海 (Hai; “sea”) together mean “Upon the Sea”: Chinese historians have suggested that during the Tang Dynasty, the area of modern-day Shanghai was under the sea level, so the land appeared 38

to be literally “on the sea”. ● 下 The Romans often On the Europe-KWQ, 下海 (Mare Inferum; the “lower 106 海 designated the sea to the sea”) is used to depict the Tyrrhenian Sea (which name West of Italy as “the was originally used by the Greeks), indicating that this lower sea,” or Mare geographical information came from the period of Inferum (下海; 下 around 75 B. C. to 300 A. D. meaning “lower”).302 107 地 Di Mediterranean Sea;303 The original annotation for Mediterranean Sea on the 中 Zhong the earliest proven use of Europe-KWQ is this: 海 Hai the term Mare Mediterrāneum, meaning 此海生有一種咽機那魚長尺許周身皆刺 而有大力若 “in the middle of land, is 貼船後雖順風不能動海濱產蠟里千樹其木不畏火可 304 in the sixth century. 為屯寨

My translation is:

This sea has a kind of pharyngeal fish. The fish is about one chi (about 1/3 of a meter) in length with thorns all over the body and is very powerful. If it attaches its body to the back of the ship, even sailing downwind cannot make the ship move. The seashores grow Laliqian trees which produce wax and can burn easily. The wood can be stored for use in the fort.

The Europe-KWQ shows what 地中海 (the Mediterranean Sea) could produce, indicating that the Chinese mariners might have explored this sea. 108 巴 Ba Er Strait of Gibraltar; The Strait of Gibraltar comes from the Rock of 尔 De Xia Spanish: Estrecho de Gibraltar, which name is derived from the Arabic words 305 德 Gibraltar “Jabal Ṭāriq (Mount Tarik)”, honouring Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād, who captured the peninsula in 711.306 峽 109 大 Da Xi 大西洋 literally means The term “Atlantic” originally referred specifically to 西 Yang Great Western Ocean; it the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the 洋 is today’s Atlantic Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. It then Ocean. The oldest expanded to the ocean beyond Gibraltar. During the Age known mention by the of Discovery (early fifteenth century to early Greeks of an “Atlantic” seventeenth century), the Atlantic was also known to sea was around mid- English cartographers as the Great Western Ocean (大西 sixth century B. C., 洋).308 But in China, the geographical term “西洋”, which refers to “the sea literally "Western Ocean", originally has different beyond the pillars of meanings during different periods of Chinese history. Heracles”; these are said From the Five Dynasties (五代; 907-960), through the to be part of the sea that 307 Song and Yuan Dynasties, and until the Ming Hongwu surrounds all land. (明洪武) period, it always meant a specific region or However, to early Greek country to the west of China, not an ocean. By the time sailors and in Ancient of the Yongle (永乐) era, the term 西洋 – the Western Greek mythological literature, this all- Ocean – had developed to include the meaning of many encompassing ocean was overseas countries. In the early Ming Dynasty, the instead known as middle of Borneo (婆罗洲) was the boundary – the east Oceanus, the gigantic was called 东洋 – the Eastern Ocean, and the west was river that encircled the called 西洋 – the Western Ocean. In the Ming Dynasty, world, instead of the the place called the South China Sea in the past enclosed seas. During contained both 东洋 (the Eastern Ocean) and 西洋 (the the Age of Discovery, Western Ocean). Hence, from the Western Region of the 39

the Atlantic was also Han Dynasty to the Western Ocean of the Ming known to English Dynasty, the change reflects the expansion of travel cartographers as the between China and foreign countries from land to the Great Western Ocean, ocean.309 Matteo Ricci introduced the term 大西洋 literally translated as 大 (Great Western Ocean) on the Europe-KWQ; this term 西洋, because in Latin, had not existed on Chinese maps before that time. Oceanus Occidentalis means the Western Ocean. ● 河 He 河摺亞諾 is the Matteo Ricci placed 大西洋 (Great Western Ocean) off 110 摺 Zhe transliteration of the first the Strait of Gibraltar and placed 河摺亞諾滄 (Ocean) 亞 Ya Latin word of Oceanus off the west coast of Africa, seemingly to indicate that 諾 Nuo Atlanticus or Oceano 大西洋 was the smaller water area off the Strait of Cang Occidentale; Latin: 滄 Gibraltar, whereas 河摺亞諾滄 was the gigantic river Oceanus (a water 310 that encircled the world in the Greek mythological deity); it is known as literature. However, the Europe-KWQ in Figure 1 of this the gigantic river that paper does not show 河摺亞諾滄, because it extends encircled the world; 滄 beyond the coastal areas of Europe. Readers can find 河 means “ocean” or 摺亞諾滄 “wave”. near the western coast of Africa by viewing the original KWQ. 111 肥 Fei 肥良的海 refers to the sea north of Flandria, which is today’s North Sea. The North 良 Liang Sea has had various names through history. One of the earliest recorded names was 311 的 Di Hai “Northern Ocean”. The name “North Sea” probably came into English, via the 海 Dutch “Noordzee”, because the sea is generally to the north of the Netherlands. Before the adoption of “North Sea”, the Latin words Mare Frisicum or the English name “Frisian Sea” were commonly used.312 The Latin name of Flanders (a Dutch- speaking county from 862-1795 in northern Belgium; 肥良的亞; Item 40)313 is Flandria,314 hence, 肥良的海 (the Chinese pronunciation of 肥良的 is close to Flandria; 海 is “ocean”) refers to the sea north of Flandria, which is today’s North Sea. The cartographer of the Europe-KWQ used a Chinese expression 肥良的海 which literally means “the sea off northern Flandria”. 112 入 Ru Er It is the southern arm On the Europe-KWQ, 入尔馬尼海 (Latin: Mare 尔 Ma Ni of the Baltic Sea. The Germanicum, before 75 B. C.) is the southern arm of the 馬 Hai sea was known in Baltic Sea; 窩窩所德海, 波的海 (from the eleventh 尼 ancient Latin language century) are derived from different languages and are used in the period before 75 海 by the Europe-KWQ to depict the northernmost and B. C. as Mare easternmost arms, respectively, of today’s Baltic Sea (in Germanicum (入尔馬 Modern English). I shall give further explanations in Items 尼海) or Mare 113 and 114. The original annotation to the left of 入尔馬 315 Suebicum. 尼海 states the following:

入尔馬尼海出琥珀生石上如石乳然多在海濱金色者為 上藍次之赤最下

My translation is:

In the southern arm of the Baltic Sea, amber often grows like stalactite on raw stones near the seashore. The golden-coloured ones are the best, the blue-coloured ones are the next, and the red-coloured ones have lower quality. ● 窩 Wo The name “Gulf of Bothnia” may have originated in the ninth century. It is the 113 窩 Wo northernmost arm of the Baltic Sea and is situated between Finland’s west coast and 所 Suo Sweden’s east coast. 窩窩所德海 is literally a transplantation of Oostzee in Dutch or 40

德 De Hai Ostsee in German.316 The meaning is “East Sea”, which corresponds to the Gulf of 海 Bothnia. 114 波 Bo Di On the Europe-KWQ, 波的海 is the Gulf of Finland, the eastern arm of the Baltic 的 Hai Sea (波的海). The first to name the Baltic Sea (Mare Balticum) was the eleventh- 海 century German chronicler Adam of .317 Hence, the Europe-KWQ cannot be a map drawn before the eleventh century. This is consistent with the Europe-KWQ revealing an era of Europe between 1157 and 1166. 115 大 Da Nu Danube River; Latin: Before the Romans had reached the river, it was little 努 Pi He Danubius, Danuvius; known; the Greeks called the western part Danube and the 318 毘 Jiang German: Donau. 河 eastern part Ister or Hister. Later, the Romans called it 河 江 means “river”. Danubius, or Danuvius, the name of the Roman god of rivers. The Danube is Europe's second-longest river. It is 江 located in Central and Eastern Europe. It is also the only river that was given a name on the Europe-KWQ. 116 勿 Wu Ni Lake Vanern (Vänern or Wener) is located in the southwest of Sweden.319 It is the 匿 Er Hu largest lake in Sweden and the third-largest lake of all Europe. 尔 湖 117 歐 Ou Europe; Latin: Europa. The first recorded usage of Eurṓpē (Greek Ευρώπη) as a 邏 Luo geographic term refers to the western shore of the Aegean Sea. It is first used in the 320 巴 Ba sixth century B. C. Summary A-13: Items 104-117 give the history and geography of the oceans, seas, a lake and a major river in Europe. They are: 太海 (Black Sea), 上海 (Adriatic Sea), 下海 (Tyrrhenian Sea), 地中海 (Mediterranean Sea), 大西洋/河摺亞諾滄 (Atlantic Ocean), 肥良的海 (North Sea), 入尔馬尼海 (southern arm of the Baltic Sea), 窩窩所德海 (northern arm of the Baltic Sea), 波的海 (on the Europe-KWQ, it is the eastern arm of the Baltic Sea), 巴尔德峽 (Strait of Gibraltar), 勿匿尔湖 (Lake Vanern ) and 大努毘河江 (Danube River) . The Europe-KWQ correctly shows their locations, names and characteristics. These indicate that the ancient water transportations, which already existed before and after Christ, were still preserved between 1157 and 1166 on the Europe-KWQ. The last item 117 gives the origin of the name of the European continent as the sixth century B. C.; it was still in use between 1157 and 1166.

Notes

1 “Kunyu Wanguo Quantu.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 4 Jan. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunyu_Wanguo_Quantu 2 “Matteo Ricci.” Wikipedia, 29 June 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matteo_Ricci 3 Siu-Leung Lee (李兆良). Kun Yu Wan Guo Quan Tu Jie Mi: Ming Dai Ce Hui Shi Je《坤輿萬國全圖解 密:明代測繪世界》or Deciphering the Kunyu Wanguo Quantu, A Chinese World Map ‒ Ming Chinese Mapped the World Before Columbus. Taipei : Linking Publishing Company (聯經出版社), 2012; Siu-Leung Lee. “Chinese Mapped America Before 1430.” Proceedings of the ICA, vol. 1, 16 May 2018. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325189032_Chinese_Mapped_America_Before_1430; Sheng-Wei Wang. “Chapter nine: Secret revealed by ancient maps.” The last journey of the San Bao Eunuch, Admiral Zheng He, Hong Kong, China: Proverse Hong Kong, 2019, pp. 290-301; Sheng-Wei Wang. “Chinese explored Cape Breton Island long before the Europeans.” www.1421Foundation.org, The 1421 Foundation, 12 Sep. 2020, 1421foundation.org/chinese-explored-cape-breton-island-long-before-the- europeans; Sheng-Wei Wang. “Chinese explored Australia, and Antarctica long before the Europeans.” Op. cit., 14 Nov. 2020, 1421foundation.org/chinese-explored-australia-new-zealand-and- antarctica-long-before-the-europeans 4 “File:Kunyu Wanguo Quantu by Matteo Ricci Plate 1-3.jpg.” Wikipedia Commons: The Free Media Repository, Wikimedia Foundation, 23 Oct. 2020, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kunyu_Wanguo_Quantu_by_Matteo_Ricci_Plate_1-3.jpg; “File:Kunyu 41

Wanguo Quantu by Matteo Ricci Plate 4-6.jpg.” Wikipedia Commons, 23 Oct. 2020, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kunyu_Wanguo_Quantu_by_Matteo_Ricci_Plate_4-6.jpg 5 “File:Mercator 1569 world map composite.jpg.” Wikimedia Commons, 26 Nov. 2016, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mercator_1569_world_map_composite.jpg 6 “File:OrteliusWorldMap1570.jpg.” Wikimedia Commons, 19 Nov. 2020, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:OrteliusWorldMap1570.jpg 7 “File:Kunyu Wanguo Quantu by Matteo Ricci Plate 1-3.jpg.” Op. cit. 8 “File:Mercator 1569 world map composite.jpg.” Op. cit. 9 “File:OrteliusWorldMap1570.jpg.”Op. cit. 10 “Fra Mauro map.” Wikipedia, 5 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fra_Mauro_map 11 “Catalan Atlas.” Wikipedia, 1 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_Atlas 12 “Carta Pisana.” Wikipedia, 29 Oct. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carta_Pisana 13 “File:FraMauroDetailedMap.jpg.” Wikimedia Commons, 5 Feb. 2021, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FraMauroDetailedMap.jpg 14 “File:Atles català (full 4, ca000004).jpg.” Wikimedia Commons, 28 Oct. 2020, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atles_català_(full_4,_ca000004).jpg 15 “File:Carte Pisane Portolan.jpg.” Wikimedia Commons, 29 Oct. 2020, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carte_Pisane_Portolan.jpg 16 “Portolan chart.” Wikipedia, 17 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portolan_chart 17 Ibid. 18 “Tabula Rogeriana.” Wikipedia, 25 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_Rogeriana 19 Ibid. 20 “File:Kunyu Wanguo Quantu by Matteo Ricci Plate 1-3.jpg.” Op, cit. 21 “File:TabulaRogeriana upside-down.jpg.” Wikimedia Commons, 17 Nov. 2020, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TabulaRogeriana_upside-down.jpg 22 “Western Roman Empire.” Wikipedia, 9 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire 23 “Atlas of European history.” Wikipedia, 11 Apr. 2021, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_European_history 24 “Kingdom of France.” Wikipedia, 6 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_France 25 “Francia.” Wikipedia, 22 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia 26 “File:Europe 814.svg.” Wikipedia, 21 Feb. 2021, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_814.svg 27 “File:Europe 1142.jpg.” Wikipedia, 11 Nov. 2016, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_1142.jpg 28 “File:Europe mediterranean 1190.jpg.” Wikipedia, 24 Jan. 2021, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_mediterranean_1190.jpg 29 The are also sometimes referred to as Late Antiquity. This time period is usually viewed as beginning in the third century and stretching to the seventh century or as late as the eighth; the High Middle Ages is the time period from around 1000 to 1250 AD; the Central Middle Ages are between the Early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages; the Late Middle Ages begin in 1300, though some scholars look at the mid- to late-fifteenth century as the beginning of the end. Once again, the end of the end is debatable, ranging from 1500 to 1650; Melissa Snell. “The Early, High and Late Middle Ages.” www.thoughtco.com, ThoughtCo, 21 Feb. 2021, www.thoughtco.com/defining-the-middle-ages-part-6- 1788883 30 “Finland-Sweden relations.” Wikipedia, 26 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland–Sweden_relations 31 “Yuan Dynasty.” Wikipedia, 22 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty 32 “Finland-Sweden relations.” Op, cit. 33 “Kingdom of Portugal.” Wikipedia, 12 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal 34 Ibid. 35 “Crown of Castile.” Wikipedia, 3 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Castile 36 “Almohad Caliphate.” Wikipedia, 27 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate 37 “Granada.” Wikipedia, 1 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granada 38 谭保罗. “你真的懂宋朝吗？一个被国家竞争’倒逼’的时代.” https://info.51.ca/news/china, 南风窗 NFC, 2021 年 3 月 2 日, info.51.ca/news/china/2021-03/975713.html 39郑有为. “拜占庭皇帝曾向宋朝求援，宋神宗答应了吗？” https://info.51.ca/news/china/, 加国无忧 51.CA, 2020 年 12 月 27 日, info.51.ca/news/china/2020-12/957586.html 42

40 Ibid. 41 “List of Byzantine emperors.” Wikipedia, 20 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors 42 “南海一号.” 维基百科，自由的百科全书, 2021 年 5 月 12 日, zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/南海一號 43 “南海一号（海上丝绸之路向外运送瓷器时失事的南宋古船）.” 百度百科, 自由的百科全书, 2021, baike.baidu.com/item/南海一号/6022084 44 林君穎. “十大考古新發現之「南海一號」南宋古船追憶海上絲路輝煌.” www.hk01.com, 藝文中國, 2020 年 5 月 7 日, www.hk01.com/藝文中國/470171/十大考古新發現之-南海一號-南宋古船追憶海上 絲路輝煌 45 T. C. Bell, private email communication. 46 T. C. Bell, private email communication; Roaul McLaughlin. Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, and China. London, U. K.: Continuum, 2010. 47 “Eastern Europe.” Wikipedia, 18 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe 48 “Portugal.” Wikipedia, 8 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal 49 “Kingdom of Portugal.” Op. cit. 50 Ibid. 51 “Galicia (Spain).” Wikipedia, 31 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galicia_(Spain) 52 “Kingdom of Galicia.” Wikipedia, 5 May 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia 53 “Kingdom of Castile.” Wikipedia, 24 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile 54 “Crown of Castile.” Op. cit. 55 “Almohad Caliphate.” Wikipedia, 27 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate 56 “Granada.” Wikipedia, 1 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granada 57 “Almohad Caliphate.” Op. cit. 58 “.” Wikipedia, 10 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada 59 “Kingdom of Toledo (Crown of Castile).” Wikipedia, 21 July 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Toledo_(Crown_of_Castile) 60 “Castile (historical region).” Wikipedia, 26 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_(historical_region) 61 “Andalusia.” Wikipedia, 10 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusia 62 “Andalusia.” Op. cit. 63 “File:Andalucia in Spain (including Canarias) (special marker).svg.” Wikipedia, 19 Dec. 2020, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Andalucia_in_Spain_(including_Canarias)_(special_marker).svg 64 Ibid. 65 “Crown of Aragon.” Wikipedia, 21 Apr. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon 66 “Kingdom of Aragon.” Wikipedia, 19 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon 67 “File:Localización de Aragón.svg.” Wikipedia, 6 Sept. 2020, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Localización_de_Aragón.svg 68 “Catalonia.” Wikipedia, 10 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalonia 69 “Catalonia.” Op. cit. 70 “Catalonia.” Wikipedia, 1 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalonia 71 “Biscay.” Wikipedia, 27 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biscay 72 “Crown of Castile.” Op. cit. 73 “Navarre.” Wikipedia, 19 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navarre 74 Ibid. 75 “león.” Wikipedia, 5 Oct. 2020, en.wiktionary.org/wiki/león 76 “Kingdom of León.” Wikipedia, 1 Mar, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_León 77 Ibid. 78 “Hispania.” Wikipedia, 9 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispania 79 Ibid. 80 “Carolingian Empire.” Wikipedia, 5 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douro 81 “Toulouse.” Wikipedia, 2 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toulouse 82 “Aquitaine.” Wikipedia, 9 Mar. 2021, en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Aquitaine 83 “Duchy of Aquitaine.” Wikipedia, 19 Apr. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Aquitaine 84 “Aquitaine.” Op. cit. 43

85 “Lutetia.” Wikipedia, 20 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutetia 86 Editors of France Today. “Ancient Paris: Looking for Lutetia.” www.francetoday.com, France Media Ltd., 2021, www.francetoday.com/culture/looking-for-lutetia/ 87 Editors. “Paris through the ages.” web.archive.org, Paris Convention and Visitors Bureau, 27 July 2011, https://web.archive.org/web/20081212124430/http://en.parisinfo.com/museums-monuments-paris/special- reports-1/paris-through-the-ages/guide/paris-through-the-ages_the-city-of-antiquity 88 “Burgundy.” Wikipedia, 3 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgundy 89 Ibid. 90 “Duchy of Burgundy.” Wikipedia, 5 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy 91 “Burgundian Netherlands.” Wikipedia, 3 May 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands 92 “Gascony.” Wikipedia, 9 May 2021, /en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gascony 93 Joshua J. Mark. “Kingdom of West Francia.” www.ancient.eu, Ancient History Encyclopedia Foundation, 16 Nov. 2018, www.ancient.eu/Kingdom_of_West_Francia/ 94 “Kingdom of France.” Wikipedia, 6 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_France 95 “History of Paris.” Wikipedia, 15 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Paris 96 “Marseilles.” Wikipedia, 24 Jan. 2021, en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Marseilles 97 “Marseille.” Wikipedia, 4 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille 98 “List of rulers of Provence.” Wikipedia, 8 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Provence 99 “Dauphin.” Wikipedia, 17 Dec. 2020, en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dauphin 100 “Dauphiné.” Wikipedia, 7 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dauphiné 101 Ibid. 102 “Belgium.” Wikipedia, 4 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium 103 Editors. “Belgium: A Brief History Of How It All Began.” https://theculturetrip.com, The Culture Trip Ltd., 2021, theculturetrip.com/europe/belgium/articles/belgium-a-brief-history-of-how-it-all-began 104 “Helvetia.” Wikipedia, 10 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helvetia 105 Editors. “The Swiss Confederation.” www.german-way.com, Humboldt American Press, 2020, www.german-way.com/history-and-culture/switzerland/history-of-switzerland/ 106 “.” https://www.nationsonline.org, One World - Nations Online, 1998-2021, www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/History/Switzerland-history.htm 107 “Cantons of Switzerland.” Wikipedia, 28 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy 108 Ibid. 109 “Savoy.” Wikipedia, 8 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savoy 110 Ibid. 111 “Piedmont.” Wikipedia, 10 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piedmont 112 Ibid. 113 “Republic of Genoa.” Wikipedia, 5 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa 114 “Kingdom of the Lombards.” Wikipedia, 10 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards 115 “Lombardy.” Wikipedia, 12 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombardy 116 Ibid. 117 “Duchy of Milan.” Wikipedia, 13 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan 118 “Duchy of Mantua.” Wikipedia, 5 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Mantua 119 “Venice.” Wikipedia, 16 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice 120 “Capture of Rome.” Wikipedia, 4 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Rome 121 “Holy Roman Empire.” Wikipedia, 19 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire 122 Huang Shijian (黄时鉴) and Gong Yingyan (龚缨晏). Li Ma Dou Shi Jie Di Tu Yan Jiu《利玛窦世界 地图研究》or Research on Matteo Ricci's World Map. Shanghai, China: Shanghai Chinese Classics Publishing House (上海古籍出版社 ), 2004, p. 202. 123 “Ancona.” Wikipedia, 14 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancona 124 “Marche.” Wikipedia, 10 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marche 125 “Roman Italy.” Wikipedia, 16 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Italy 126 “Holy Roman Emperor.” Wikipedia, 10 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor; “Holy Roman Empire.” Wikipedia, 13 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire 127 “Italy.” Wikipedia, 18 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy 44

128 “Timeline of Naples.” Wikipedia, 2 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Naples 129 Ibid. 130 “County of Apulia and Calabria.” 21 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Apulia_and_Calabria 131 “Apulia.” Wikipedia, 10 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apulia 132 “File:Apulia in Italy.svg.” Wikipedia, 14 Feb. 2021, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Apulia_in_Italy.svg 133 “Calabria.” Wikipedia, 18 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabria 134 “File:Calabria in Italy.svg.” Wikipedia, 14 Feb. 2021, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Calabria_in_Italy.svg 135 “Franconia.” Wikipedia, 15 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franconia 136 “Duchy of Franconia.” Wikipedia, 15 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Franconia 137 “Franconia.” op. cit. 138 “Bavaria.” Wikipedia, 10 Dec. 2020, en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Bavaria 139 “Bavaria.” Wikipedia, 20 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavaria 140 “Westphalia.” Wikipedia, 19 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westphalia 141 “Duchy of Westphalia.” Wikipedia, 10 Sep. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Westphalia 142 Huang Shijian (黄时鉴) and Gong Yingyan (龚缨晏). Op. cit., p. 196. 143 “Frisia.” Wikipedia, 22 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frisia 144 “Frisians.” Wikipedia, 16 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frisians 145 “Borussia.” Wikipedia, 23 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borussia 146 “Prussia (region).” Wikipedia, 6 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussia_(region) 147 Ibid. 148 “Prussia.” Wikipedia, 26 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussia 149 “Flandia.” Wikipedia, 26 May 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flandria 150 “County of Flanders.” Wikipedia, 9 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Flanders 151 Jiří Šitler. “From Bohemia to Czechia.” https://english.radio.cz, Radio International, 1997-2021, https://english.radio.cz/bohemia-czechia-8220362 152 “Holland.” Wikipedia, 14 Jan. 2021, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Holland_position.svg 153 “File:Holland position.svg.” 24 Sept. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland 154 “County of Zeeland.” 23 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeland 155 “File:Locator County of Zeeland (1350).svg.” Wikipedia, 8 Jan. 2021, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Locator_County_of_Zeeland_(1350).svg 156 “Duchy of Austria.” Wikipedia, 10 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Austria 157 Editors. “Saxony.” https://glosbe.com/en/la/Saxony, Glosbe, 2021, glosbe.com/en/la/Saxony 158 “History of Saxsony.” Wikipedia, 27 Oct. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Saxony 159 “Dukes of Saxony.” Wikipedia, 27 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Saxony#Dukes_of_Saxony 160 “Germania.” Wikipedia, 29 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germania 161 “Kingdom of Burgundy.” Wikipedia, 8 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burgundy 162 “Kingdom of Germany.” Wikipedia, 27 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Germany 163 “Hungaria.” Wikipedia, 19 July 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungaria 164 “King of Hungary.” Wikipedia, 19 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Hungary 165 “Crotia.” Wikipedia, 27 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia 166 “Croatia in with Hungary.” Wikipedia, 27 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia_in_personal_union_with_Hungary 167 “File:EU-Croatia.svg.” Wikipedia, 9 Sep. 2020, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EU-Croatia.svg 168 “Dalmatia.” Wikipedia, 26 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalmatia 169 “Dalmatia.” Wikipedia, 9 Nov. 2020, en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Dalmatia 170 Ibid. 171 “Kingdom of Croatia (925-1102).” Wikipedia, 4 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925–1102) 172 “Croatia in personal union with Hungary.” Wikipedia, 27 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia_in_personal_union_with_Hungary 45

173 “Transylvania.” Wikipedia, 24 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transylvania 174 Ibid. 175 “Polonia.” Wikipedia, 16 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonia 176 “Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385).” Wikipedia, 15 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1025–1385) 177 “Moravia.” Wikipedia, 8 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravia 178 “Romania.” Wikipedia, 16 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonia 179 “History of Romania.” Wikipedia, 24 Jan.. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Romania 180 “Romania.” Op. cit. 181 “Byzantine Empire.” Wikipedia, 2 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire 182 Huang Shijian (黄时鉴) and Gong Yingyan (龚缨晏). Op. cit., p. 186. 183 “Byzantium.” Wikipedia, 27 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantium 184 “Byzantine Empire.” Op, cit. 185 “Yambol.” Wikipedia, 15 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yambol 186 Ibid. 187 Ibid. 188 “Albania.” Wikipedia, 4 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania 189 Ibid. 190 “Greece.” Wikipedia, 4 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece. 191 Ibid. 192 “Macedonia (ancient kingdom).” Wikipedia, 4 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom) 193 “Macedonia (region).” Wikipedia, 26 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(region) 194 “Macedonia (theme).” Wikipedia, 13 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(theme) 195 Huang Shijian (黄时鉴) and Gong Yingyan (龚缨晏). Op. cit., p. 200. 196 “Pannonia.” Wikipedia, 19 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonia 197 Ibid. 198 “Pannonian Basin.” 4 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonian_Basin 199 “Byzantine–Hungarian War (1127–1129).” Wikipedia, 19 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine– Hungarian_War_(1127–1129) 200 “Bulgaria.” Wikipedia, 27 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria 201 “First Bulgarian Empire.” Wikipedia, 31 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire 202 “Bulgaria (theme).” Wikipedia, 30 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria_(theme) 203 “Principality of Achaea.” Wikipedia, 3 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Achaea 204 “Anglia.” Wikipedia, 10 May 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglia 205 “England.” Wikipedia, 18 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England 206 “Kingdom of Great Britain.” Wikipedia, 12 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain 207 Emily Osterloff. “Should we be scared of British snakes?”www.nhm.ac.uk, the Natural History Museum, 2021, www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/should-we-be-scared-of-british-snakes.html 208 David Bickley. “Belerion.” https://davidbickley.bandcamp.com, Analogue Systems Apprentice, 24 Sep. 2015, https://davidbickley.bandcamp.com/album/belerion 209 “Wessex.” Wikipedia, 25 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wessex 210 “History of Cornwall.” Wikipedia, 5 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Cornwall 211 “Scotia.” Wikipedia, 26 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotia 212 “Hibernia.” Wikipedia, 9 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibernia 213 “Kingdom of Ireland.” Wikipedia, 15 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland 214 “Jutland.” Wikipedia, 4 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jutland 215 “File:Denmark regions map1.png.” 22 Oct. 2020, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Denmark_regions_map1.png 216 “Dania.” Wikipedia, 17 Sep. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dania 217 “History of Denmark.” Wikipedia, 27 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Denmark 218 “Norway.” Wikipedia, 23 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway 219 “Finnmark.” Wikipedia, 27 Aug. 2020, en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Finnmark 46

220 “Finnmark.” Wikipedia, 17 Feb. 2019, fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/Finnmark 221 “Finnmark.” Wikipedia, 9 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnmark 222 Ibid. 223 Peter Heylyn. Microcosmos: A little description of the great world. The fifth edition. London, U. K.: British Library, 25 Feb. 2016, p. 333. 224 Ibid. 225 “Götaland.” Wikipedia, 17 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Götaland 226 Ibid. 227 Editors. “Where is Lapia in Southern Finland, Finland Located?” http://www.gomapper.com, GoMapper, 2021, gomapper.com/travel/where-is/lapia-southern-finland-located.html 228 “Lapland (Finland).” Wikipedia, 12 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapland_(Finland) 229 “Biarmia.” Wikipedia, 30 Aug. 2017, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biarmia 230 “Name of Sweden.” Wikipedia, 6 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Name_of_Sweden 231 “Sweden.” Wikipedia, 23 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Name_of_Sweden 232 Ibid. 233 “Finnia.” Wikipedia, 4 Aug. 2019, en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Finnia 234 “Swedish colonisation of Finland.” Wikipedia, 2 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_colonisation_of_Finland 235 “Finland–Sweden relations.” Wikipedia, 16 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland–Sweden_relations 236 “History of Finland.” Wikipedia, 24 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Finland 237 “Kvenland.” Wikipedia, 23 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvenland 238 “Talk:Kvenland.” Wikipedia, 24 Feb. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk%3AKvenland 239 Huang Shijian (黄时鉴) and Gong Yingyan (龚缨晏). Op. cit., p. 207. 240 Editors. “Svartalfheim.” https://blog.vkngjewelry.com/, Norse and Viking Mythology, 2021, blog.vkngjewelry.com/svartalfheim/ 241 “Novgorod Republic.” Wikipedia, 8 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorod_Republic 242 Ibid. 243 “Veliky Novgorod.” Wikipedia, 5 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veliky_Novgorod 244 Huang Shijian (黄时鉴) and Gong Yingyan (龚缨晏). Op. cit., p. 203. 245 Ibid. 246 “Zawonia, Lower Silessian Voivodeship.” Wikipedia, 19 July 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zawonia,_Lower_Silesian_Voivodeship 247 Ibid. 248 “Grand Duchy of Lithuania.” Wikipedia, 22 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania 249 “Belarus.” Wikipedia, 25 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus 250 Ibid. 251 ”Russia.” Wikipedia, 28 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia 252 “Podolia.” Wikipedia, 21 Sept. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podolia 253 Ibid. 254 Ibid. 255 Huang Shijian (黄时鉴) and Gong Yingyan (龚缨晏). Op. cit., p. 192. 256 “Moldavia.” Wikipedia, 22 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumania 257 Ibid. 258 Huang Shijian (黄时鉴) and Gong Yingyan (龚缨晏). Op. cit., p. 197. 259 “Crimea in the Roman era.” Wikipedia, 17 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimea_in_the_Roman_era 260 “Crimea.” Wikipedia, 28 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimea 261 Huang Shijian (黄时鉴) and Gong Yingyan (龚缨晏). Op. cit., p. 186. 262 “Gazaria (Genoese colonies).” Wikipedia, 29 Nov. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazaria_(Genoese_colonies) 263 “Khazars.” Wikipedia, 22 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazars 264 “Crimea.” Op. cit. 265 Ibid. 266 “Cumania.” Wikipedia, 22 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumania 47

267 Ibid. 268 Huang Shijian (黄时鉴) and Gong Yingyan (龚缨晏). Op. cit., p. 185. 269 “Ryazan.” Wikipedia, 18 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryazan 270 “Principality of Ryazan.” Wikipedia, 31 Jan. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Ryazan 271 “Emirate of Crete.” Wikipedia, 29 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Crete 272 “Crete.” Wikipedia, 5 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete 273 “Euboea.” Wikipedia, 4 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euboea 274 “Constantinople.” Wikipedia,12 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople 275 “Kingdom of Siciily.” Wikipedia, 26 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily 276 Ibid. 277 “Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.” Wikipedia, 4 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies 278 “Volcanism of Italy.” Wikipedia, 8 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanism_of_Italy 279 “Sardinia.” Wikipedia, 29 Nov. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardinia 280 “金色小沙丁鱼.” 百度百科, 2021, baike.baidu.com/item/金色小沙丁鱼 281 Editor. “CORAL IN SARDINIA.” Miranda Loves Travelling, Nonna Miranda Ltd., mirandalovestravelling.com/corals-in-sardinia/mirandalovestravelling.com/corals-in-sardinia/ 282 Kris. “Cork oak forest (Sardinia, Italy).” www.miraclesealants.com.au, Miracle Sealants, 12 Dec. 2015, www.miraclesealants.com.au/cork-oak-forest-sardinia-italy/ 283 “Malta (island).” Wikipedia, 7 February 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta_(island) 284 “History of Corsica.” Wikipedia, 19 February 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Corsica 285 “Corsica.” Wikipedia, 13 February 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsica 286 “Menorca.” Wikipedia, 2 February 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menorca 287 Ibid. 288 “Mallorca.” Wikipedia, 2 February 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mallorca 289 "Names of Iceland.” Wikipedia, 1 February 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_Iceland 290 Ibid. 291 “Settlement of Iceland.” Wikipedia, 2 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Settlement_of_Iceland 292 “Kalmar Union.” Wikipedia, 7 Mar.2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalmar_Union 293 “Thule.” Wikipedia, 14 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thule 294 Ibid. 295 Jason Daley. “Black Sea.” www. Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Magazine, 14 Oct. 2018, www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/oldest-intact-shipwreck-discovered-black-sea-180970622/ 296 “Oldest Intact Shipwreck Discovered in the Black Sea.” 297 Shamseer Mambra. “8 Amazing Facts about the Black Sea.” https://www.marineinsight.com, marine Insight, 24 Nov. 2020, marineinsight.com/know-more/8-amazing-facts-about-the-black-sea/ 298 Ibid. 299 The editors. “Adriatic Sea.” www.newworldencyclopedia.org, New World Enclopedia, 2021, newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Adriatic_Sea 300 “Adriatic Sea.” Wikipedia, 9 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Sea 301 Ibid. 302 William Smith, LLD, Ed.” TYRRHE´NUM MARE.” http://www.perseus.tufts.edu, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), 2021, www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:id=tyrrhenum-mare-geo 303 “Mediterranean Sea.” Wikipedia, 1 Dec. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea 304 Ibid. 305 Huang Shijian (黄时鉴) and Gong Yingyan (龚缨晏). Op. cit., p. 187. 306 Ajay Menon. “10 Interesting Facts About The Straits Of Gibraltar.” https://www.marineinsight.com, marine Insight, 17 Dec. 2020, marineinsight.com/know-more/10-interesting-facts-about-the-straits-of- gibraltar/ 307 “Atlantic Ocean.” Wikipedia, 7 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean 308 Ibid. 309 “西洋.” 维基百科，2016 年 3 月 10 日, zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/西洋 310 “Oceanus.” Wikipedia, 30 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanus 48

311 “North Sea.” Wikipedia, 6 mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea 312 “History of the North Sea.” Wikipedia, 4 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_North_Sea 313 “Flanders.” Wikipedia, 3 May 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flanders 314 “Flandria.” Op. cit. 315 “Baltic Sea.” Wikipedia, 28 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea 316 Ibid. 317 Ibid. 318 “Danube.” Wikipedia, 20 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danube#Names_and_etymology 319 “Vänern.” Wikipedia, 4 May 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vänern 320 “Europe.” Wikipedia, 20 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe