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The Ecology of Man in the Tropical Environment L'ecologie De L'homme Dans Le Milieu Tropical

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The Ecology of Man in the Tropical Environment L'ecologie De L'homme Dans Le Milieu Tropical IUCN Publications new series No 4 Ninth technical meeting Neuvième réunion technique NAIROBI, SEPTEMBER 1963 Proceedings and Papers Procès-verbaux et rapports The Ecology of Man in the Tropical Environment L'Ecologie de l'homme dans le milieu tropical Published with the assistance of the Government of Kenya and UNESCO International Union Union Internationale for the Conservation of Nature pour la Conservation de la Nature and Natural Resources et de ses Ressources Morges, Switzerland 1964 IUCN Publications new series No 4 Ninth Technical Meeting held at Nairobi from 17 to 20 September 1963, in conjunction with the Union's Eighth General Assembly Neuvième réunion technique tenue à Nairobi du 17 au 20 septembre 1963 conjointement avec la Huitième Assemblée Générale de l'Union Proceedings and Papers / Procès-verbaux et rapports The Ecology of Man in the Tropical Environment L'Ecologie de l'homme dans le milieu tropical Published with the assistance of the Government of Kenya and UNESCO International Union Union Internationale for the Conservation of Nature pour la Conservation de la Nature and Natural Resources et de ses Ressources Morges, Switzerland 1964 CONTENTS Editorial Note 7 Keynote Address : A. L. ADU 9 Introduction to the technical theme : E. H. GRAHAM 19 PART I : PRE-INDUSTRIAL MAN IN THE TROPICAL ENVIRONMENT Papers of the Technical Meeting. Prehistoric Man in the Tropical Environment : L. S. B. LEAKEY . 24 Aboriginal food-gatherers of Tropical Australia : M. J. MEGGITT . 30 Forest hunters and gatherers : the Mbuti pygmies : C. M. TURNBULL 38 The Fisherman : an overview : H. H. FRESE 44 Pastoralism : B. A. ABEYWICKRAMA 50 Pastoralist : H. A. FOSBROOKE 60 The pre-industrial cultivator in the Tropics : H. POPENOE 66 Examples of cultivation practice in Tropical Africa : W. ACHTNICH . 74 The discussions Rapporteurs : SIR JULIAN HUXLEY and TH. MONOD 83 PART II : ECOSYSTEMS AND BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY Papers of the Technical Meeting. The biological productivity of the tropical savanna ecosystem : L. M. TALBOT 88 Savanna : J. S. BEARD 98 Les savanes des pays tropicaux et subtropicaux : V. Z. GOULISSACHVILI 104 Grasslands : L. D. E. F. VESEY-FITZGERALD 111 Déserts : TH. MONOD 116 Desert environments : C. S. CHRISTIAN 133 Deserts — ruminants and energy conversions : M. V. MACFARLANE 138 Milieu montagnard tropical: K. CURRY-LINDAHL et M. LAMOTTE 146 The montane habitat in the tropics: R. G. ROBBINS 163 5 Montane vegetation and productivity in the tropics, with special refe- rence to Peru : H. ELLENBERG 172 Productivity of tropical forests and their ultimate value to man : H. C. DAWKINS 178 Inland waters : E. B. WORTHINGTON 183 Factors influencing the productivity of tropical waters, with special reference to fish resources : A. P. ACHIENG 190 Some problems of Uganda swamps : D. P. S. WASAWO 196 The discussions Rapporteurs: F. BOURLIERE and E. H. GRAHAM . 205 PART III : THE IMPACT OF MAN ON THE TROPICAL ENVIRONMENT Papers of the Technical Meeting. Shifting cultivation : J. PHILLIPS 210 Productivity of vegetation in arid countries, the savannah problem and bush encroachment after overgrazing : H. WALTER 221 Water control and impoundments — the aquatic side : P. B. N. JACKSON 230 The impact of water management on the tropical environment : M. DAGG 239 L'introduction d'espèces animales et leur impact sur l'environnement tropical : J. DORST 245 Espèces introduites : G. MANGENOT 253 The impact of introductions of large herbivores on the tropical environ- ment: T. RINEY 261 The discussions Rapporteurs : M. K. SHAWKI and D. O' D. BOURKE 275 PART IV: ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Papers of the Technical Meeting. An assessment of some development schemes in Africa in the light of human needs and the environment : L. H. BROWN 280 The value of the interdisciplinary research in the context of agriculture and the conservation of natural resources : A. C. EVANS .... 288 The relationship of land use to ecology in the Inyanga area of Southern Rhodesia : G. CHALLENGER 295 Value of ecological surveys : R. A. PERRY 303 A scheme for forest conservation and development in the semi-desert region round Khartoum : M. K. SHAWKI 313 Interdisciplinary research in practical ecology: C. S. CHRISTIAN. 321 The value of ecological surveys : V. C. ROBERTSON 327 F. A. O. ecological studies as a basis for agricultural development : R. G. FONTAINE 333 Le point de vue écologique dans l'action scientifique internationale : M. BATISSE (UNESCO) 345 The discussions Rapporteurs : F. FRASER DARLING and A. ADANDE 351 6 EDITORIAL NOTE The Ninth Technical Meeting of the International Union for Con- servation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) was held at Nairobi from 17 to 20 September 1963, in conjunction with the Eighth General Assembly of IUCN, for which the Government of Kenya was host Government. This procedure has been followed in recent years, since general meetings of the Union became established on a biennial and now triennial basis. The Technical Meetings have been held at — I. Lake Success, August, 1949 II. The Hague, September, 1951 III. Caracas, September, 1952 IV. Salzburg, September, 1953 V. Copenhagen, August/September, 1954 VI. Edinburgh, June, 1956 VII. Athens, September, 1958 VIII. Warsaw, June, 1960 IX. Nairobi, September, 1963 For the 9th Meeting, Dr. E. H. Graham, Chairman of IUCN's Commission on Ecology and Member of the Executive Board, undertook the responsibility of planning the Program on the theme of " The Ecology of Man in the Tropical Environment ". He described the back- ground of this choice and the headings under which it was decided to treat the Theme, in an Introductory talk at the General Assembly, which is reproduced here. It was prefaced at the Assembly and in this volume also, by the Keynote Address presented by Mr. A. L. Adu, whose 7 responsibility as Secretary-General of the East African Common Services Organisation, for the basic Research services of Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika, had brought him into such close contact with and under- standing of the problems involved in the Theme. Papers were invited under the Program from experts in all parts of the world and the thirty-eight received form the main and most impor- tant part of this book. The majority were distributed for advance study some weeks in advance of the Technical Meeting, so that at the meeting itself the maximum time could be devoted to discussion. The principle followed, both for the purposes of the Meeting itself and now for publi- cation, was that each Paper should be printed in the language in which it was submitted, but that the Summary of its contents should be trans- lated into the other official language of the Union — French or English as the case may be. After each group of Papers will be found a short commentary, or review of the discussions. These have been prepared by the Rapporteurs- generaux, of whom two supervised each stage of the Program and to whom IUCN owes a special debt of gratitude. Thanks are also particu- larly due to the Kenya Government, both for providing so appropriate a setting for the study of the technical theme and for supplementing the allocation from UNESCO's grant to IUCN, which has enabled this book to be published. H. F. L. ELLIOTT Acting Secretary-General Morges, April 1964. 8 THE KEYNOTE ADDRESS by A. L. ADU, Secretary General of the East African Common Services Organisation Man is a natural resource. This place of man in his natural environ- ment is implied by the theme for discussion at this Assembly of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resour- ces. The recognition of man as a natural resource, and in fact the dominant force in a particular environment, and not as just another factor affecting the ecology of an area, is a vital part of any modern approach to our subject. This principle constitutes the main theme of my address to you today. The originators of the ecological approach in biology viewed the living world around them as a series of successions of plants and animals which started from the single and evolved into complex communities fundamentally suited to the major climatic and environmental conditions of the moment. Once established, such climax communities maintained themselves as long as these conditions continued. As basic environmental factors changed due to major earth movements and global alterations in climate, such as the onset of ice ages, so the climax communities became modified and evolved into new forms genetically suited to the new condi- tions. Therefore, as mountains rose and plains formed, as hot periods followed cold, so the biological world became selected for these condi- tions. Thus in any given age each land form and climate had its climax communities of plants and animals into which, given time, it would always develop. This was a new idea, a new concept, a new way of thinking in which the living world was seen as a dynamic entity constantly changing its pattern. In this scheme of things, man was considered as one of a complex of biotic factors which affected the orderly succession of events — a factor which generally shifted the emphasis of the ecological succession 9 or prevented it happening altogether. It was agreed that ancestral man fitted into the natural ecosystem, that is, he was a component part of it like any other species of the local fauna. As time went on, his level of cultural development rose and his num- bers increased. From this stage onward he was considered by modern biologists not to be part of the main ecosystem but rather as the separate factor which imposed itself on the ecosystem and led to the alteration of the natural steps of succession, and sometimes even to the complete. destruction of the habitat. Archaeologists, anthropologists, sociologists and even economists also tended to view mankind as a separate entity.
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