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Università Ca' Foscari Venezia Dottorato Di Ricerca Università Ca’ Foscari Venezia Dottorato di ricerca in Lingue, Culture e Società, 22° ciclo (A. A. 2006/2007 – A.A. 2008/2009) Jamaican Culture through Jamaican Cinema SETTORE SCIENTIFICO-DISCIPLINARE DI AFFERENZA*: L-ART/06 Cinema, Fotografia e Televisione Tesi di dottorato di Sabrina Ceccato , n° matricola 955336 Coordinatore del dottorato Tutore del dottorando prof. Rosella Mamoli Zorzi prof. Armando Pajalich * Nel caso di più settori disciplinari interessati, deve essere indicato quello prevalente nella trattazione della tesi. CONTENTS. Introduction: Cinema in Jamaica. p.1 1. Jamaican as the ideal location for foreign productions. p.1 2. The many problems of local productions. p.5 3. What is a Jamaican film? p.7 4. Jamaican films. p.10 5. Jamaican films in their context. p.18 6. A Jamaican tradition. p.20 1. Jamaican Films’ Themes and Characteristics. p.21 2. “Dis A Jamieka”: Language in Jamaican Films. p.30 2.1 Jamaican language: from English to Patwa. p.30 2.2 Implications in the use of Jamaican. p.34 2.3 Jamaican in films. p.37 2.3.1 Subtitles. p.42 2.3.2 Rasta talk. p.44 2.4 Conclusions: Every language has a meaning. p.50 3. “Play I Some Music. Dis A Reaggae Music”: Jamaican Music in Jamaican Films. p.53 3.1 Music in films. p.54 3.2 The Harder They Come. p.56 3.3 Singers acting. p.65 3.4 Music as part of the plot. p.68 3.5 Soundtrack as an integral part of the film. p.70 3.5.1 Rockers. p.70 3.5.2 Countryman. p.75 3.5.3 The Lunatic. p.78 3.5.4 Klash. p.80 3.5.5 Dancehall Queen. p.83 3.5.6 Third World Cop. p.85 3.5.7 Shottas. p.87 3.5.8 One Love. p.91 3.6 Unimportant soundtracks. p.95 3.7 Conclusion: Music has something to say. p.98 4. Representations of Dance and Dancehall Culture. p.101 4.1 African retentions and the role of dancehall from the age of slavery to these days. p.101 i 4.2 Filmic representation of dances. p.105 4.3 Contemporary dancehall culture. p.112 4.4 Klash. p.116 4.5 Dancehall Queen. p.117 4.6 Conclusion. p.124 5. “Guidance, Sister, I Live Through Guidance”: Representations of Jamaican Religions and Rastafari in Films. p.125 5.1 Christian and African religions. p.126 5.1.1 The Harder They Come: Evangelism. p.126 5.1.2 Rockers: Revival. p.131 5.1.3 Countryman: Obeah. p.135 5.1.4 Glory to Gloriana: Kumina. p.140 5.2 Rastafari. p.143 5.2.1 The Harder They Come. p.154 5.2.2 Rockers. p.156 5.2.3 Children of Babylon. p.159 5.2.4 Countryman. p.161 5.2.5 Klash. p.166 5.2.6 Third World Cop. p.167 5.2.7 Rude Boy and Gangsta’s Paradise. p.168 5.2.8 Shottas. p.171 5.3 One Love: Pentecostalism, Rastafari and Obeah. p.172 5.3.1 Pentecostalism. p.172 5.3.2 Bobo Ashanti. p.178 5.4 Conclusion: Religion is a way of life, Rastafari is a hope for life. p.185 6. Kingston and the Jamaican Countryside: the Settings and Locations of Jamaican Films. p.187 6.1 Jamaica and Kingston. p.188 6.2 The Harder They Come. p.191 6.3 Smile Orange. p.203 6.4 Rockers. p.205 6.5 Children of Babylon. p.210 6.6 Countryman. p.211 6.7 The Lunatic. p.214 ii 6.8 Klash. p.217 6.9 Dancehall Queen. p.219 6.10 Third World Cop. p.222 6.11 One Love. p.224 6.12 Glory to Gloriana. p.227 6.13 Rude Boy. p.230 6.14 Gangsta’s Paradise. p.233 6.15 Shottas. p.235 6.16 Conclusion. p.238 7. “Tell Me What You Wear and I’ll Tell You Who You Are”: The Importance of Appearance in Films. p.241 7.1 The Harder They Come. p.242 7.2 Smile Orange. p.249 7.3 Rockers. p.251 7.4 Children of Babylon. p.252 7.5 Countryman. p.254 7.6 The Lunatic. p.255 7.7 Klash and Dancehall Queen. p.256 7.8 Third World Cop. p.258 7.9 One Love and Glory to Gloriana. p.259 7.10 The gangster films: Rude Boy and Gangsta’s Paradise. p.260 7.11 Shottas. p.264 7.12 Conclusion. p.267 8. Jamaican Masculinity as Presented through Films. p.269 8.1 Gangster Films. p.271 8.2 The Jamaican situation. p.273 8.3 Black masculinity. p.274 8.4 Jamaican masculinity in the films. p.276 8.5 Jamaican gangster films. p.279 8.6 The Harder They Come. p.283 8.7 Klash. p.283 8.8 Third World Cop. p.284 8.9 Rude Boy and Gangsta’s Paradise. p.284 8.10 Shottas. p.285 iii 8.11 Conclusion. p.286 9. Minor themes. p.289 9.1 Sexuality. p.289 9.1.1 Children of Babylon. p.292 9.1.2 The Lunatic. p.296 9.2 Tourism. p.299 9.2.1 Smile Orange. p.300 9.2.2 The Lunatic. p.302 9.3 Women stories. p.302 9.3.1 Children of Babylon. p.302 9.3.2 The Lunatic. p.305 9.3.3 Dancehall Queen. p.306 9.3.4 Glory to Gloriana. p.308 9.4 Marijuana. p.309 9.5 Ideologies: Marxism in Children of Babylon. p.312 9.6 Political commitment and social critiques. p.314 9.6.1 The Harder They Come. p.314 9.6.2 Countryman. p.318 9.6.3 Social commentary. p.319 9.7 Conclusion. p.320 Conclusion: Jamaican cinema. p.321 Appendix 1: Technical Information. p.341 The Harder They Come p.341 Smile Orange p.343 Rockers p.345 Children of Babylon p.348 Countryman p.349 The Lunatic p.351 Klash p.353 Dancehall Queen p.355 Third World Cop p.357 Rude Boy – The Jamaican Don p.359 Gangsta’s Paradise p.361 One Love p.362 iv Shottas p.364 Glory to Gloriana p.366 Appendix 2: A Brief History of Jamaican Music. p.368 1. Early influences on Jamaican music. p.368 2. Mento. p.375 3. Sound Systems. p.376 4. The beginning of a recording industry. p.378 5. Ska. p.378 6. Rudeboy music. p.382 7. Rocksteady. p.383 8. Early reggae. p.385 9. Roots reggae. p.386 10. Dubbing, deejaying and versioning. p.391 11. Dancehall, or slack style reggae. p.395 12. Ragga. p.399 13. Rasta singers and chanters. p.401 Chronology of Jamaican music and chronology of Jamaican films in relation to musical trends. Filmography. p.403 Bibliography. p.404 v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Many people helped me during the writing of this thesis. I would like to thank all the persons whom I met along the way, and who shared with me their time and their experience. Particularly, I would like to thank Perry Henzell, Chris Browne, Trevor Rhone, Rick Elgood, Carl Bradshaw, Brian St. Juste, Natalie Thompson, Melanie Graham, Dell Crooks and Nardia McKenzie for their illuminating interviews. I am also indebted to Professor Patrick Hylton for his help on Jamaican religions, and to Doctor Rachel Moseley-Wood, who read a few chapters of the thesis and gave me useful suggestions. Thanks to Maria Carla Gullotta for her pieces of information about Jamaican society. This thesis would not have been written without the constant help and support of Professor Armando Pajalich. Finally, I thank my parents for their unfailing encouragement, and Aeon for the sharing of knowledge and love. INTRODUCTION: CINEMA IN JAMAICA. The cinema industry has had a long relationship with the Caribbean islands, and this is especially true for Jamaica. On one hand, this country has been involved in the business since its beginnings. On the other hand, however, Jamaican cinematographic tradition is very young, if compared to the history of worldwide cinema. This is easily explained by the fact that Jamaica has been used by foreign companies as a “location” since the beginning of the 20th century, but the local cinema began only in 1972. 1. JAMAICA AS THE IDEAL LOCATION FOR FOREIGN PRODUCTIONS. Hollywood has always cherished Jamaica as a location, starting in the 1910s to shoot on the island. The first film shot on location in Jamaica was probably Railroad Panorama Near Spanishtown, Jamaica, in 1903. Then many films were made in the 1910s, such as Flame Of Passion and The Pearl Of The Antilles in 1915; A Daughter Of The Gods, The Ruling Passion and A Woman’s Honor in 1916; and Queen Of The Sea in 1918. From then the industry has never ceased to shoot on location in Jamaica1. Jamaican government has rightly been trying to make the most out of this relationship, inviting foreign production companies to make films on the island. As the web site of Jamaica Trade and Invest advertises: Jamaica is one of the most naturally attractive locations for filming […] While overseas filmmakers have been coming to the island since the early 1900s, during the 1980s there was a drastic increase in the number and types of film projects shot here. Since the establishment of the Jamaican Film Commission in 1984, we have serviced over 3,000 film projects, ranging from the traditional full-length feature film to the rapidly growing documentary, and everything in between.
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