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on the local channel and then on CNN as part of Citizen and an affiliate agreement with the station. The emergence of citizen content and in the organization is associated with VALÉRIE BÉLAIR-GAGNON several factors that are discernible from previ- Yale Law School, US ous examples. The rapid growth C. W. ANDERSON of the and Web 2.0. throughout the City University of New York, US 1990s conflated citizen media with traditional journalism. With the ability of citizens to use internet technologies and the Historical Developments to replicate and distribute their work online, a formerly passive audience became both producer While the term “citizen media” is relatively and consumer of content, or, as new, practices have histor- scholar Axel Bruns (2005) referred to them, ical antecedents. Citizens have participated in “produsers.” Though there was never a consensus news production since the start of modern on use of the term “citizen media,” in the 1990s, journalism, long before the emergence of the terms such as “,” “journalism internet and Web 2.0. The popular radical press 2.0,” and “network journalism” started emerging. in England in the late eighteenth century and mid-nineteenth century included elements of citizen media through its activist stances and use Computer mediated citizen media of audience reporters. Likewise, in the United (2000–04) States in the 1740s, citizen journalism existed as citizen distributed political pamphlets in New Networked environments (such as markets, York, Philadelphia, and Boston. This practice was distribution, production) and many-to-many magnified by Thomas Paine’s publication of Com- communication flows replaced the hierarchical mon Sense in 1776, with approximately 150,000 and centralized structures of traditional journal- copies distributed. Citizens demonstrated that ism. In this computer mediated communication audiences could produce and become part of context, and with the rise of the World Wide Web, news production. In the 1920s, free stations citizen media moved from a sporadic to a much or pirate radio involved unauthorized commu- more common activity. This shift raises ques- nity activists and political and cultural dissidents tionsabouttherelevanceoftraditionalmedia who broadcasted offshore in parts of continental by enhancing new practices in new spaces of Europe or the United Kingdom. On November communication, such as with the emergence of 22, 1963, Abraham Zapruder documented the citizen journalism and media organizations – for assassination of US President John F. Kennedy example, South Korea’s OhMyNews International with his Bell & Howell camera, selling the rights founded in 2000 by Oh Yeon-ho. OhMyNews for US $200,000 to Life . And in 1991, was founded in the civic media tradition in South from the balcony of his apartment, George Holli- Korea. The news organization played a key role day chronicled Rodney King being beaten by Los in the 2002 election of reform President Roh Angeles Police Department officers by filming Moo-hyun and protected the South Korean pres- itwithhisSony-Handycam.Afterfilmingan ident in 2004 when the conservative party tried eight-minuteclip,HollidaycontactedalocalLA to impeach him. station, KTLA. The station gave him The terms “citizen media” and “citizen journal- $500 in exchange for the video that was first aired ism” emerged by the end of the 1990s and early

The International Encyclopedia of Digital Communication and Society, First Edition. Edited by Robin Mansell and Peng Hwa Ang. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. DOI: 10.1002/9781118290743/wbiedcs028 2CITIZEN M EDIA AND J OURNALISM

2000s as a type of news production outside tradi- credentials to a select group of bloggers to cover tional journalism that shapes the public debate; it the four-day event. is in contrast to participatory journalism, which This shift from computer mediated media to involves audiences interacting with journalistic postindustrial journalism is illustrated by the content on a , an online comment page with definitionofcitizenjournalismgivenbyJay ajournalist’sstory,oracollaborativeopen- Rosen, media critic and professor at New York production. By participating in citizen media University,whereby,“thepeopleformerlyknown and journalism, citizens are involved in the as the audience employ the press tools they have production, selection, dissemination, and con- in their possession to inform one another” (2006, sumption of news. The practice of citizen media n.p.). The boundaries between citizen media and was intensified by the rise of computer mediated traditional journalism are blurred. Post-2004, communication, the internet and Web 2.0, as well citizen journalism moved from being a contested as by the ability of citizens to participate in such to a mainstream , although in many cases practices at “key moments.” The production of citizen media itself is contested. citizenjournalismincludedvarioustypesthatall In breaking news stories, citizen media often came under the umbrella of citizen media and is the first source of information for traditional journalism: audience participation, independent . Some of the best citizen journalism news and information websites, full-fledged following the invasion of in 2003 came from participatory news sites, collaborative and con- the of Salam Pax, a 29-year-old architect tributory media sites, and personal broadcasting living in the suburbs of Baghdad, who docu- sites such as video broadcasting. For example, mented events before and after the invasion. His in 1999 in Seattle in the , the anti- blog is a good example of an alternative source World Trade Organization protests marked one of reporting, providing a first-hand account of of the first times activists organized themselves life and viewpoints of Iraqis. In 2005, through computer mediated communication. citizen media also had an impact on the cov- Citizens began disseminating their news, shaping erage of Hurricane Katrina. According to the and controlling how their protests would be Online News Association (ONA), some of the portrayedinthemedia. most compelling journalistic coverage came from citizen journalism. Citizens used websites on the internet to post pictures or search for Postindustrial journalism (post-2004) missing relatives. In the United Kingdom, ear- lier that same year, some of the first pictures Rather than being a completely independent during the London bombing attacks also came source for information, citizen media quickly from citizen journalists. Alexander Chadwick, began to converge with traditional media, blur- asurvivor,snappedamobilephonecamera ring the boundaries historically claimed by the photograph of the evacuation of King’s Cross latter. Post-2004, an international shift in tradi- Station. Traditional news organizations such as tional journalism occurred when citizen media the BBC, The Times,andThe New York Times became integrated into mainstream reporting. used that picture in their news reports and Scholars such as Dan Gilmour (2004), an advo- also online. Chadwick emailed the picture to cate of citizen journalism, claimed that citizen yourpics@.co.uk. At around 11:30 a.m., the media entered the lexicon of journalism imme- picture landed on the desks of BBC editors. It diately in the aftermath of the December 2004 became the iconic image of the day for the news Boxing Day tsunami in South Asia. The tsunami organization. is a particular instance of the increasing ability of The 2007 Saffron Revolution in Myanmar is news organizations to gather eyewitness accounts another example of the changing nature of the from audience material and user generated con- relationship between citizen journalism and tra- tent, for example via email. Another important ditional journalism. The self-publishing nature milestone came during the 2004 US Democratic of , Flickr and Facebook allows news politicalconventionwhen,forthefirsttime, organizations to seek citizen journalism online the Democratic National Committee gave press rather than wait for it to arrive by email. During C ITIZEN M EDIA AND J OURNALISM 3 the Iranian election of 2009, citizens also used professions literature of the 1970s, the histories video sharing platforms and Twitter to dissemi- and ethnographies of journalism from the late nate news content and organize the protests. The 1970s and 1980s, and the fusion of occupational same can be said about the Haiti earthquake in sociology and journalism studies which has flow- 2010 and the death of Osama bin Laden in 2011, ered in the 2010s (Lewis, Kaufhold, & Lasorsa, first disseminated on Twitter by Sohaib Athar 2010), journalism as an occupation, as well as (@ReallyVirtual), an IT consultant in Abbotabad, the occupations of media more generally, are Pakistan. In 2011, the and Occupy considered the domain of a privileged class of Wall Street movements saw citizen journalism professional producers. A concept like “citizen blending with traditional media. Social media media” only makes sense if a sharp line is drawn have given mobilizing power to people formerly between professionally produced content and known as audiences. Social media and mobile media content produced by “everyone else.” communication are essential in supporting citi- Whilethisispartlyattributabletooccupational zenmediaandintheblurringoftheboundaries ideology,itisalsoscholarlydoxa,atleastuntilthe between this new form of communication and explosion of the late 1990s. traditional journalism. It is this change in media production, dis- tribution, and consumption, brought about by the mainstreaming of digital and internet based Conceptualizing Citizen Media media, that has led to the explosion of interest in citizen media. Citizen media is more easily cap- The questions imbricating “citizen media” – what tured, archived, and analyzed than ever before. thesemediaare,whytheyareimportant,what The line between professionals and citizens is makes them different from any other type of breaking down conceptually, although not nec- media – are complex for several reasons. The first essarily in terms of journalism as practice. For stemsfromthelegacyof“massmedia”scholar- all of these reasons, “citizen media” is in need of ship. This research tradition sees the history of rigorous synthetic and conceptual work. most media as the product of large institutions, Centraltothedefinitionofcitizenmedia directed at, and eventually consumed by, large are processes of deinstitutionalization and self- massesofpeople.Anymediathatdonotimme- definition. Institutions can be conceived in diately fit this paradigm may be intellectually Weberian fashion as positions, roles, norms, interesting, but have not been considered worthy and values embedded in social structures and of serious mainstream study. patterns of work. We also define citizen media The second reason is related to the first one in line with the way that the producers define andismoremethodologicalthandisciplinary. themselves rather than by the way that others For most of human history, the media forms define them. These different approaches raise that have been most accessible to scholars are questionsabouttheboundariesbetweendif- those that have been the product of large institu- ferent kinds of journalistic practice and about tions. Most media products are, by their nature, what the professional journalism project entails. ephemeral – they leave traces, but these traces The processes of deinstitutionalization and the are scattered and need to be collected, preserved, constitution of a nonprofessional self-identify and collated in order to be analyzed. An activist enable the operation of a variety of forms of maybroadcasta“pirate”radioshowfroma “networked journalism” – “professionals and small ship off the coast of a major urban seaport, amateurs working together to get the real story, violating all sorts of regulatory and spectrum linking to each other across brands and old governancelaws,butsuchbroadcastmaterialis boundaries to share facts, questions, answers, rarelyanalyzedinsofarasitisrarelypreserved ideas, perspectives” (Jarvis, 2006, n.p.). These and certainly not in a form that makes it easily collaborative cross-platform practices are in studied. many ways more indicative of the state of news The third reason has to do with questions production in the early twenty-first century than about professionals and professionalization. As is a focus on differences between citizen and is widely documented in the sociology of the professional media. 4CITIZEN M EDIA AND J OURNALISM

Theorizing Citizen Media Production is that there exist ways of thinking about journal- ismthatgobeyondthestudyoforganizational Citizen media is theorized through a variety operation (Sparrow, 1999). of lenses derived from sociology and other A fourth perspective examines the manner in disciplines and most empirical which the work routines and organizational hier- research embraces one or more of the approaches archies of professional journalists have changed discussed below. since the emergence of citizen media making; Citizenmediacanbeconsideredinpolitical alternatively some research examines the manner terms, particularly in relation to examples of by which citizen journalists are establishing their political unrest in 2011 such as Occupy Wall own hierarchies and creating their own routines. Street or the Arab Spring. It could even be seen Thisisanimportantcorrectivetotheperspectives as the causal agent behind these uprisings. In its discussed so far. Despite the utility of political, simplest form, the political context of newsmak- economic, and field approaches to the study of ing can be used to study the production of news citizen media, each of these perspectives abstracts (toagreaterorlesserdegree)fromtheday-to-day on a macro or state level, particularly insofar as organizational processes through which citizen different political systems co-produce different generated practices embed themselves in jour- systems and styles of journalism. nalismwork.Fromthisperspective,“thesocial Second, a critical economic perspective on organization of newswork” (Schudson, 2005) citizen media may be taken. This media could be brings us down to earth to ground-level news- analyzed as an example of the proletarianization room dynamics. The majority of the final sections of a formerly professionalized labor or another of this entry deal with these sorts of questions. example of the precarity of work introduced by The intersection of technological change and neoliberalism. There are other options possible practice is most often analyzed on for economic analysis. Rather than focusing the level of organizational routines; nevertheless, on the manner in which large economic sys- the growth of citizen media production can be tems intersect with various forms of journalistic expected to affect journalistic culture as much as production, scholars may critically interrogate journalistic work. Michael Schudson argues that the way that different institutionally specific cultural aspects of society, “while they may be resources constrain the options available to uncovered by detailed historical analysis, cannot news outlets in different industry segments and be extrapolated from features of social organi- thepossibleeconomicmotivationsforutilizing zation at the moment of study. They are part of citizen media. culture – a given symbolic system within which Third, citizen media can be understood through andinrelationtowhichreportersandofficialsgo the institutional relationships between media about their duties” (2005, p. 187). This cultural companies and citizen media producers, how perspective can generate questions concerned they work together, how they compete with each with how the growth of citizen media affects other, and so on. This analysis of citizen journal- traditional media producers’ image of themselves ism from a perspective informed by Bourdieu’s and their profession, and about the cultural and work on fields or a new institutionalist perspec- symbolic lenses through which citizen media tive begins from the premise that a new field makers theorize their own work. of citizen media making is emerging alongside A final lens might focus more on the tech- traditional fields such as professional journalism nology used in the production of citizen media or . Social, economic, and cultural and the history of these technologies as artifacts. powerstrugglesoccurwithinthesefieldsand For most sociologists, an overemphasis on the theseshapepracticesofnewsworkandjour- role played by technology in the construction nalistic products. Here, the dynamics of these of news constitutes the primary sin, one to be fields are not seen as operating in isolation from assiduouslyavoided.Butisthereawaytotalk nearby fields. Of course, not all new institutional abouttechnologyandthenewsonitsownterms, arguments stem from Bourdieu; the key idea here without reducing said technology to either a C ITIZEN M EDIA AND J OURNALISM 5 political, economic, cultural, or social construc- Contemporary studies in citizen media draw tion? We could argue that there is, and that any boundaries around a diverse body of research conceptualization of citizen media that does not efforts primarily in the social sciences: sociology, include a technological perspective is lacking. political and . Most of this research We might consider these political, economic, is concerned with the role of citizen media and organizational, cultural, technological, and institu- journalism, the process, and its impact on the tional perspectives to be the “classic” perspectives media. Normative in nature, this research ana- within the sociology of news (Schudson, 2005). lyzes what takes place and conceives how citizen Thesearenottheonlyscholarlyperspectiveson media could and should become. This body of citizen media, but they are compact, flexible, and literature is thus closely related to discussions schematic enough to serve as a starting point on the future of journalism among citizens, for analysis of citizen journalism in a rapidly activists, media professionals, politicians, and expanding and heterogeneous field of research. If policymakers. Research on citizen media ranges these are helpful, but not the only, perspectives from eyewitness reporting and gate watching to on citizen journalism and media, what are some social challenges of citizen journalism. alternatives? One additional, less categorical lens is Deuze’s (2008) notion of “liquid journalism”: Eyewitness reporting and gate watching For journalists, all of this not only means that value attributed to media content will be increasingly This approach emerges from interests ranging determined by the interactions between users and from politics, mobilization, dissent in political producers rather than the product (news)itself. regimes, and emergence of new information tech- The real significance of the argument outlined here nologies,toeducationandliteracy.Researchers is that we have to acknowledge that the key char- arguethatseveralfactorsledtotheopeningof acteristics of current social trends – uncertainty, the communication system from gate keeping flux, change, unpredictability, or perhaps “kludgi- to gate watching. The media scholar Axel Bruns ness” (to paraphrase Jenkins) – has come to (2005) shows how citizen media works as a structurally define or even determine the way gate watcher. He describes the communication people, media, and society interact. This defines process of citizen media in contrast to the tradi- the current and future state of affairs in how tional journalism model. According to Bruns, the people make and use journalism all around the communication process shifts from input (news world. (p. 860) gathering) to output (closed editorial hierarchy), to response (editorial selection of letters, calls Deuze discounts the theorization of citizen made public). Yet, gate watching (open to all media and journalism as filtered through Schud- users) moves to input (submission of gate watch son’s categories in favor of a more far-reaching open to all users), to output (instant publishing or analysis that attributes to media such “liquid” collaborative of stories), and to respond characteristics as persistently shifting forms, (discussion and commentary open to all users). In contexts, institutional forms, and audience rela- thepast,theamountofnewsavailablewaslimited tionships. These changes stem from society-wide and there was a hierarchical structure because changes in which life itself becomes liquid. This of gate keeping. This approach demonstrates the type of analysis concerns itself less with sociolog- crumbling of the gates at the input point where ical perspectives and more with phenomenology the news becomes newsworthy and at the output and grand theorization. point where the news is disseminated to the public. Herbert J. Gans (2011) describes this process Empirical Scholarship as “multiperspectival news reporting.” Multiper- spectival news encompasses facts and opinions Given the important place in society of citizen that reflect all perspectives. In reality, this means media and journalism, its role has been a cen- that news can be produced for the underrepre- tral issue in journalism and studies. sented and reported to part of the population. 6CITIZEN M EDIA AND J OURNALISM

For many researchers, this process has become is “conflict” between traditional media and social evident in newsworthy events such as the 1999 media. For example, from the perspective of citi- World Trade Organization meeting in Seattle zens, Thomas Poell and Erik Borra (2012) claim and blogger Salam Pax dispatching information that during the G20 summit protests that took from Baghdad during the 2003 US invasion of place in Toronto in 2010, social media provided Iraq.Inbothofthesecases,thosewhowouldnot a form of public communication that empow- otherwise be heard were able to take part in the ered alternative forms of journalism. However, gathering and dissemination of news. use of social media was found not to facilitate As journalists take on new roles, more voices alternative reporting or citizen journalism, with can presumably be heard. Although new forms of the possible exception of Twitter and a handful of reporting, such as network journalism, promote a greater dialogue and a better way of telling stories users who dominated the coverage of events. As that would otherwise not be available to farflung a result, reporting practices seemed to mirror the areas, journalists still encounter challenges in event oriented focus of mainstream broadcasting shifting completely from a gate keeping to a gate of protests that is often criticized by citizens. watching role. There has been a surge in research Some studies analyze journalism as a network looking at the blurry distinction between citizen involving citizen journalism as part of the global media and traditional journalism. For example, practice and conversation of news production, studies claim that to understand journalism it including the analysis of local and global media must be examined in various contexts to see ecologies. Like the other empirical studies, how- how it was influenced by studies of the sociol- ever, most of this research demonstrates that ogy of news production from the 1960s to the many organizations do not integrate citizen early 1980s. This scholarship produced useful participation into their networked news routines. participant observation studies on the influence Finally, while the phenomenon of “big data” and of routines, institutional forces, ideological posi- itsuseinthemediaisoftenanalyzedseparately tions, and workers’ socialization and attitudes, from citizen media production, much work on big examining news production from inputs to outputs.Basedonthissociologicaltradition,a data is informed by the exploding technological second wave of ethnographic studies emerged in tracesleftbycitizensastheyconsumeandpro- the early 2000s, focusing on citizen media and tra- duce digital media. To the extent that these traces ditional journalism. However, the process is more are treated as data and integrated into media out- complex because of the interplay of factors such as puts, big data is developing its own citizen media structures,journalisticculture,andaccustomed practices, though of a dramatically different kind. practices. This work tends to be informed by the Research from these various perspectives indi- particular interest of researchers in technological cates that the communication system is moving, innovation, television, radio, or print. perhapssluggishly,fromtheroleofwatchdogto Looking at one citizen media organization, that of guidedog. Research from the perspective Indymedia, Sarah Platon and Mark Deuze (2003) of technological innovation, television, radio, write about the assumption that or print suggests that factors such as politi- assumes a nonhierarchical relationship between cal regimes, dissent, the emergence of digital readers and content. Readers and users would technologies, education, and literacy are either be able to tell their story of an event. However, hindering or enhancing the role of citizen media although organizations such as Indymedia differ and journalism. There is also a resurgence of work from traditional , their structures and values are not substantially different. These new emphasizing methodological approaches which forms of organization face the same kinds of daily examine media systems at the traditional and problems, issues, and editorial discussions that citizen journalism levels, suggesting that citizen traditional journalism does. But social media media is affecting modes of communication and has enabled new forms of journalism outside the picture of society that is presented in the traditional journalism spaces provided by main- media and raising normative questions about the stream news organizations, suggesting that there role of citizen journalism in society. C ITIZEN M EDIA AND J OURNALISM 7

Global Perspectives of Citizen Media Iran in 2009 – governments developed tactics and Social Changes to limit dissent and manage citizen journalism. These tactics include the Chinese government’s From the 2000s, there has been a resurgence of infiltration of online content by paying people studies concerned with the role and promise of to post content to support the government or by citizen media in shaping social realities and polit- limitingtheairwavesorsocialmediaplatforms. ical mobilization. Building on news production Lee Salter (2009) has observed that private and and journalism studies, these works contend that public corporations have attempted to shut down news gathering is more chaotic and networked citizen media by enforcing the rule of laws related than it used to be prior to the emergence of the to, for example, libel, privacy, and security leg- internet and Web 2.0. These works suggest that islation. Accordingly, not all technology delivers digital technologies such as computers, mobile the promise of greater integration of citizens phones, and the internet give power to citizens in news production. These global perspectives to shape institutions such as nongovernmental oncitizenmediasitatthecrossroadbetween organizations, governments, think-tanks, and the global impact of citizen journalism and its businesses. challenges with research examining similarities, From a global perspective, there are studies differences, and interactions across the emerging claiming that citizen journalism and social mobi- communities of journalism. lization are experiencing a revival through digital media – text messaging, email, photo sharing, SEE ALSO: Blogging; Freedom of Expression; social networking, and the like – and alterna- Freedom of Expression and Professional Status; tive forms of expression. This is said to have Microblogs; Mobile Social Networks; Partici- happened partly in response to authoritarian patory Video; Social Media; Social Media and political regimes – for example, the Arab Spring Activism; Social Media and Apps; Social Net- of 2011 in Syria, Tunisia, and Egypt. Since the works; Transmedia; Web 2.0 – and Beyond; early 2000s, citizens have chronicled events in the Middle East, such as the uprising against then-President Hosni Mubarak. During the rev- References olution in Egypt, citizen journalism boomed and technologies were often seen as the conductors of social change and the enlargement of the public Bruns, A. (2005). Gatewatching: Collaborative online sphere. From this perspective, digital technolo- news production.NewYork,NY:PeterLang. gies are understood to have provided the tools for Deuze, M. (2008). The changing context of news work: citizens to participate in the globalization, mobi- Liquid journalism and monitorial citizenship. Inter- lization, and democratization of information national Journal of Communication, 2, 848–865. (Howard, 2010). Gans, H. J. (2011). Multiperspectival news revisited: Studies also reveal how citizen journalists Journalism and representative democracy. Journal- were among the first to report breaking news ism, 12(1), 3–13. doi:10.1177/1464884910385289 stories to international audiences by providing Gilmour, D. (2004). : Grassroots jour- eyewitness reports. Citizen media can have an nalism by the people for the people. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media. effect on nations with authoritarian rule and Jarvis, J. (2006). Networked journalism.Retrieved censorship. A compelling example is the case from Buzzmachine, http://buzzmachine.com/2006/ of the 2008 Chinese earthquake, when citizens 07/05/networked-journalism/ were able to investigate and critique the gov- Howard, P. N. (2010). The digital origins of dictatorship ernment’s actions. However, some researchers and democracy: Information technology and political argue that citizen journalism can be challenged Islam. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. by the changing structure of traditional news Lewis, S. C., Kaufhold, K., & Lasorsa, D. L. (2010). organizations, legal issues, political regimes, or Thinking about citizen journalism: The philosophi- the design of new technologies. Research sug- cal and practical challenges of user-generated con- gests that in several major cases – such as the tent for community . Journalism Practice, earthquake in China in 2008 and the election in 4(2), 163–179. 8CITIZEN M EDIA AND J OURNALISM

Platon, S. & Deuze, M. (2003). Indymedia jour- Valerie Belair-Gagnon is a Research Scholar and nalism: A radical way of making, selecting Executive Director of the Information Society and sharing news? Journalism, 4(3), 336–355. Project at Yale Law School. Her research focuses doi:10.1177/14648849030043005 on emerging media, journalism, media law and Poell, T. & Borra, E. (2012). Twitter, YouTube, policy, and media sociology. She has written and Flickr as platforms of alternative jour- nalism: The social media account of the 2010 on media, technologies, and law for academic Toronto G20 protests. Journalism, 13(6), 695–713. journals, popular media, and , drawing doi:10.1177/1464884911431533 attention to the issues surrounding changes in Rosen, J. (2006). The people formerly known as technologies, and media norms and practices the audience. Retrieved from PressThink: Ghost of worldwide. Tweets: @vbelairgagnon. Website: Democracy in the Media Machine, http://journalism. www.valeriebelairgagnon.com. nyu.edu/pubzone/weblogs/pressthink/2006/06/27/ ppl_frmr.html C. W. Anderson is an Assistant Professor of Salter, L. (2009). Independent Media Centres and the Media Culture at the College of Staten Island Law: Some Problems for Citizen Journalism. In S. (City University of New York) and director of Allan & E. Thorsen (Eds.), Citizen journalism: Global perspectives (pp. 175–186). New York, NY: Peter research at the CUNY Graduate School of Jour- Lang. nalism.HeisauthorofRebuilding the news: Schudson, M. (2005). Four approaches to the sociology Metropolitan journalism in the digital age (2013) of news. In J. Curran & M. Gurevitch (Eds.), Mass and, with Emily Bell and Clay Shirky, of the media and society (pp. 198–214). London, UK: Hod- report Post-industrial journalism: Adapting to the der Arnold. present (2012). His current research traces the use Sparrow B. H. (1999) Uncertain guardians: The news of “documents” and “data” in journalism from the media as a political institution.Baltimore,MD:John beginning of the twentieth century to the present. Hopkins University Press.