Volume 4, Issue 10(3), October 2015 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-21-4,Saraswathi Nivas,Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS

Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Vice Chancellor Founder and President Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Research Lima Peru Mumbai Prof. Igor Kondrashin Prof.Y.C. Simhadri The Member of The Russian Philosophical Vice Chancellor, Patna University Society Former Director The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Rector Nagarjuna University, Patna University St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute

Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater

Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Department of Anthropology Delhi Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Department of Political Economy Indonesia University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Prof. Roger Wiemers Austria Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Russian Philosophical Society Department of Mechanical Engineering Moscow, Russia GITAM University –Visakhapatnam

N.Suryanarayana (Dhanam) Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Department of Philosophy Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education Andhra University University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Visakhapatnam Prof. Chanakya Kumar Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Department of Computer Science Coordinator University of Pune,Pune A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Department for Production Engineering Dr.S.Kannan University of Novi Sad, Serbia Department of History Annamalai University Prof.Shobha V Huilgol Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Dr. Barada Prasad Bhol Registrar, Purushottam Institute of Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Engineering & Technology Department of English Sundargarh, Odisha GITAM University Hyderabad Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Department of Education Prof.Francesco Massoni North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Department of Public Health Sciences University of Sapienza, Rome Dr.K.Chaitanya Department of Chemistry Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Nanjing University of Science and Al-Mustansiriyah University Technology College of Education People’s Republic of China Department of Mathematics, Iraq

Dr.Merina Islam Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Department of Philosophy Department of Mathematics Cachar College, Assam University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines

Dr. Bipasha Sinha Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V S. S. Jalan Girls’ College Librarian University of Calcutta, Calcutta Kalasalingam University Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Assistant Professor Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati

® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in

IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought. C O N T E N T S Volume 4 Issue 10(3) October 2015 S. Page

No No 1. Role of Information and Communication Technology in 1 Terms of E-Governance in Achieving Sustainable Rural Development B.Ananda Naidu

2. A Benevolent Summary of Swami Vivekananda’s 21 Concept of Education Priyanka Sharma

3. An Investigation into the Attitude of Post Graduate 32 Students towards Internet in Purulia District of West Bengal Subhasish Sinha and Santosh Kumar Behera

4. Empowerment of Rural Women through Self Help 55 Groups -A Study in Chittoor District (Kuppam and Chandragiri Constituencies) SK.Madeenavali

5. The Impact of Derivatives as an Instrument on Indian 62 Financial Market Tahira Habib

6. Electra Complex in the Poetry of Sylvia Plath 83 Syed Aamir Syeed 7. 92 ीपाचराे लमीतपरचयः

ट.ीतेजः 8. The Muthanga Agitation: An Outcome of Landlessness 96 Sajenesh.V.P

9. Hindu Women from 1300 AD to 1905 AD in India 105 N.Kanakaratnam

10. Achieving Sustainable Development Goals: 115 Opportunities for Improvement at Global Level Jagadish B 11. 125 शतलोककरणानुसारेण मायानपणम ्

ट. सलगेवरयः 12. Performance Evaluation of Monopole Reconfigurable 133 Antennas Tamboli P.M and Yadav D.M

13. Assumptions of Pātanjala Yoga Darṣaṇa with Special 140 Reference to Kriyāyoga Naveen Chand

14. Understanding Linguistic, Culture and Tradition in 155 Africa Mamatha Puram

15. On Fuzzy Subalgebras 169 Ch.Prabhakara Rao

16. Human Development among Tribals Through 177 Development Programmes - Need for New Initiatives V.Naveen Kumar and V.Venkateswarlu

17. India’s Efforts to Accomplish Millennium Development 192 Goals: Key Learning and Way Forward Jagadish.B 18. 205 सयाथकाशे शा एवं वणयवथा Vishwashrawa

19. Teaching Literatures for Multi-Cultural Classrooms 215 Seelam Satish

20. Hindu Women in Ancient India 222 N.Kanakaratnam

Dr. K. VICTOR BABU ISSN : 2277 – 7881 M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Impact Factor :3.318(2015) Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India

Editorial……

You will be happy to know that we have entered the fourth year of publication of IJMER, since its inception in April 2012. Focusing on many interdisciplinary subjects, the published papers are spreading the knowledge with fervent hope of upholding the holistic approach. With all my heart, I reiterate to echo my sincere feelings and express my profound thanks to each and every valued contributor. This journal continues to nurture and enhance the capabilities of one and all associated with it.

We as a team with relentless efforts are committed to inspire the readers and achieve further progress. Aim is to sustain the tempo and improve. We acknowledge with pleasure that our readers are enjoying the publications of Sucharita Publishers. We solicit to receive ideas and comments for future improvements in its content and quality. Editor – in-Chief explicitly conveys his gratitude to all the Editorial Board members. Your support is our motivation. Best wishes to everyone.

Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief

SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW www.ijmer.in

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ROLE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN TERMS OF E-GOVERNANCE IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Prof.B.Ananda Naidu Professor and Head Dept. of Political Science and Public Administration S.K.University, Anantapuram

Introduction:

Today’s world is a world of information explosion. This information is taking place in such a fast speed that even a literate person is feeling as if he or she is illiterate being not able to cope up with such an information explosion. Globalization and technical change processes that have accelerated in tandem over the past years have created a new global economy “Powered by technology, fueled by information and driven by knowledge”.

Information technology consists of two words viz. information and technology. The term ‘information’ refers to “any communication or representation of knowledge such as facts, data or opinions in any medium or for, including textual, numerical, graphic, cartographic, narrative or audio-visual forms”.

The term ‘technology’ refers to “technology is the practical form of scientific knowledge or the science of application of knowledge to practical”.

As per the UNESCO definition, “Information technology is a scientific, technological and engineering discipline and management technique used in handing the information, it’s application and association with social, economical and cultural matters”.

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Communication is an integral part of human existence. It is communication that decides the very identity of human beings. Modern society is turning into an information society and communication is the exchange of information. It is the process and transferring information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communication information is understood by both sender and receiver. Communication technology is the electronic systems used for communication between individuals or groups. It facilitates communication between individuals or groups who are not physically present at the same location. Systems such as telephone, telex, fax, radio, television and video, mobile phones are included as well as more recent computer based technologies, including electronic data, inter change and e-mail. J.K. Galbraith in his book, “The New Industrial State” has given two main characteristics of every technology. They are, systematic application of scientific knowledge to the practical tasks and the division of practical tasks into sections and sub-sections.

Historical background of ICT

The intentional use of communication to foster development is not new. Communication research during the 1960s and 1970s set the ground for most existing development programs and institutions in the field of ICT by Wilbur Schramm, Nora C.Quebral and Everett Rogers. In modern times, ICT has been divided into three phases:

First Phase : Mid-1950s to late-1990s. This was before the creation of the term "ICT". The focus was on broadcasting development communication, computing / data processing for back-office applications in large government and private sector organizations in developing countries. One of the earliest records of computer usage for development was back in 1956 in India. It was during this time that HEC-2M, the developing world's first computer, was installed to

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undertake numerical calculations in the Indian Institute of Statistics in Kolkata.

Second Phase: Late-1990s to late-2000s. The combined advent of the Millennium Development Goals and mainstream usage of the Internet in industrialized countries led to a rapid rise in investment in ICT infrastructure and ICT programs/projects in developing countries. The most typical application was the tele centre, used to bring information on development issues such as health, education, and agricultural extension into poor communities. More latterly, tele centres might also deliver online or partly online government services.

Third Phase: Late-2000s onwards. There is no clear boundary between phase 1 and 2 but suggestions of moving to a new phase include the change from the tele centre to the mobile phone. Additionally, there is more focus on the poor as producers and innovators with ICTs.

Globalization is not something, which is confined to social, economic and political spheres. With the impact of the Information Technology, the whole world became global village. Information and Communication Technology has great relevance in today’s world. The impact of globalization has penetrated into the very social institution of science and technology and the way in which knowledge is produced, owned, developed and marketed. The locus and structure of research and development has been transformed under the impact of globalization. R & D and innovation have not only become buzz words in our everyday life but have come to play a significant part in the science and technology.

In the 21st century, rapid technological advances led to rising standards of living, literacy, health and life expectancy. In the era of globalization information revolution and the extraordinary increase in the spread of knowledge have given birth to a new era; one of

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knowledge and information which affects directly economic, social, cultural and political activities of all regions of the world, including India. Many countries in the world have recognized the role and importance of Information and Communication Technologies that could play in socio-economic development. A number of countries especially those in the developed world and developing countries are recognized and the importance of policies and plans designed to transform their economies into an information and knowledge economy. Today, the developed countries like USA, Canada, and many European countries, as well as Asian countries like India, Singapore, Malaysia, South Korea, Japan, and South American countries like Brazil, Chile, and Mexico among others, and Australia and Mauritius either already have in place comprehensive ICTs policies and plans are at an advanced stage of implementing these programs across their economies and societies.

In developing countries like India the concept of development linked up with the rural development. Most of the Asian countries are depended in rural areas. The Governments of those countries concentrated to develop or uplift the rural areas for strengthen their economical and social development. The specific concern here is the potential role and importance of ICTs in support of rural development. Current ICT initiatives tend to focus on infrastructure development and the extension of information and communication services from the centre to the periphery (World Bank, 1999).

India is a country of villages and about 50% of the villages have very poor socio-economic conditions. Since the dawn of independence constant efforts have been made to emancipate the living standard of rural masses. The five-year plans of the central government also focused on rural development. The Ministry of Rural Development in India has been formulating policies, regulations and acts pertaining to the development of the rural sector.

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Rural Development which is concerned with economic growth and social justice, improvement in the living standard of the rural people. The present strategy of rural development mainly focuses on poverty alleviation, better livelihood opportunities, provision of basic amenities and infrastructure facilities through innovative programs of wage and self-employment. ICT is the new tool for rural development. It is used properly can be of great advantage for the development at grass root levels.

E-Governance-India

E­governance is simply the application of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for delivering government services, exchange of information, communication transactions, integration of various stand­alone systems and services between Government and Citizens (G2C), Government and Business (G2B) as well as back office processes and interactions within the entire government frame work. Through the E­governance, the government services will be made available to the citizens in a convenient, efficient and transparent manner. The government being the service provider, it is important to motivate the employees for delivering the services through ICT. To achieve this, the government employees are being trained on technology and started realizing the advantage of ICT. The aim is to make them thorough with E­governance applications and responsive to the technology driven administration.

ICT-Rural Infrastructure Development

The context of rural development has changed rapidly in recent years but some three-quarters of the world’s poor still live in rural areas. Furthermore, although in decline, agriculture remains the direct and indirect base for the economic livelihoods of the majority of the world’s population (IFAD, 2001). One of the most impacts of backwardness is poverty. ICT can play an important role in many

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aspects of rural development. It can also help to better govern various aspects of rural development.. ICT can strengthen the role of each governance pillar in rural development and poverty reduction and also it can facilitate speedy, transparent, accountable, efficient and effective interaction between the public, business and other agencies. This not only promotes better administration and better business environment, but also saves time and money in transactions costs of government operations (IICD, 2001).

Agriculture is an important sector with more than 60% of the Indian population living in rural areas and earns its live hood by agriculture and allied means of income. The sector faces major challenges of enhancing production in a situation of dwindling natural resources necessary for production. The growing demand for agricultural products, however, also offers opportunities for producers to sustain and improve their livelihoods. Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) play an important role in addressing these challenges and uplifting the livelihoods of the rural poor. ICTs offers an opportunity to introduce new activities, new services and applications into rural areas or to enhance the existing services.

Infrastructure is an important input to the production process and raises the productivity of other sectors. It connects goods to the markets, workers to industry, people to services and the poor in rural areas to urban growth centers. Infrastructure lowers costs, enlarges markets and facilitates trade and thus provides services that support economic growth by increasing the productivity of labour and capital thereby reducing the costs of production and raising profitability, production, income and employment. Using E-governance models for implementation of the rural development programs would be essential. Fast track method for payment of wages to labour force who are involved in MGNREGS (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural

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Employment Guarantee Scheme), water projects would help successful and quick delivery of services. Moreover, transparency in the money allocations to Panchayatiraj Institutions as well as beneficiaries by following ‘Direct Cash Transfer’ (DCT) can be used so that mis- utilisation in funds delivery may also be avoided.

Effective communication is necessary for the success of rural development programs. The application of ICT tools bridge the gap between schemes and its implementation. Use of ICT in rural areas to make people more aware and participate in the programs would help generate employment and reach the desired targets. Various stakeholders-government, people, delivery mechanisms and panchayats need to be more conscious about their role so that there is no overlapping of service delivery. A comprehensive mechanism ensuring proper implementation of the schemes and timely execution of the programs would help the programs reach its true time bound mission.

Recognizing the potential of ICT in India, Broadband services are offered as this telecommunication services occupies prominent share in GDP and ICT enhances the quality of life through societal applications including tele-education, tele-medicine, e- governance, entertainment as well as employment generation by way of high-speed access to information and web-based communication. These technologies include optical fibre, Asymmetric Digital Subscribers Lines (ADSL), Cable Television Networks, Direct to Home Services (DTH), Basic, Cellular mobile, Paging and value-added services through e-mail system by using satellites, e-education, Mobile banking, Net banking in banking sector etc., The 3G and 4G spectrum and Broadband Wireless Services, Cloud computing, Skype, Mobile number portability etc., are the recent advancements in the ICT. Thus, the telecommunication has emerged as a key driver of economic and social development in an increasingly global scenario, in which India needs to play a leadership

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role. Our telecom policies should be designed to ensure that India plays this role effectively and transforms the socio, economic scenario through accelerated equitable and inclusive economic growth by laying special emphasis on providing affordable and quality telecommunication services in rural and remote areas. It is imperative that sustained adoption of technology would offer viable options in overcoming developmental challenges in education, health, employment generation, financial inclusion and much else.

Use of ICT in Agriculture

Farmers who have better access to ICT have better lives because of the following:

1. Access to price information – farmers will be informed of the accurate current prices and the demands of the products. Hence, they will be able to competitively negotiate in the agricultural economy and their incomes will be improved.

2. Access to agriculture information –The information provided is usually too scientific that farmers cannot comprehend. Therefore, it is vital that the local information to be relayed to the farmers must be simplified.

3. Access to national and international markets – Increasing the level of access of farmers is very vital in order to simplify contact between the sellers and the buyers, to publicize agricultural exports, facilitate online trading, and increase the awareness of producers on potential market opportunities including consumer and price trends.

4. Increasing production efficiency – due to several environmental threats such as climate change, drought, poor soil, erosion and pests, the livelihood of farmers are unstable. Thus, the flow of information regarding new techniques in production would

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open up new opportunities to farmers by documenting and sharing their experiences.

5. Creating a conducive policy environment – through the flow of information from the farmers to policy makers, a favorable policy on development and sustainable growth of the agriculture sector will be achieved.

Use of ICTs in Healthcare

According to WHO, the use of ICTs in healthcare is not only about technology but a means to reach a series of desired outcomes, such as:

 Health workers are trained better treatment;

 Hospitals providing higher quality of health services;

 National and local information systems supporting the development of effective, efficient, and equitable health systems;

 Policymakers and the public becoming more aware of health risks; and

 People having better access to the information and knowledge they need for better health.

In other sectors

In 2003, the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) held in Geneva, Switzerland came up with concrete steps on how ICT can support sustainable development in the fields of public administration, business, education and training, health, employment, environment, agriculture and science.

The WSIS Plan of Action identified the following as sectors that can benefit from the applications of ICT.

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E-learning

Capacity building and ICT literacy are essential to benefit fully from the information society. ICT contributions to e-learning include the delivery of education and training of teachers, offering improved conditions for lifelong learning, and improving professional skills.

E-employment

The e-employment action plan includes the development of best practices for e-workers and e-employers; raising productivity, growth and well-being by promoting new ways of organizing work and business; promotion of tele working with focus on job creation and skilled worker retention; and increasing the number of women in ICT through early intervention programs in science and technology.

E-science

The plan of action for e-science involves affordable and reliable high-speed Internet connection for all universities and research institutions; electronic publishing, differential pricing and open access initiatives; use of peer-to-peer technology for knowledge sharing; long- term systematic and efficient collection, dissemination and preservation of essential scientific digital data; and principles and meta data standards to facilitate cooperation and effective use of collected scientific information and data.

E-Shopping

Based on a February 2012 survey, the percentage of online shoppers in Asia Pacific are 80% in Thailand and China, 74% in Japan, 71% in Korea, 68% in Australia, 67% in Malaysia and New Zealand, 64% in Taiwan, 61% in Vietnam, 58% in Hong Kong, 57% in Indonesia and Singapore, 54% in India, and 41% in the Philippines. The most famous websites shopped on were 36% for clothing/accessories, 33% for coupons/vouchers and books/DVDs, and 31% for movie tickets. Mobile

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shopping has grown to be popular especially for the Asian shoppers of which 59% are from Thailand, 37% are from China, 32% are from Vietnam and India. Their reason for mobile shopping was either it was more convenient or more app-compatible.

In China, you can buy everything on the web, may it be a screw, clothing, discounted entertainment tickets, musical instrument, imported food, machines, or even vehicles. According to MasterCard online survey, Chinese consumers(59.4 percent) are highest in Asia Pacific for making purchases via their mobile devices. The survey was conducted across 25 markets between November and December 2013. Other top mobile shopping markets include Thailand (51.2 percent), Korea (47.6 percent), India (47.1 percent) and Indonesia (46.7 percent). However, other countries are catching up: Taiwan (up by 17 percent since 2012), the Philippines (up by 11.4 percent). On the other hand, consumers from New Zealand (15 percent, Japan (22.9 percent) and Australia (24.8 percent) show the lowest intent to purchase using their smart phones.

USE OF MOBILE PHONES

The use of mobile phones has impacted rural living in different ways which includes:

Entrepreneurship and job search:

Mobile phones reduce the cost of running a business and, in some cases, the technology could even enable a user to start one. A good example of this would be the case of the women in Pakistan who have been able to start small businesses offering beauty and hairdressing services, without having to shell out money for setting up beauty salons. Clients can easily contact them via their mobile numbers to set up an appointment and enjoy their services.

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Easy access to information:

Mobile phones enables users to access valuable information such as prices, arbitrage and market or trade opportunities which could better prepare them for business transactions. Mobile telephony has empowered farmers and fishers to realize their potential as business people as they directly engage in bargaining processes with their customers. Buyers can use their mobile phones to find out where the best quality and well-priced products are in the market.

Market inefficiencies:

The use of mobile phones can correct market inefficiencies, therefore regaining the balance in the supply market. The information and services that could be available through mobile phones would prevent exploitation by middlemen or traders, provide employment opportunities (particularly for rural women), reduce information gaps, save cost and time, and strengthen access of service providers to rural people. Community-relevant information regarding education, emergency, markets, weather, etc. could be shared to empower women economically.

Transport substitution:

The improvement in the information flows between the buyers and sellers make for a more effective bartering of information without traveling. This is particularly significant in rural areas where traders need to travel to urban areas simply to check for demand and negotiate prices. Mobile phones eliminate the need for middlemen and journeys as traders could ensure that demand for their products exists before leaving their rural homes.

Disaster relief:

In cases of severe drought, floods, cyclones, earth quakes, wars or weak economies, mobile phones can be used to keep in touch with

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one's home community. Mobile operators have proven to be incredibly helpful in disaster relief efforts by providing emergency-related communications infrastructure.

Education and health:

Mobile services are being used to spread locally generated and locally relevant educational and health information.

Social capital and social cohesion:

Mobile services enable participants to act together more efficiently to pursue shared objectives by promoting cooperation among social networks.

Internet Banking:

This ICT enabled services provides customers to make payments towards utility services, third party funds transfers (24x7), payment of premiums to insurance companies, bus, train and flight ticket online booking payments, payment of income-tax, excise and custom duty to the Government etc., thereby saves the precious time and money of the customers. Money transaction will be informed to the customers through messages from time to time.

Online Trading of Securities:

ICT provides the facility of online trading of securities.

Registration of Properties:

The Computer Aided Registration Department (CARD) facilitates to make the property transactions anywhere in the state as per the interest of the stakeholders. This facility provides the stakeholders hassle free and more convenient.

In India ICT applications such as Warana, Dristee, Sari, Sks, E- Chaupal (Punjab and Haryana), Cybermohalla, Bhoomi(Karnataka), E- Mitra, Deesha, Star, Setu (TN), Friends, E-Seva(A.P.), Lokmitra

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(Rajasthan), E-Post, Gramdoot(M.P.), Dyandoot, Tarahaat, Dhan, Akshaya, Honeybee, Praja are in functioning for rural development.

Women Empowerment:

 Training in the use and design of computer applications, such as e- mail, word-processing and design applications, builds marketable skills.

 Marketable skills create alternative possibilities for income generation and the possibility of upward mobility.

 An independent income is the basis for individual autonomy, increased agency and control and, frequently, increased self-esteem and self- confidence.

 Increased agency and self-confidence allow women to travel more and develop a wider network of contacts. Such travel and networking expose them to the availability of more economic opportunities.

 ICTs open new avenues for education, communication and information sharing.

 ICTs can be a valuable tool for the organization and mobilization of women’s advocacy and interest groups.

 Education and information increase knowledge about the world and the political, economic, social and cultural factors that shape women’s lives.

Let us watch some of the popular ICT tools which have been successfully practicing in the day to day public life and in the administration at all levels.

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Success Stories of E­Governance In India

There are many success stories which prove that e­governance is a need of developing nation like India and can be applied successfully. It is very important to discuss the proper instances where e­governance proved to be victorious in achieving proficient administration.

Bhoomi Project in Karnataka State

‘Bhoomi’ means ‘the land’; it is the on­line project on delivery and management of land records initiated in Karnataka. It has been a very significant effort as a part of e­governance and provides transparency and accountability in land records management with better citizen services and also helps in direct dealing of land between government and citizens. It is a very successful ICT project and has helped a lot in governance.

Computerized Inter­State Check Posts Of Gujarat Government Gujarat is highly industrialized state and therefore it has a strong economy which runs on transportation of industrial goods and therefore there is a heavy rush of interstate goods carrier trucks which run on Gujarat highways. It is a common fact that these trucks which are used for transportation purpose are mostly overloaded and violates the laws by posing grave danger to the other people who use these highways; this problem is a very serious problem and had to be dealt with great concern. The safety of citizens on road and corruption were the main problems which were of the concern for the government and again e­governance came up as a competent tool to fight these odds in Gujarat.

Gyandoot­ Endeavour Of Madhya Pradesh Government. Gyandoot is a successful endeavor of the Madhya Pradesh government and it is an intranet­based G2C portal, inculcating information and services to the rural population of the mostly tribal

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district of Dhar. ‘Gyandoot’ is influential in establishing a link between government and the local population residing in the remote villages and it has also provided an opportunity to marginalized tribal citizens to have an access to knowledge at a little cost.

E-Seva Project in Andhra Pradesh State

E-Seva is the first of its kind of service in the country, providing a wide spectrum of citizen-friendly services that will save citizen the bother of running around various departments. The services offered are Payment of Utility Bills viz., electricity, water taxes, municipal taxes, Registration of Birth/Death/Marriage/Caste/Income Certificates, Permits, Issuance of Aadhar, EPIC Cards,ECs, Reservations in buses, trains and flights etc.,

LOKMITRA in Rajasthan

The first of its kind of servce in the state of Rajasthan. It provides access to government transaction services via the internet and it provides a wide range of citizen centric services under oneroof such as payment of municipal taxes, electronic payments, utility payments etc., LOKMITRA is a one-stop and citizen-friendly ICT module.

Stamps, Registration and Archiving (SARITA)-Maharastra

Stamps and Registration Department of any state is the important source of revenue to the state’s exchequer. SARITA is a software provides efficient citizen services as it enables the department to scan the documents by way of ‘electronic copying’ and return the registered documents within a few minutes of presentation. This project has been successfully running in Maharasta.

VOICE (Versatile Online Information for Citizen Empowerment)

VOICE caters the various needs of citizens particularly in the

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Municipalities. It provides computerization of all operations in order to provides empowerment to the citizen. It enables a quick, transparent and efficient administration at a lower operating cost with increased revenue collections.

AARAKSHI

AARAKSHI is an intranet-based system for the Jaipur City Police to facilitate FIRs, criminal records, theft of vehicles, records of missing persons etc., This IT enabled is very useful to all field level officers in the Police Department and in this software, online communication network for the text, databases, pictures, graphes and even videos are possible and moreover this software is being useful in Hindi language also. This is a user-friendly sostware.

MAJOR CHALLENGES IN ICTs

1.Illiteracy amongst the vast multitude of people

2.Major power-cuts and 'brown-outs' affecting the country-side ranging from 5 to 12 hours every day. Even though uninterrupted power supply systems are used; yet they prove insufficient to cope up with the power breakdowns

3.Band-width issues and connectivity problems. Even though technology is available to upgrade the band-width; not enough resources have been budgeted by the Government to change this scenario. However once a few projects for the upgradation of the band- width on the anvil get commissioned, there should be a significant improvement in the connectivity.

4.Financial problems encountered by the local grass root level institutions as well as by the state governments. Drastic steps are needed to inject funds for the development of the ICTs in the rural areas; increasingly by the participation of the private sector.

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5.Shortage of project leaders and guides who could ensure implementation of the ICTs at the grass root levels. Unfortunately most professionals want to work in the urban areas where there are ample opportunities available to them for growth as well as prosperity.

6.Lack of infrastructure: no electrical power, no running water, bad roads, etc.,

7.Lack of support from the local government.

8.Possibility of encouraging brain-drain because of not recognition.

9.Corruption is one of the factors that hampers the implementation of ICT projects in rural areas.

10.Training and seminars should be imparted to stakeholdersMany applications are not user friendly.

11.Projects are sometimes not being needs-driven and not relevant to local context.

12. Digital Divide:

The digital divide refers to the separation that exists between individuals, communities, and businesses that have access to information technology and those that do not have such access. Social, economic, infrastructural and ethno­linguistic indicators provide explanations for the presence of the digital divide. Economic poverty is closely related to limited information technology resources. An individual living below poverty line does not afford a computer for him to harness the benefits of e­government and other online services. As the digital divide narrows, broader adoption of e­government in the public domain becomes possible. E­governance is totally based on modern technology and it will be a failure if this part is not taken into consideration. Technology has to be in the reach of the people for whom the policies are made and who have to use them.

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13. Lack of communication:

India is a country which has decentralized government and in such a case the power is decentralized and does not only rest in the hands of centre but divided in different spheres and departments, so the lack of communication between these departments is one of the biggest challenge that India has to face while opting for E­governance. So the information that exists in one department has no or very little use with respect to some other department of the government.

14.Population:

This comes out to be probably biggest challenge for the e­governance. E­governance requires huge amount of work for making the databases of the citizens of the country and doing it efficiently for such a population is in itself a very big task. Security issues and privacy issues are also to be dealt with proper care and so it becomes a little hindrance.

15. Different Languages:

In a country like India which is highly diverse, language comes as a barrier in the path of communication and this is a very important expect of success of the any scheme. Ensuring ICT in local language is a big task to achieve. Supplying information to the public in a language that they understand and are comfortable with, and generally, it is the local language. As, technology is available by which transliteration from English into other languages can be made. Therefore, the problem is manageable provided there is enough motivation to do this onerous task.

Conclusion

ICT is a boon for a developing country and it should be used as a valuable policy by the government if it has to develop fast and more proficiently. ICT has many challenges but the fruits which it yields

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afterwards are of more importance and therefore ICT should be seen as a characteristic of a modern government.ICT has proved to be successful in many states of India where they were applied but has to be made enlarged in its scope and it has to be applied to large population at a bigger scale so that whole country can be beneficiary of this type of governance. The world is growing at a very rapid pace and if a country has to compete with the world around then it has to adopt few measures which are modern in characteristic and which yield benefits and therefore Indian should widen its use of ICT and imbibe it in its administration.

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A BENEVOLENT SUMMARY OF SWAMI VIVEKANANDA’S CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

Ms. Priyanka Sharma Research Scholar Department of Education Panjab University Chandigarh,India

INTRODUCTION

Swami Vivekananda was a golden milestone in the history of India. He was a social reformer, philosopher, spiritual leader, a great educator and much more. He is one of those contemporary philosophers of India who stood strongly against the British system of education that was being imposed on India. He opined that the British system of education was like a machine that aimed to train men to act like slaves and be nothing more than clerks that worked according to the British fundamentals.

He expressed that moral and religious values of our culture were being undermined and there was over emphasis on scientific and technical dependence. He noticed that at that time complete chaos and conflict prevailed in the minds of people and everything about culture and history was being disregarded. He advocated a strong solution for these evils and also forwarded his concept of Education based on the philosophy of Vedanta.

EDUCATION ACCORDING TO SWAMI VIVEKANANDA

Swami Vivekananda regarded education as one of the most important component of human life. He believed that education was not just gathering information or knowledge but was the manifestation of divinity that already existed in man. In his words, According to Swami Vivekananda, “Education is the manifestation of perfection already in man.” (Letters of Swami Vivekananda, pg 70) He was of the view that

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education was meant to strengthen and expand the intellect and also make us self dependent. He further said that good education was life building and character building and discovering the perfection in oneself. In his own words, “We want that education by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, the intellect is expanded and by which one can stand on one's own feet” (Vol 5:34). He said that education prepares the individual to face life with courage and prepares to devote oneself in the services of others and the nation.

Education for him didn’t mean to attain degrees but meant to build in character, self reliance and self confidence. He said that education was not gathering knowledge but was a tool to come out of darkness and ignorance towards light. Self learning through experience was the only way to learning and a teacher was mean to motivate, encourage and show the right path leading to the dazzling treasure of knowledge. He completely condemned the existing education system that was based on academic education and rote learning and voiced for a practical and experimental based education. Swami Vivekananda believed that education is meant to strengthen our will power and also bring it under our control so that we can achieve our highest goals. He said, “The training by which the current and expression of will are brought under control and become fruitful is called education” (Letters of Swami Vivekananda, pg 444)

According to him Education was a lifelong process that takes one towards self discovery, self perfection, self awareness and self manifestation. He believed that Vedanta concept of education w1as the solution to the crisis of the Indian Education as Vedanta aimed expansion, growth, progress and all-round perfection- physical, mental and spiritual and promoted the unity of mankind at both the national and international levels. It also demanded responsibility equally from

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the teachers, students and guardians in the best interests of the individual and country. Education, according to Swami Vivekananda is incomplete without the teaching of aesthetics. He expressed that to counter the effects of materialism and its influence, religious education is necessary. And that synthesis of religion and science for the modern society are necessary.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

According to Swami Vivekananda the end of all education is man making and manifestation of perfection which is true inner nature of every living being. His views on education are based on the teachings of the philosophy of Vedanta. In the light of Vedanta, this perfection and bliss is the inherent nature of every living being (Sat chit ananda) this perfection is the realization of the infinite power that resides in every existence. Education gives us an understanding of our true nature and eliminates ego, ignorance and false identification. He maintains that education builds self confidence, self reliance and constructs balanced human relationships.

In his words, “Education is not the amount of information that is put into your brain and runs riot there, undigested all your life. We must have life-building, man-making, character-making, assimilation of ideas. If you have assimilated five ideas and made them your life and character, you have more education than any man who has got by heart a whole library. If education were identical with information, the libraries would be the greatest sages in the world and encyclopedias the Rishis.” (V3: 302) The ultimate goal of education is development of character; courage and will power go face the challenges of life boldly. To develop p adaptability, feeling of brotherhood and service to mankind and nation is yet another important goal of education according to Swami Vivekananda.

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The first aim of education is to discover the perfection that already existed in man. The second aim of Education is to lead to Physical, mental, spiritual and all round development of child. Education should aim at character and personality building. In his words, “The end of all education, all training, should be man-making. The end and aim of all training is to make the man grow.” (V 2:15)

The other important aim of Education should be to foster religious and spiritual faith, devotion and the ability to offer his services to help others and the nation. He said, “The education that does not help the common mass of people to equip themselves for the struggle for life, which does not bring out strength of character, a spirit of philanthropy and the courage of a lion is it worth the name?” (V 7:147) The aim of Education is also to make the student self dependent.

He also believed that education could be achieved through concentration. “There is only one method by which to attain knowledge, that which is called concentration.” (V 1:130) “The very essence of education is Concentration.” (V 6:38) He also said, “The practice of meditation leads to mental concentration.” (V 6:486))

CURRICULUM

According to Vivekananda, Education should be harmonious with science and patriotism, service and sacrifice and only then religious education becomes useful to the nation. He said that generally the influence of religion on man is total and all pervading. It can inculcate not only refined qualities but also tough qualities. In his words, “Teach the masses in the vernaculars. Give them ideas; they will get information, but something more will be necessary. Give them culture. Until you can give them that, there can be no permanence in the raised condition of the masses.” (V 3:291) And to impart such education, he said the high ideals of saints and religious men should be studied. He said that the culture of India has its roots in her spiritual values. These

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values can be best imbibed in the thoughts and lives of the students through the study of the classics like Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagwad Gita, Vedas and Upanishads. This will keep the perennial flow of our spiritual values into the world culture. He said, “Religion is not in doctrines or dogmas, nor in intellectual argumentation. It is being and becoming. It is realization.” (V 2: 43)

Swami Vivekananda gave equal emphasis to the physical, moral and religious aspects of education.

He stressed that for complete education it is necessary to develop both mind and body. He glorified strength and opposed weakness of any form and emphasized the importance of physical education particularly for young men and women. At the same he said that yoga was the best way to develop both the physical and mental powers of mind. With all this, he added that along with education is the above spheres other subjects and languages should also be taught. In his words, “Teach them History, Geography, Science, Literature and .along with these the profound truths of Religion through these.” (V 7:148-149)

Swami Vivekananda repeatedly presses the need for technical education which may develop industries, so that men, instead of seeking to serve can earn enough to provide for themselves. He said that India should take the positive and strong factors from the Western nations. However her individuality lies in her spiritual culture therefore for the development of a balanced nation, we have to synthesize the scientific attitude of the West with the spirituality of our country. According to him the entire educational program should be so planned that it can equip the youth to contribute to the material progress of the country and at the same maintain the supreme worth of India’s spiritual heritage.

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MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION

Swami Vivekananda was of the opinion that mother tongue is the right medium for education; however he said that the learning of English and Sanskrit was also important. He said that while English is necessary for mastering Western science and technology, Sanskrit leads one into the depths of our vast store of classics. The implication according to him is that if language becomes the privilege of all class of people, social unity will glorify unhampered.

ROLE OF TEACHER

According to Swami Vivekananda a teacher had a very important role to play in the life of student. A teacher should undergo a proper training to equip himself better for his work. According to him, knowledge is inherent in every living being. When we say that a man ‘knows’ is only what he ‘discovers’ by lifting the cover off his own soul. Consequently, he draws our attention to the fact that a teacher’s role is only to help the child to manifest its knowledge by removing the obstacles in his way. He believed that a teacher’s role was to offer opportunities to his students by providing conducive atmosphere necessary for the growth and development of student In his words, “The true teacher is he who can immediately come down to the level of the student, and transfer his soul to the student's soul and see through and understand through his mind. Such a teacher can really teach and none else. “(V 4:183) He believed that a teacher must have a clear understanding of the capabilities of the student and must take up his work with diligence and conscientiousness. He should teach with love and bring out the best in his student and help him in self discovering the hidden talents that lie latent in him. He should show the path and let his student learn through his own experiences. He said that, Vedanta says that within man is all knowledge and it requires only an awakening and that is the work of a teacher.’ To explain thus further,

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he refers to the process of growth of a plant that as we cannot do anything more than nurturing it water, air and manure, the plant has to grow on its own, so is the case with a human child. Swami Vivekananda’s approach can be related to the heuristic method of the modern education where the teacher prompts the spirit of inquiry in the student and the student is supposed to find out answers for himself under the guidance of the teacher.

He said, “The function of the teacher is indeed an affair of the transference of something and not one of mere stimulation of existing intellectual or other faculties in the taught. Something real and appreciable as an influence comes from the teacher and goes to the taught. Therefore, a teacher must be pure. The teacher must not teach for any ulterior motive of money, name or fame. His work must be simply out of love, out of pure love for mankind at large; the only medium through which spiritual force can be transmitted is love. Any selfish motive as desire for gain or name will immediately destroy the conveying medium” (V 3: 51)

Swami Vivekananda regarded a teacher’s role as one of the most important roles in the life of a student and wished that teachers should perform their job with sincerity and responsibility as they mould the destiny of student.

ROLE OF STUDENT

Swami Vivekananda stressed that a student should earnestly seek for knowledge and not mere information. Only then will his intellect expand and he will discover the perfection and tremendous power hidden inside him. He said that a student must have an inner urge to seek knowledge and at the same he should be perseverant while learning. He should work hard and be ready always to face the challenges of life only then will he taste success and victory. In his words, “The necessary for the taught are a real thirst after knowledge,

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perseverance. Purity in speech and act is absolutely necessary. There must be a continuous struggle, a constant fight, an unremitting grappling with our lower nature, till the higher want is actually felt and victory is achieved. The student who sets out with such a spirit of perseverance will surely find success at last. “(V 3:48-49)

He believed that students could attain knowledge only by the power concentration which could come only through regular practice of meditation. He said, “The power of concentration is the only the treasure-house of knowledge. In the present state of our body we are much distracted and the mind is frittering away its energies upon a hundred things. How to check it and bring the mind under control is the whole subject of study in Raj yoga” (V 2:391) Raj yoga is a technique of yoga through which the mind can be brought under control and Swami Vivekananda advocated it strongly.

WOMEN EDUCATION

Swami Vivekananda pressed on the importance of women education and he said that they should be taught exactly the same way and without any discrimination. He said that mean and women are equally competent in all matters yet the fairer gender has more aptitude and competence in regards to home and family. In his words, “Daughters should be supported and educated with as much care and attention as the sons “(V 5: 26)

He considered women to b the incarnation of power and he said that until the women are given an important place in the society the country cannot progress ahead. He said, “If the women are raised, their children will by their noble actions glorify the name of the country; then will culture, knowledge, power and devotion awaken in the country “(V 7:220)

He pointed out the difference in perception about the status of women in India and in the west. “The ideal woman in India is the mother,

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mother first and mother last. The word woman calls up to the mind of Hindu, motherhood; and God is called mother.”(pani, pg80) Swami Vivekananda also proposed a better way of reaching out to all women for educating them, he said, “In villages and towns they must open centers and strive for the spread of female education. Through such devout preachers of character, there will be real spread of female education in the country.” (V 7 :217)

EDUCATION FOR MASSES

Swami Vivekananda believed that for the development of a nation it was important for its nationals to be educated. He saw education as a medium for social change and believed that the underlying reason for the limitations and the weaknesses of humanity was ignorance that led to maladies like communalism, poverty and unemployment.

He stressed that education should not just be confined to the well to do sections of the nation but should be made available for the poor sections also. He said, “A nation is advanced in proportion as education and intelligence spread among the masses. “ (V 4:482) According to him a nation could progress only if all its nationals were educated. In his words, “If we are to rise again, we shall have to do it by spreading education among the masses.” (V 4:482) He believed that the only way for India to rise again was to educate the masses.

CONCLUSION

Swami Vivekananda’s scheme of education is extremely constructive, practical and comprehensive in approach. He emphatically stated that if a nation has to be reformed and developed then the people from all the sections of society had to be educated. He stated that the sense of dignity, consciousness and awakening rises in a man when he gets educated. At the same he realizes his innate qualities, his perfection and his confidence rises. Swami Vivekananda was against the western and contemporary educational system as he regarded it as a system

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that turned men of great caliber into slaves and clerks. According to him the aim of education is life building, character building and man making. Education doesn’t mean input of information by force in the mind of a student but it should lead him to self awareness and self discovery. He emphasized that education was complete only if it was based on the premises of morality, religion and spirituality. Only when our educational system succeeds in imparting this ancient culture to its students, will it become meaningful. Swami ji believed that the concept of culture was essential to impart humanitarian values. He said that this was required for character formation and personality developments.

According to Swami Vivekananda, the general and special aims of education have the single function of enriching the pupil’s personality. He strongly recommended the use of mother tongue in learning at the same he said that learning of Sanskrit and English was also very important. He said that education was complete only when it prepared the student for service to mankind and the nation.

References

1. Adiswarananda,(2006) Swami. Vivekananda, World Teacher: His Teachings on the Spiritual,New York: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda.

2. Avinashilingam T, S. (1957). Education compiled from the speeches and writings of Swami Vivekananda, Sri Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya. The President. Sri Ramakrishna Math. xv- 10M 6C I -92 ISBN 81.7120 002.8. Mylapore.. Madras 600004

3. Avinashilingam, T.S. (1974) Educational Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda. Sri Ramakrishna Vidyalaya.Coimbatore.

4. Nithiya. P.(2012) Swami Vivekananda’s views on philosophy of education. AJMR Vol 1 issue 6. 42-48

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5. Pani, S. P. and Patnaik,S.K. (2006). Vivekananda, Aurobindo and Gandhi on Education, New Delhi:Anmol Publications PVT. LTD, Pg . 80

6. Rai Chaudhri, Sanat Kumar. (1966)Swami Vivekananda: The Man and His Mission.Scientific Book Agency.Calcuttta.

7. Tattwavidananda , Swami. (2015). Letters of Swami Vivekananda. Advaita Ashram. Pg 70

8. Tattwavidananda , Swami. (2015). Letters of Swami Vivekananda. Advaita Ashram. Pg 444

9. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. (1962). Mayavati Memorial edition. Advaita Ashrama Volume I-Volume VIII.

10. Vivekananda. Inspired Talks(1961).Sri Ramakrishna Math.Madras.

11. Vivekananda. Selections from Swami Vivekananda.(1963). Advaita Ashrama.Madras

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AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE ATTITUDE OF POST GRADUATE STUDENTS TOWARDS INTERNET IN PURULIA DISTRICT OF WEST BENGAL

Subhasish Sinha Dr. Santosh Kumar Behera M.A. Student Assistant Professor Department of Education Department of Education Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University Purulia, West Bengal Purulia, West Bengal

INTRODUCTION:

Internet services have become very popular worldwide. Internet is considered as a vital part of human life in the 21st century. Internet plays an important role in our personal and educational lives. Internet use is spreading swiftly into daily life, and directlyaffecting people’s ideas and behaviour. Internet has an impact in many areas including the higher education system. Internet heralded the improvement and implementation of new andinnovative teaching strategies in higher education institutions. Internet, as an information source, is exclusively significant to the students as well as the teachers. It has tremendously changed the way of seeking information. The internet has made marvelous impact on the academic activities with the faculty, researchers and students with the arrival of internet significant transition can be seen in their approach and the way they seek information and the methods they employ for research and learning activities.

Every aspects of our day to day life are affected by Internet. Internet is everywhere, knocking at our door, making our life crazier and smooth. Internet provides endless freedom to students. Internet is the fastest way to reach knowledge. Internet is an international system of interconnected computer networks the standard internet protocol suite to connect users worldwide. It is composed of a network of smaller

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networks, form personal computers to large university systems, all of which are linked by various wireless, electronic, and optical technologies. The term Internet is the shortened form of the term INTERNETWORK, a technical term used to describe the practice of connecting computer network with other networks.The word ‘internet’ consists of two separates terms, “INTER”, and “NET”. INTER-is a prefix that refers to something that exists between / among or is shared noun that follow, “NET” in this case, is a short form of NETWORK, which Merrim–Webster defines as a system of computer peripherals, terminals,and database connoted by communication lines. Together, the internet is the communications network that exists between individual computer networks.Here there are some definitions of Internet mentioned below:

 Cambridge International Dictionary of English defines Internet as “large system of many connected computers around the world which people use to communicate with each other” (Network of networks). The internet knowledge is the knowledge of the basic theoretical aspects of the internal and its practical application.

 Glee Harrah Cady and Pad McGregor (1995) describes that “Internet is a network of network and the internet mostly connects network of computer”.

 In the words of Neil Randall (1996) Internet is “the global network of networks that are all inter communicable”.

 According to Douglas E. Comer (2003) internet is “the collection of networks and routers that use the TCP/IP protocol suite and function as a single, large network. The internet reaches government, commercial and educational organization around the world”.

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In 1969, the US Department of Defense created a network called the ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network). Due to enormous increase in the use of ARPA net for non-military purposes, the US Department of Defense created an exclusively military network called MILNET. A few years later National Science Foundation formed the NSF net, similar but faster than ARPA net which linked together NSF researches. At that time there were no personal computers. The model, the big mainframe sat at the center of a starfish-link system with a dumb terminal (a CRT and a keyboard) at the tip of each tentacle. (www.livescience.com/20727-internet-history.html).

From the above discussion, it is clear that proper understanding and use of Internet in which the student lives is inevitable. Since the Post Graduation / Higher education level is the crucial stage of the present educational system in our country, it needs special attention. Therefore, the necessity of getting the students well acquainted with Internet in Post graduation stage can never be minimized. It is found that there are different reasonable opinions in this regards. But we cannot come to a conclusion about all the Post Graduate students’ attitude towards Internet from several comments or discussions with a handful of students only. Many questions are arising in the researcher’s mind about the students’ attitude towards Internet at PG level. Still now it is very important and sensitive issue. It is an urgent need for developing certain strategies which can improve their knowledge, attitude and skills towards Internet. Therefore, in order to know the attitude of P.G. students towards Internet, the investigators have decided to take up a systematic and objective attitudinal study of P.G. students towards Internet. The investigators intend to restrict their research work to Purulia district of West Bengal.

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STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

The problem for the present study may be specifically stated as below:“An Investigation into the Attitude of Post Graduate Students towards Internet in Purulia District of West Bengal”.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE:

Bao (1998) studied the Seton hall University students and found that 40.27% of the students were using internet on daily basis. It was also found that both the faculty and the students use the internet for the academic and non-academic purpose. Odell et al. (2000) in their study about the use of internet among the college students found that male and female students use the internet in different ways. There was a gap between the use of internet among the male and the female students.Pangannaya (2000) conducted a study on the Use of the Internet by Research Scholars and Postgraduate Students of the Science Faculty of Aligarh Muslim University. The paper has investigated the faculty wise frequency and length of use of the Internet. It describes the emergence of Internet, has revolutionized the academic world. Liaw (2002) conducted a study on students’ attitudes toward the Internet have considerable impact on its acceptance and usage. Therefore, determination of learners’ thoughts and attitudes toward Internet as an instructional medium is quite important for effective and successful implementation of instructional programs incorporating the Internet. Papastergious and Solomonidou(2005) conducted a study among high school students in Greece to find out the gender issue on use of the internet and favourite activities. They reveal that of the majority of the students, 73 out of 124 students (58%) searched the web for information about school courses, while fewer of them engaged in communication activities via chart, e-mail or video conferencing and in web page creation.

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Wu and Tsai(2006) state that appropriate attitude toward the Internet is a prerequisite for successful Internet-based instruction. Aydin Selami (2007) has conducted a study on the Attitudes of EFL Learners towards the Internet. Objectives were:to investigate attitudes of EFL learners towards the Internet that can be used as a real environment in EFL learning and teaching.What are the attitudes of EFL learners toward the Internet? Is there a relationship between the attitudes towards the Internet and some subject variables? Findings were: Positive and negativeattitudes of ELF learners towards the Internet and correlations between attitudes and independent variables. EFL learners have positive attitudes towards the Internet as a universal library, the fastest way to teach knowledge, a place that creates close relationship among societies, an effective training tool, and a way to provide learning for people in order to search.Male students have more positive attitudes about finding the Internet vital for cultural exchange and feeling excited to have information about the Internet than females do.Younger learners feel more excited about getting information about the Internet. Bashir Sakina, Khalid Mahmood & Shafique Farzana (2007) have conducted a study on Internet Use among University Students: A Survey in University of The Punjab, Lahore.The objective of this study was to explore the internet use behavior of students of the University of the Punjab. This study has shown more students are relying on the internet for their academic needs than in the past; it is recommended that future studies should continue to monitor students’ usage and attitudes toward the internet. It is also important that we study those students who are not using the internet in spite of efforts made by the university authorities. Dhamija and Panda (2007) found, attitude of post-graduate students also plays an important role towards the usage of internet. Nowadays post graduate students are also likely to be dependent on computer with internet for collection of relevant information for learning, conducting research as well as teaching in their future life.

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Mahipal,D.S. & Bairagi, D. (2013) conducted a study on the Use of Internet by PG Students of Bastar Vishwavidyalaya Jagdalpur A Case Study.The study found that, all Students are use of Internet.Purpose of using internet by the Students is for the Research work.Maximum (97.5%) Students are use internet in Library. Average times spent by the Students for accessing internet are 1-2 hours. Most preferred search engine used by the Students for accessing internet is Google.A large number of Students use internet every day.

Though there are lots of works done on various aspects of internet in different countries, there is little bit research about the attitude towards internet among the Post Graduate students of India. The present study is an endeavor the find out the attitude of internet among the P.G. students.

NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY:

Internet as a new made-up technology holds the utmost swears humanity has known for learning and worldwide access to quality education. Internet is a network of hundreds of thousands of computers all over the world, connected in a way that lets others computer access information from them. The Internet is a computer mediated communication tool, providing the individual with access to a broad gamut of information and unique communicationtechnologies. It allows students to enlarge their academic experience, access important information and communicate to others within academic community. Internet is a valuable source of information used by students. It can be used as anenhancement to conventional instructional methods. To complete a lecture, instructors may ask students to find specific web sites to gain more clear and in-depth knowledge about a particular topic. Internet resources provide the flexibility necessary to approach a concept from various aspects. The Internet is regarded as the ‘Knowledgehub’ of the globe. Students can attach and interact with

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lecturers rapidly and inexpensively. The Internet is great for learning in the form of e-learning and distance education. The use of the Internet provides great educational benefits to students. The Internet offers a host of ideas, a hugerange of information and engaging, interactive opportunities to educators and students.

Now-a-day’s Post graduate or any students are the future citizen of India. Once they will understand the worth and need of Internet, they will make their life better. P.G. level students are far more mature than other pupils who are studying in lower levels of education. They will understand the importance of Internet. Therefore, the researchers feel that particularly the P.G. student’s opinions or their attitudes towards Internet can never be ignored, rather those should be reviewed or re-explored time to time, and it is this feeling that has urged these investigators to take up the present study on a particular region of West Bengal. It is expected that, this study through small, will be able to make some significant contributions in the field of education.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY:

This type of study may be conducted in different ways and at different levels, such as:

1. A comparative survey of the attitude of Post Graduate students of different parts / district of West Bengal towards Internet may be undertaken.

2. The attitude of the Post Graduate students belonging to rural and urban areas of a single state or of all the states of India towards Internet may be compared.

3. The attitude of the Post Graduate students belonging to different socio-economic status towards Internet may be investigated.

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4. A comparative survey of attitude of Post Graduate students of different states of India towards Internet may be conducted.

5. ‘In-depth’ attitudinal studies may be conducted in order to know real attitude of the Post Graduate students towards Internet.

6. Causal studies regarding attitude of Post Graduate students towards Internet may be conducted.

DELIMINATIONS OF THE STUDY:

The present study was delimited in the following manner:

a) Geographical Area: The study was delimited to only Purulia district of West Bengal.

b) Level of Education:

i. The study was delimited to the P.G. students of Sidho- Kanho-Birsha University of the said district.

ii. Among the Post Graduate students, only the students of Semester 2ndand 4th were considered as the subjects of the present study.

c) Level of Study:

The study was conducted only at surface level. It was not an “in-depth” study. Attempts to know the subjects attitude were made by administering an attitude scale constructed by the researchers themselves. No interstate or inter-district comparison was done. Only intra-district comparison between the Post Graduate Male and Female students, Rural and Urban students, General and SC & ST students, Students of Semester 2ndand 4thwere done.

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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

The following were the specific objectives of this study:

 To ascertain the attitude of Post Graduate students of Sidho- Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district of West Bengal towards Internet.

 To compare the attitude of Post Graduate Male and Female students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district of West Bengal towards Internet.

 To compare the attitude of Post Graduate Rural and Urban students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet.

 To compare the attitude of the Post Graduate Arts and Science students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet.

 To compare the attitude of the Post Graduate General and SC / ST students of Sidho-Kanho- Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet.

nd  To compare the attitude of the Post Graduate 2 Semester and 4th Semester students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet.

HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY:

H : The Post Graduate students will have more favourable  1 attitude towards Internet in Purulia district of West Bengal.

H : There is significant difference between the attitude of P.G.  2 Male and Female students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet.

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H : There is significant difference between the attitude of P.G.  3 Rural and Urban students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet.

H There is significant difference between the attitude of P.G.  4: General and SC/ST students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet.

H There is significant difference between the attitude of P.G.  5: Arts and Science students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet.

H There is significant difference between the attitude of P.G.  6: Semester 2nd and Semester 4th students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet.

METHODOLOGY:

The descriptive research design was used in this study. It is very much useful in identifying present condition and problem through orderly collection, analysis and interpretation of data.

Population of the Study

The Post Graduate students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district of West Bengal comprised the population of this study.

The Sample and Sampling Procedure

200 P.G. students (Male-100 and Female-100) of Sidho-Kanho- Birsha University in Purulia District of West Bengal were taken as representative sample for the whole population. Stratified random sampling technique was followed for selecting the Departments. There are a number of P.G. students in each Department. Only 200 students [Arts (125) and Science (75)] were selected following purposive sampling technique.

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The Tool Used

An attitude scale (Likert Type) was used for knowing the attitude of the Post Graduate students towards Internet. The tool was a five- point attitude scale; that is to say, there were five scale points against each item so that the respondents’ degree of agreement to a particular item could be known. In the scoring procedure, Likert’s method was used. In this method, 30 statements or items (16 Favourable and 14 Unfavourable)regarding the issue were constructed. The subject is asked to indicate the degree of agreement towards each item on a five point scale: Strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree and strongly disagree weight age was given in the following manner:

ITEMS STRONG AGRE NEUTR DISAGR STRONG LY E AL EE LY AGREE DISAGER (B) (C) (D) EE (A) (E) Favorable 5 4 3 2 1

Unfavora 1 2 3 4 5 ble

Statistical Technique

‘CR’ test was used to analyze the collected data and verify the hypotheses.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

In the present study, the researchers took the help of CR-test to analyze the collected data and verify the hypotheses. Each hypothesis was verified one by one and interpreted in the appropriate manner. CR was computed to find out the significance of difference between two means. The hypotheses verification procedure is reported below:-

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H1:The P.G. Students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University will have more favourable attitude towards Internet in Purulia district of West Bengal.

Table- 1: The attitude of P.G. Students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district of West Bengal towards Internet

Category N Mean S.D

Students 200 105.42 9.7

Through the help of cut-off point the Investigators verified the H1. Here Cut-off Point is M + 1σ. It means, Mean=105.42, N=200 and σ=9.7. Hence M +1 σ is 105.42 + 1 x 9.7= 115.12 And M -1 σ =105.42 – 9.7=95.72. Most of P.G. students (103 in number) i.e., 67.5% of students were lies between 95.72 to115.12 scores. Hence, it can be said that the attitude of P.G. Students of Purulia district of West Bengal is neither more favorable nor unfavorable towards Internet i.e., satisfactory or average in attitude towards Internet.

H2: There is significant difference between the attitude of P.G. Male and Female students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet.

Table – 2: Showing significance of difference between the attitude of P.G. Male and Female students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet

Group N Mean SD CR Level of Significant- 0.05 P.G. Male 100 106.28 9.30 Not Students 1.57 Significant P.G. 100 103.45 15.44 Female Students

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It can be found that a CR is significant if it is 1.96 or more. Since 1.57 is more less than 1.96 (1.57< 1.96), the difference between the two groups is not significant at 0.5 level.

Hence, the Ho2 is retained and the researcher’s H2 is rejected; that is to say that, there is no significant difference between the attitude of P.G. Male and Female students of SKB University in Purulia district towards Internet.

Figure-1: Attitude of P.G. Male and Female Students of SKB University in Purulia District.

120

100

80 P.G. Male Students 60 P.G. Female Students 40

20

0 N Mean SD CR It can be said whatever be the attitude of the students regarding this important issue, little difference (and therefore, little change in attitude) is found among the P.G. Male and Female students. The M- Att. Score of Male being greater than that of Female students. Hence, it can be said that, the attitude of P.G. Male- students towards Internet in Purulia district is more favorable than that of P.G Female students. It may seems to be that the Male students in PG Level have more prefer Internet because they feel that is acquaints them in different areas of life.The P.G. Male students feel that internet isvery much

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relevant for learning, conducting research as well as teaching. Little extent this finding collaborates with the study conducted by Odell et al.(2000) and Aydin Selami (2007).

H3: There is significant difference between the attitude of P.G. Rural and Urban students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet.

Table–3: Showing significance of difference between the attitude of P.G. Rural and Urban students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet

Group N Mean SD CR Level of Significant- 0.05

P.G. Rural 100 104.23 9.71 Not Significant Students 0.92

P.G. Urban 100 105.48 9.60 Students

Hence, the Ho3 is accepted and the researcher’s H3 is rejected; that is to say that, there is no significant difference between the attitude of P.G. Rural and Urban students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet.

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Figure-2: The attitude of P.G. Rural and Urban students of Sidho- Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet.

120

100

80 P.G. Rural Students 60 P.G. Urban Students 40

20

0 N Mean SD CR

From table-3 and Figure -2 given above, it can be found that, M2 is

much greater than M1. Since greater score is indicative of more favorable attitude, it can be said that, the attitude of Urban students towards Internet is more favorable than that of Rural students in PG level. The present study indicated that there is no significant difference between the attitude of P.G. rural and urban students of SKB University in Purulia district towards Internet. It can be said whatever be the attitude of the students regarding this important issue, little difference (and therefore, little change in attitude) is found among the P.G. Rural and Urban students. The M.Att. Score of P.G. urban– students of SKB University being greater than that of P.G. rural- students. Hence, it can be said that, the attitude of urbanstudents of PG Level is more favorable than the rural students towards Internet. It may be due to the facility of Internet in Urban areas. There is no scope of using Internet in rural areas.

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H4: There is significance difference between the attitude of P.G. General and SC/ST students of Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University in Purulia district towards Internet.

Table – 4: Showing significance of difference between the attitude of P.G. General and S.C/ST students of SKB University in Purulia district towards Internet

Group N Mean SD CR Level of Significant- 0.05

P.G. 165 106.28 9.77 Not General Significant 0.49 Students

P.G. 37 105.41 9.66 S.C/ST Students

It can be found that, a CR is significant if is 1.96 or more. Since 0.49 is less than 1.96(0.49 <1.96), the difference between the two groups is not significant at 0.05 level.

Hence, the H04 is retained and the researcher’s H4 is rejected; that is to say that, there is no significant difference between the attitude of P.G. General and SC/ST students of SKB University in Purulia district towards Internet.

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Figure-3: The attitude of P.G. General and SC/ST students of SKB University in Puruliadistrict towards Internet.

180 160 140 120 100 P.G. General Students 80 P.G. S.C/ST Students 60 40 20 0 N Mean SD CR

From table-4 and Figure -3 given above, it can be found that, M1 is

much greater than M2. Since greater score is indicative of more favorable attitude, it can be said that,the attitude of General students towards Internet is more favorable than that of SC / ST students in PG level. It can be said whatever be the attitude of the students regarding this important issue, little difference (and therefore, little change in attitude) is found among the P.G. General and SC/ ST students. It may due to the narrow and shy minded of P.G. SC / ST students. The SC / ST students are very much conservative than P.G. General Students.

H5: There is significance difference between the attitude of P.G. Arts and Science students of SKB University in Purulia district towards Internet.

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Table – 5: Showing significance of difference between the attitude of P.G. Arts and Science students of SKB University in Purulia district towards Internet

Group N Mean SD CR Level of Significant- 0.05

P.G. Arts 125 105.76 9.86 Not Students Significant 0.68

P.G. 75 104.75 10.29 Science Students

It can be found that, a CR is significant if is 1.96 or more. Since 0.68 is less than 1.96(0.68<1.96), the difference between the two groups is not significant at 0.05 level.

Hence, the H05 is retained and the researcher’s H5 is rejected; that is to say that, there is no significant difference between the attitude of P.G. Arts and Science students of SKB University in Purulia district towards Internet.

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Figure-4: The attitude of P.G. Arts and Science students of SKB University in Purulia district towards Internet.

140 120 100

80 P.G. Arts Students 60 P.G. Science Students 40 20 0 N Mean SD CR It can be said whatever be the attitude of the students regarding this important issue, little difference (and therefore, little change in attitude) is found among the P.G. Arts and Science students. The M- Att. Score of P.G. Arts Students being greater than that of P.G. Science students. Hence, it can be said that, the attitude of P.G. Arts- students towards Internet in Purulia district is more favorable than that of P.G.Science- students. It may seems to be that the –P.G. Arts students have more prefer Internet because they feel that is acquaints them with in different areas of life.

nd H6: There is significant difference between the attitude of P.G. 2 Semester and 4th Semester students of SKB University in Purulia district towards Internet.

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Table –6: Showing significance of difference between the attitude of P.G. 2nd Semester and 4th Semester students of SKB University in Purulia district towards Internet

Group N Mean SD CR Level of Significant- 0.05

P.G..2nd 100 105.15 9.44 Not Semester Significant 0.44

P.G. 4th 100 105.75 9.97 Semester

It can be found that, a CR is significant if is 1.96 or more. Since 0.44 is less than 1.96(0.44<1.96), the difference between the two groups is not significant at 0.05 level

Hence, the H05 is retained and the researcher’s H5 is rejected; that is to say that, there is no significant difference between the attitude of 2nd Semester students and 4th Semester students of the PG Level of Purulia district towards Internet.

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Figure-5: The attitude of P.G. 2nd Semester and 4th Semester students of SKB University in Purulia district towards Internet.

120

100

80

60 P.G..2nd Semester P.G. 4th Semester 40

20

0 N Mean SD CR This study also revealed that there is no significant difference between the attitude of P.G. 2nd Semester and 4th Semester students of SKB University in Purulia district towards Internet. On the basis of this finding, it can be said whatever be the attitude of the students regarding this important issue, little difference (and therefore, little change in attitude) is found among students within one year or so of their level of education.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY:

Though a through and sincere investigation has been attempted, the present investigation has some limitations; those are as follows:

 The researcher could not use other research tools only attitude scale.

 The present study was conducted only at surface level. It was not an extensive and “indepth” study.

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SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES:

 This study can be conducted in other University.

 Similar studies can be done at various levels of education in India.

 Comparative surveys on this problem can be undertaken in different states of India.

 ‘In-depth’ study may be conducted in order to know real attitude of the subjects. A term-work may be required for the purpose.

 Causal studies may be undertaken to know the real reasons behind unfavorable attitude.

References:

1. Aydin Selami (2007).Attitudes of Efl Learners Towards The Internet , The Turkish Online Journal Of Educational Technology – Tojet. July, Volume 6, Issue 3, Article 2.

2. Bashir Sakina, Khalid Mahmood& Shafique Farzana (2007). Internet Use among University Students: A Survey In University of The Punjab, Lahore.

3. Bao, X.M.(1998). Challenges and opportunities: A report of 1998 library survey of internet usage of Seton Hall University, College and Research Library, 59(6): 535-543.

4. Dhamija, N & Panda S.K. (2007). Attitude of P.G. Students towards internet. Edutracks, Vol-6. No.5.

5. Douglas, E. Comer (2003). The Internet, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt.Ltd.

6. Glee Harrah Cady and Pat McGregor (1995).Mastering the Internet, New Delhi: Bpb Publications.

www.ijmer.in 53 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE CTOBER V 4, I 10(3), O 2015

7. International Data Corporation, the W3C Consortium, Nielsen/NetRatings, and the Internet Society.

8. Liaw, S. S. (2002). An Internet survey for perceptions of computers and the World Wide Web: Relationship, prediction, and difference. Computers in Human Behavior, 18, 17–35.

9. Mahipal, D.S. & Bairagi Dehuti (2013). Use of Internet by PG Students of Bastar Vishwavidyalaya Jagdalpur A Case Study.e- Library Science Research Journal, Vol.2,Issue.2/Dec.

10. Neil Randall. (1996).Teach the Internet in a Week, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.

11. Odell, P.M., K. Korgen, P. Schumcher and M. Delucchi(2000). Internet use among female and male college students. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 3(5): 855-862.

12. Pangannaya (2000). Use of the Internet by Research Scholars and Postgraduate Students of the Science Faculty of Aligarh Muslim University, Mysore University.

13. Papastergious M. &Solomonidou, C.(2005). Gender issues in Internet access and favourite activities among Greek high school pupils inside and outside school. Computer Education, 44(4).

14. Wu, Y-T., & Tsai, C-C. (2006). University students’ internet attitudes and internet selfefficacy: A study at three universities in Taiwan. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 9(4).

15. www.livescience.com/20727-internet-history.html

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EMPOWERMENT OF RURAL WOMEN THROUGH SELF HELP GROUPS -A STUDY IN CHITTOOR DISTRICT (KUPPAM AND CHANDRAGIRI CONSTITUENCIES)

SK.Madeenavali Junior Assistant Dravidian University Kuppam,Chittoor Dt Andhra Pradesh

INTRODUCTION:

The Society which allows freedom to its women enables to them to make a sustainable contribution to its development to an ideal society history is full of prominent part made by women. Now a days man and women are becoming real partners in the business of life. Role of Women in home making and peacemaking is inevitable and, Indians pressing is empowerment of women. We have not only to rock the cradle but they also to see that the infancy nourished by them when grow up. They much train the – generation in the cradle with the noble ideas of unity, goodwill and Self Help. Love and Service are the fundamental qualities of women soul. It is possible for the Poorest women to make a happy home and to produce from it the noblest specimens of humanity.

Our present discursion has initiated about the status of women in different levels like education, women role as entrepreneurs, partnership of women in politics, economic development of women’s, the role of women in business life, are discoursed in general, and also focuses the introduction of “PAVALA VADDI” Scheme under SHG’s of micro economics development scheme in Kanigiri Mandal of Prakasam District in Andhra Pradesh, under SHG’s, the beneficiaries of between ST’s and SC’s , OC’s and BC’s maching grant from the government, and the problems listing the eligible SHG’s by the government, the

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problems in sanctioning and releasing Pavala Vaddi Loans in Kanigiri Mandal of Prakasam District in Andhra Pradesh. Were discussed particular.

CURRENT STATUS OF EDUCATION OF WOMEN IN INDIA:-

The Current status of female in India according to last senses held in 2011, the percentage of female literacy in the country is 65.46%. The international seminar on women education and empowerment converted the relevance of women’s education in improving the situation of women. By educating the women there is possibility of eliminating poverty, development of self confidence, to raise the women’s awareness of their civil rights. To provide skills for income generation.

WOMEN IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT :

The social empowerment issues have become the bases for the subsequent economic empowerment of women. The economic empowerment will take place only when women are giving financial freedom in several parameters like purchasing food assets, savings etc. that means when women are giving freedom in financial matters the economic empowerment will start in the home it self. At present the Government is implementing the many programs to up lift the women economically:

1. Sabala 2. Dwacra 3. Rastriya Mahila Kosh – RMS 4. Indira Gandhi Methruthya Sahyog yojana 5. Mahila Samrudhi Yojana 6. Sewavalambana 7.National Prespective plan for women 8. National Credit fund for women 9.Reservation of women in grass root level etc.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Gurumurthy T.R(2000) : Started that the SHG aim at providing awareness among the poor about the-going development programmes. The poor should know how best to use existing Government

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programmes and also the legal provisions meant for the disadvantage section of the rural communities.

Khan S.S. (2000) Stated a Women entrepreneur can start an enterprise at a small scale. There are a number of women entrepreneurs who have started small enterprises but M.S later expended them to large scale units. For instance, M.S.Shahnaz Hussain., President of CIDESCO hailing kailash has placed Indian Herbals in the world cosmetic map. She started with a investment of just Rs.35,000/- a women Self Help Groups in Dindigal district runs a unit providing agro-services with the total turnover crossing Rs.12 lakhs per annum.

Narasani Lakshmi (1998) examine the role of banking in rural development and started that the SHG linkage programme as mostly highlighted the economic criteria. The awareness on the SHGs have created and the attitudinal changes they have brought in the minds and out look of the members have defiantly helped in realizing their own intrinsic strength. Formation of groups with homogeneous backward and interest which is key to this access of the credit linkage programme gradually leads to a situation were Self Help Groups transcend economic issues and are induced to take up other related issues.

Suguna B. (2001) The process of empowerment has provided a broad base activity scheduled to the regional, national and global agencies in which participation has been highlighted. By this method, participation of women in the decision making process could be enhanced many fold and progress attained in a much short time. The process of empowerment help in identifying areas to be targeted planning strategies for action and outcomes. Empowerment is not a process which is horizontal or vertical but a process which goes round in a circle.

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Objectives of the Study: The following of are the main objectives of the Present study:

1. To Study the Socio – Economic profile of the Self Help Group Members.

2. To study the functioning of Self Help Groups.

3. To Examine and evaluate the specific problems of beneficiaries the regard to savings, revolving fund productivity, marketing etc.

4. To analyze the role of Self Help Groups in the Social Economic and political Empowerment of Women.

5. To assess the extent of awareness regarding the governmental programmers.

Hypotheses:

The present study has the following major hypotheses.

1. There is no significant relationship of participation in Self Help Group (SHGs) on the income level, saving, employment generation and household expenditure of the sample beneficiaries.

2. Self Help Groups helps in promoting leadership qualities among the beneficiaries.

3. Progress of Self Help Group (SHGs) in the study area has not shown any improvement in the lives of the sample respondents.

Techniques of Data Collection:

Both primary and secondary data are made use of in the present study for analysis, drawing of inferences and arriving at conclusions, keeping in view the objectives of the study. Primary data was collected

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through personal interviews with the sample respondents with the help of a pre-tested interview schedule. Sufficient cross checks have been made on the information provided by the sample respondents to ensure accuracy and reliability of data. A thorough scrutiny of data was made before tabulating the same.Secondary data was collected from Reports and records available at the offices of the Project Director, Mandal Praja Parishads, Ministry of Women and Child Development, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad, Indian Five Year Plan Documents and other published and unpublished Reports.

The data collected from field work willanalyze by employing appropriate statistical tools such as percentages, averages, ratios, t-test, and cumulative growth rates, etc.

Table: : 1 Selection of Sample Villages based on the Performance of MGNREGS NO. OF NAME OF DISTRIC NAME OF THE SAMPLE THE T VILLAGE RESPON MANDAL DENTS 1. Chandam 25 1.Kuppam 2. Kothaindlu 25 Mandal 3.Kamathamuru 25 4.Samaguttapalli 25 1.CHITTO 1.Chandragiri – 1 25 OR 2.Mamanduru 25 2.Chandragi 3.A.G.Palli 25 ri Mandal 4.Venkatampeta 25 Total Families 200 Sampling Chittoor district forms the Sothern most port of Andhra Pradesh. It is one of the four drought – prone districts of the Rayala Seema region of Andhra Pradesh. The District is divided in to three revenue divisions namely Chittoor, Tirupathi and Madanapalli and is

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further divided in to 66 Mandals covering one thousand four hundred and eighty five villages.

At the same sample selection i.e. in the year 2015 there were 62471 SHG’s were Functioning in the District. Out of them 22114 were in Tirupathi Division, 19423 were in Chittoor Division and 20934 in Madanapalli division. At present there are 62471 Self Help Groups functioning in the district. Therefore 6,47,562 women’s were covered in all three revenue divisions. They are saving per month is Rs.5,59,96,268.(In the month of February / 2015) This is not an ordinary amount as per calculation annual savings by SHG’s is Rs.67,19,55,216/- They can start the malty level factories in the district with the support of their savings amount.

Multi-Stage simple Random Sampling method has been adopted. In the first stage, Chittoor district will selected. In the second stage, based on the development parameters, two mandals will be select in districts. In the third stage, fourvillagesfrom each of the mandals will be selected. From each selected village, 25 sample beneficiaries were selected by a simple random technique. Finally, the study covered a sample of 200 beneficiaries from 8 villages, 2 mandals of chittoor districts of Andhra Pradesh.

No. of No.of Women Name of the Name of the Sl.No. SHG’s in Covered in Mandal Village Mandal Mandal 1 Kuppam Chandam 35 359 2. “ Kothidlu 29 305 3. “ Kamathamuru 39 410 4. “ Samaguttapalli 37 385 5 Chandragiri Chandragiri-1 41 415 6. “ Mamanduru 36 375 7. “ A.G.Palli 28 294 8. “ Venkatampeta 27 287 Total 02 08 272 2830

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Total SHG’s are 272, Total Women’s coverage in the SHG’s are 2830 in above 8 Village Organizations i.e. V.O Above Calculations of Kuppam Mandal is displayed in the flow chart

Chandam

Kothidlu Series 1 Series 2 Kmathamuru Series 3 Samaguttapalli

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Above Calculations of Chandragiri Mandal is displayed in the flow chart

5

4 Series 1 3 Series 2 2 Series 3 1

0 C.G.R.-1 A.G.Palli Venkatampeta

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THE IMPACT OF DERIVATIVES AS AN INSTRUMENT ON INDIAN FINANCIAL MARKET

Tahira Habib Research Scholar Rafiabad, Baramulla

Introduction: Economic environment of a nation is largely characterized by the efficient mobilization and usage of financial resources. A favorable economic environment attracts investments, which in turn influences the development of the economy. The quantity and quality of assets in a nation at a specific time is one of the essential criteria for the assessment of economic development. Assets in an economy is broadly divided according to their characteristics into Physical, Financial and intangible assets. Financial assets help the physical assets to generate activity.

Financial assets have specific properties like monetary value, divisibility, convertibility, reversibility, liquidity and cash flow that distinguish it from physical assets. These properties of financial asset led to the emergence of financial markets.

DERIVATIVES MARKET IN INDIA

The term ‘derivatives, refers to a broad class of financial instruments which mainly include options and futures. These instruments derive their value from the price and other related variables of the underlying asset. They do not have worth of their own and derive their value from the claim they give to their owners to own some other financial assets or security. A simple example of derivative is butter, which is derivative of milk. The price of butter depends upon price of milk, which in turn depends upon the demand and supply of milk. The general definition of derivatives means to derive something from something else. According to Securities Contract Regulation Act

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(SCRA) 1956 Derivative may be defined as:

a) “A security derived from a debt instrument, share, loan whether secured or unsecured, risk instrument or contract for differences or any other form of secure sit

B) “A contract which derives its value from the prices, or index of prices, of underlying securities”

As defined above, the value of a derivative instrument depends upon the underlying asset. The underlying asset may assume many forms:

• Commodities including grain, coffee beans, orange juice;

• Precious metals like gold and silver;

• Foreign exchange rates or currencies;

• Bonds of different types, including medium to long term negotiable debt securities issued by governments, companies, etc.

• Shares and share warrants of companies traded on recognized stock exchanges and Stock Index

• Short term securities such as T-bills; and

• Over- the Counter (OTC)

• Money market products such as loans or deposit. Derivatives contracts are of many types depending upon the underlying asset upon which the contracts are being written. But broadly derivatives can be classified in to two categories: Commodity derivatives and financial derivatives. In case of commodity derivatives, underlying asset can be commodities like wheat, gold, silver etc., whereas in case of financial derivatives underlying assets are stocks currencies, bonds and other interest rates bearing securities etc. Since,

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the scope of this case study is limited to only financial derivatives so we will confine our discussion to financial derivatives only.

The applications of financial derivatives can be enumerated as follows:

• Management of risk: This is most important function of derivatives. Risk management is not about the elimination of risk rather it is about the management of risk. Financial derivatives provide a powerful tool for limiting risks that individuals and organizations face in the ordinary conduct of their businesses. It requires a thorough understanding of the basic principles that regulate the pricing of financial derivatives. Effective use of derivatives can save cost, and it can increase returns for the organisations.

• Efficiency in trading: Financial derivatives allow for free trading of risk components and that leads to improving market efficiency. Traders can use a position in one or more financial derivatives as a substitute for a position in the underlying instruments. In many instances, traders find financial derivatives to be a more attractive instrument than the underlying security. This is mainly because of the greater amount of liquidity in the market offered by derivatives as well as the lower transaction costs associated with trading a financial derivative as compared to the costs of trading the underlying instrument in cash market.

• Speculation: This is not the only use, and probably not the most important use, of financial derivatives. Financial derivatives are considered to be risky. If not used properly, these can leads to financial destruction in an organisation like what happened in Barings Plc. However, these instruments act as a powerful instrument for knowledgeable traders to expose themselves to calculated and well understood risks in search of a reward, that

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is, profit.

• Price discover: Another important application of derivatives is the price discovery which means revealing information about future cash market prices through the futures market. Derivatives markets provide a mechanism by which diverse and scattered opinions of future are collected into one readily discernible number which provides a consensus of knowledgeable thinking.

• Price stabilization function: Derivative market helps to keep a stabilising influence on spot prices by reducing the short-term fluctuations. In other words, derivative reduces both peak and depths and leads to price stabilisation effect in the cash market for underlying asset.

The liberalization process that has opened Indian market to overseas investors has fuelled interest among the regulators for introduction of risk management tools. By observing the varied applications of financial derivatives; the Indian financial market woke up to the new generation of financial instruments and currently the following contracts are allowed for trading in Indian markets:

Figure- 7 Derivatives Contracts permitted for trading in India

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The emergence and growth of market for derivative instruments can be traced back to the willingness of risk-averse economic agents to guard themselves against uncertainties arising out of fluctuations in asset prices. Derivatives markets in India have been in existence in one form or the other for a long time. In the area of commodities, the Bombay Cotton Trade Association started futures trading way back in 1875. In 1952, the Government of India banned cash settlement and options trading.

Derivatives trading shifted to informal forwards markets. In recent years, government policy has shifted in favour of an increased role of market-based pricing and less suspicious derivatives trading. The first step towards introduction of financial derivatives trading in India was the promulgation of the Securities Laws (Amendment) Ordinance, 1995. It provided for withdrawal of prohibition on options in securities. The last decade, beginning the year 2000, saw lifting of ban on futures trading in many commodities. Around the same period, national electronic commodity exchanges were also set up.

Financial Derivatives trading commenced in India in June 2000 after SEBI granted the final approval to this effect in May 2001 on the recommendation of L. C Gupta committee. Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) permitted the derivative segments of two stock exchanges, NSE and BSE and their clearing house/corporation to commence trading and settlement in approved derivatives contracts.

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Table-7 Derivatives in India: A chronology

December 14, NSE asked SEBI for permission to trade index 1995 futures L.C. Gupta Committee set up to draft a policy November 18, framework for introducing 1996 derivatives L.C. Gupta committee submits its report on the May 11, 1998 policy framework May 25, 2000 SEBI allows exchanges to trade in index futures June 12, 2000 Trading on Nifty futures commences on the NSE Trading for Nifty options commences o n the June 4, 2001 NSE July 2, 2001 Trading on Stock options commences on the NSE November 9, Trading on Stock futures commences on the NSE 2001 Currency derivatives trading commences on the August 29, 2008 NSE Interest rate derivatives trading commences on August 31, 2009 NSE Source: NSE Publications

Initially, SEBI approved trading in index futures contracts based on various stock market indices such as, S&P CNX, Nifty and Sensex. Subsequently, index- based trading was permitted in options as well as individual securities. The trading in BSE Sensex options commenced on June 4, 2001 and the trading in options on individual securities commenced in July 2001. Futures contracts on individual stocks were launched in November 2001. The derivatives trading on NSE commenced with S&P CNX Nifty Index futures on June 12, 2000. The trading in index options commenced on June 4, 2001 and trading in options on individual securities growth in terms of trading

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value and number of traded contracts.

The BSE created history on June 9, 2000 when it launched trading in Sensex based futures contract for the first time. It was followed by trading in index options on June 1, 2001; in stock options and single stock futures (31 stocks) on July 9, 2001 and November 9, 2002, respectively. Currently, the number of stocks under single futures and options is 1096.

commenced on July 2, 2001. Single stock futures were launched on November 9, 2001. The index futures and options contract on NSE are based on S&P CNX. In June 2003, NSE introduced Interest Rate Futures which were subsequently banned due to pricing issue. Table 7 exhibits chronology of introduction of derivatives in India.

As mentioned in the preceding discussion, derivatives trading commenced in Indian market in 2000 with the introduction of Index futures at BSE, and subsequently, on National Stock Exchange (NSE). Since then, derivatives market in India has witnessed tremendous

Table-8 Products traded on derivative segment of BSE

Sl. Product Traded with underlying Introduction Date No. asset 1 Index Futures- Sensex June 9 2000 2 Index Options- Sensex June 1,2001 3 Stock Option on 109 Stocks July 9, 2001 4 Stock futures on 109 Stocks November 9 2002 5 Weekly Option on 4 Stocks September 13,2004 6 Chhota (mini) SENSEX January 1, 2008 Currency Futures on US Dollar October 1,2008 7 Rupee Source: Compiled from BSE website

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BSE achieved another milestone on September 13, 2004 when it launched Weekly Options, a unique product unparalleled worldwide in the derivatives markets. It permitted trading in the stocks of four leading companies namely; Satyam, State Bank of India, Reliance Industries and TISCO (renamed now Tata Steel). Chhota (mini) SENSEX was launched on January 1, 2008. With a small or 'mini' market lot of 5, it allows for comparatively lower capital outlay, lower trading costs, more precise hedging and flexible trading. Currency futures were introduced on October 1, 2008 to enable participants to hedge their currency risks through trading in the U.S. d ollar-rupee future platforms. The derivative products and their date of introduction on the BSE is summerised in the Table 8:

NSE started trading in index futures, based on popular S&P CNX Index, on June 12, 2000 as its first derivatives product. Trading on index options was introduced on June 4, 2001. Futures on individual securities started on November 9, 2001. The futures contract is available on 233 securities as stipulated by SEBI.

Table 9 Products traded on F&O Segment of NSE

Sl. Introduction Product Traded with Underlying asset No. Date 1 Index Futures- S&P CNX NIFTY June 12, 2000 2 Index Options- S&P CNX NIFTY June 4, 2001 3 Stock Option on 233 Stocks July 2, 2001 November 9, 4 Stock futures on 233 Stocks 2001 Interest Rate Futures- T – Bills and 10 Years 5 June 23,2003 Bond 6 CNX IT Futures & Options August 29,2003 7 Bank Nifty Futures & Options June 13,2005

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8 CNX Nifty Junior Futures & Options June 1,2007 9 CNX 100 Futures & Options June 1,2007 10 Nifty Midcap 50 Futures & Options October 5, 2007 Mini index Futures & Options - S&P CNX 11 January 1, 2008 Nifty index Long Term Option contracts on S&P CNX 12 March 3,2008 Nifty Index 13 Currency Futures on US Dollar Rupee August 29,2008 December 10, 14 S& P CNX Defty Futures & Options 2008 Source: NSE website

Trading in options on individual securities commenced from July 2, 2001. The options contracts are American style and cash settled and are available on 233 securities. Trading in interest rate futures was introduced on 24 June 2003 but it was closed subsequently due to pricing problem. The NSE achieved another landmark in product introduction by launching Mini Index Futures & Options with a minimum contract size of Rs 1 lac. NSE crated history by launching currency futures contract on US Dollar-Rupee on August 29, 2008 in Indian Derivatives market. Table 2.9 presents a description of the types of products traded at F& O segment of NSE.

Among all the products traded on NSE in F& O segment Index derivatives has registered an "explosive growth". Index derivative especially S&P CNX Nifty future has been accepted by the traders as a most prominent instrument in risk management. In this respect it is ideal to explain the brief details about this contract.

STOCK INDEX FUTURES

Stock index future is an index derivative that draws its value from an underlying index like Nifty or Sensex. This type of derivative

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contract was first pioneered by Kansas City Board of Trade on 24 th February, 1982 and the contract was based on Value Line composite Index. Subsequently CME introduced trading in S&P 500 index futures in April 1982 and this was followed by New York futures exchanges contract on NYSE composite Index. Consequent upon their successful trading on the US exchanges, many other exchanges worldwide launched equity index futures (Table-10). In India NSE started trading on index futures whose value is derived from the underlying index Nifty. This contract is called as FUTIDX.

Table 10 Major stock index futures Contracts

Stock Exchange Index Futures contract

Chicago Mercantile Exchange S&P 100

Korea Stock Exchange KOSPI 200

Toronto Futures exchange TSE 300

London Futures exchange FTSE 100

National Stock Exchange of India S&P CNX NIFTY

Hong Kong Futures Exchange Hang Seng

Index Futures Contract Specifications

As a matter of fact the stock index futures contracts are cash settled i.e. the traders are required to settle the contract by taking an offsetting position in the market. Operationally stock index futures contract is an agreement to pay or receive fixed rupee amount times the difference between the index level when the position resulting gains and losses will be paid/received in cash. The monetary value of the index future is obtained by multiplying the underlying index value by some rupee amount. In case of Nifty contract, the multiplier is Rs.200 and for Sensex it is Rs.50. The value of the multiplier is set by the exchange which is guided by the SEBI’s directive and should have

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a minimum value of Rs. 2,00,000 and accordingly NSE and BSE arrived at those multipliers:

Table-11 Contract Specification: Index Futures

BSE NSE Underlying SENSEX NIFTY Contract 50 200 Multiplier Trading Cycle The near month (one), The near month (one), the next month (two) and the next month (two) the far month (three). and the far month (three). Tick size 0.05 index points 0.05 index points Price Quotation Index Points Index Points

Last Last Thursday of the Last Thursday of the trading/Expirat contract month. If it is contract month. If it ion day a holiday, the is a holiday, the immediately preceding immediately preceding business day. business day. Final Cash settlement. On the Final settlement price settlement last trading day, the shall be the closing closing value of the value of the Nifty on underlying index would the last trading day. be the final settlement price of the expiring futures contract.

Source: Respective websites: www.nseindia.com and www.bseindia.com

Within a short span of time financial derivatives market in India has shown a remarkable growth both in terms of volumes and numbers of contracts traded. NSE alone accounts for 99 percent of the derivatives

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trading in Indian markets. The reason for such demand in the Index futures can be as follows: a) Index futures are cash settled; b) These are highly liquid since index futures are exchange traded and the investor can offset his position on any day prior to the expiration day; c) The performance of all index futures contract are guaranteed by the exchange’s clearing house; d) It carries margin requirements which ensure that the risk is limited to the previous day’s price movement on each outstanding position.

Table-12: Turnover of Derivatives in NSE & BSE (Rs. Cr.)

Year NSE BSE 2000-01 90580 1673 2001-02 1025588 1922 2002-03 2126763 2478 2003-04 17191668 12452 2004-05 21635449 16112 2005-06 58537886 9 2006-07 81487424 59006 2007-08 156598579 242309 2008-09 210428103 12266 2009-10 178306889 234.13 Source: Compiled from NSE Fact Book

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Table-13: NSE F&O Segment Turnover (Rs. Cr.) and Volume

Index Avg. daily Index Avg. Daily Futures Year Trading Futures Turnover (No. Of Volume contracts) 2010-11 4356754.53 18153.14 165023653 687598.6

2009-10 3934388.67 16393.29 178306889 742945.4

2008-09 3583617.92 14875.46 210428103 876783.8

2007-08 3820667.27 15919.45 156598579 652494.1

2006-07 2539574 10581.56 81487424 339530.9

2005-06 1513755 6307.313 58537886 243907.9

2004-05 772147 3217.279 21635449 90147.7

2003-04 554446 2310.192 17191668 71631.95

2002-03 43952 183.1333 2126763 8861.513

2001-02 21483 89.5125 1025588 4273.283

2000-01 2365 9.854167 90580 377.4167

Source: Compiled from NSE Website

From the above discussion it can be inferred that National Stock Exchange plays a dominant role in the F&O segment. The introduction of derivatives has been well received by stock market players. Trading in derivatives gained popularity soon after its introduction. In due course, the turnover of the NSE derivatives market exceeded the turnover of the NSE cash market. For example, in 2008, the value of the NSE derivatives markets was Rs. 130, 90,477.75 Cr. whereas the

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value of the NSE cash markets was only Rs. 3,551,038 Cr. If we compare the trading figures of NSE and BSE, performance of BSE is not encouraging both in terms of volumes and numbers of contracts traded in all product categories single stock futures also known as equity futures, are most popular in terms of volumes and number of contract traded, followed by index futures with turnover shares of 52 percent and 31 percent, respectively.

Table-14 Share of each NSE Derivative contract to total turnover (%)

Index Index Sock Stock Year Futures Options Futures Options Total 2010-11 14.89579 62.79139 18.79005 3.522759 100

2009-10 22.27391 45.44903 29.41205 2.865007 100

2008-09 46.83919 30.8319 33.44528 1.953998 100

2007-08 29.18661 10.40536 57.66454 2.743495 100

2006-07 34.52271 10.76509 52.07777 2.634429 100

2005-06 31.37853 7.016103 57.86891 3.736453 100

2004-05 30.31615 4.787745 58.26724 6.628865 100

2003-04 26.02288 2.478914 61.29414 10.19459 100

2002-03 9.992225 2.102023 65.14157 22.76419 100

2001-02 21.07706 3.693856 50.54157 24.68752 100

2000-01 100 ------100

Among the equity derivatives that are being allowed to be traded on NSE are the Index futures, index options, stock futures, and stock options. The comparative study of the ratio of each contracts turnover

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to the total turnover in the NSE’s F&O segment is given in the Table 14 and Figure 9.

Figure-9 Growth of Individual derivative contracts

The above result exhibits a significant share of stock index futures turnover to total turnover. But in NSE there are sectoral index futures like CNX IT, BANKEX etc. is also being traded which is included in the above data. Figure 10 will enlighten the S&P CNX Nifty’s share in the total volume of index futures trading:

Fig. 10 Volume of Each Index Futures Traded at NSE

Source: NSE Fact Book 2011 (For 05 Years)

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In NSE there are different Index futures contracts are being traded having different underlying asset like, CNX IT, BANKNIFTY etc. If we look at the percentage of volume of trading of different Index futures contract as exhibited in the Fig. 10, it is obvious that S&P CNX NIFTY outperforms other contracts in general.

Thus this particular analysis attenuates the need for analyzing CNX Nifty futures contract to know its relationship with respect to the Nifty as regards to market efficiency, market volatility and a causal relationship over a sample period of 10 years will enlighten some stylized facts which are previously not being studied by undertaking a large sample data.

RATIONALE BEHIND THE DELOPMENT OF DERIVATIVES:

Holding portfolios of securities is associated with the risk of the possibility that the investor may realize his returns, which would be much lesser than what he expected to get. There are various factors, which affect the returns:

1. Price or dividend (interest)

2. Some are internal to the firm like-

Industrial policy

Management capabilities

Consumer’s preference

Labour strike, etc. These forces are to a large extent controllable and are termed as non systematic risks. An investor can easily manage such non- systematic by having a well-diversified portfolio spread across the companies, industries and groups so that a loss in one may easily be compensated with a gain in other.

There are yet other of influence which are external to the firm, cannot

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be controlled and affect large number of securities. They are termed as systematic risk. They are:

1.Economic

2.Political

3.Sociological changes are sources of systematic risk.

For instance, inflation, interest rate, etc. their effect is to cause prices of nearly all-individual stocks to move together in the same manner. We therefore quite often find stock prices falling from time to time in spite of company’s earning rising and vice versa.

Rational Behind the development of derivatives market is to manage this systematic risk, liquidity in the sense of being able to buy and sell relatively large amounts quickly without substantial price concession.

In debt market, a large position of the total risk of securities is systematic. Debt instruments are also finite life securities with limited marketability due to their small size relative to many common stocks. Those factors favour for the purpose of both portfolio hedging and speculation, the introduction of a derivatives securities that is on some broader market rather than an individual security.

REGULATORY FRAMEWORK:

The trading of derivatives is governed by the provisions contained in the SC R A, the SEBI Act, and the regulations framed there under the rules and byelaws of stock exchanges.

Regulation for Derivative Trading:

SEBI set up a 24 member committed under Chairmanship of Dr. L. C. Gupta develop the appropriate regulatory framework for derivative trading in India. The committee submitted its report in March 1998. On May 11, 1998 SEBI accepted the recommendations of the committee and approved the phased introduction of

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derivatives trading in India beginning with stock index Futures. SEBI also approved he “suggestive bye-laws” recommended by the committee for regulation and control of trading and settlement of Derivative contract.

The provision in the SCR Act governs the trading in the securities. The amendment of the SCR Act to include “DERIVATIVES” within the ambit of securities in the SCR Act made trading in Derivatives possible with in the framework of the Act.

1. Eligibility criteria as prescribed in the L. C. Gupta committee report may apply to SEBI for grant of recognition under section 4 of the SCR Act, 1956 to start Derivatives Trading. The derivative exchange/segment should have a separate governing council and representation of trading/clearing member shall be limited

2. The members of an existing segment of the exchange will not automatically become the members of the derivatives segment. The members of the derivatives segment need to fulfill the eligibility conditions as lay down by the L. C. Gupta committee.

3. The clearing and settlement of derivatives trades shall be through a SEBI approved clearing corporation/clearinghouse. Clearing Cor poration/ Clearing House complying with the eligibility conditions as lay down By the committee have to apply to SEBI for grant of approval.

4. Derivatives broker/dealers and Clearing members are required to seek registration from SEBI.

5. The Minimum contract value shall not be less than Rs.2 Lakh. Exchange should also submit details of the futures contract they purpose to introduce.

6. The trading members are required to have qualified approved user and sales persons who have passed a certification programme

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approved by SEBI to maximum 40% of the total members of the governing council. The exchange shall regulate the sales practices of its members and will obtain approval of SEBI before start of Trading in any derivative contract.

7. The exchange shall have minimum 50 members. Conclusion:

Indian commodity derivatives have great growth potential but government policies have resulted in the underlying spot/physical market being fragmented (e.g. due to lack of free movement of commodities and differential taxation within India). Similarly, credit derivatives, the fastest growing segment of the market globally, are absent in India and require regulatory action if they are to develop.

As Indian derivatives markets grow more sophisticated, greater investor awareness will become essential. NSE has programmes to inform and educate brokers, dealers, traders, and market personnel. In addition, institutions will need to devote more resources to develop the business processes and technology necessary for derivatives trading. Because of the strong demand for derivative products, the popular contracts like Foreign Currency Futures, Long term Equity Options, Credit Derivatives, Structured products and exotic derivatives etc. are awaiting their turn in the Indian markets. In this regard NSE as well as the regulatory body and government should work collectively for making these contracts popular in Indian market.

References:

1. Derivatives Dealers Module Work Book – NCFM (October 2005) 2. Gordon and Natarajan, (2006) ‘Financial Markets and Services’ (third edition) Himalaya publishers 3. Avadhani, V. A. (1992), “Investment & Securities Markets in

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India: Investment Management”, Himalaya Publishing, Bombay, pp. 426 4. Bal, R. K., Mishra, B. B. (1990), "Role of Mutual Funds in Developing Indian Capital Market", Indian Journal of Commerce, Vol. XLIII, pp. 165. 5. Balasubramaniam C S (1980), "Indexes of Ordinary Share Prices - An Evaluation", Artha Vijnana, Vol. 22 No. 4 (Dec), pp. 552-564. 6. Bajpai (2006), “Developments of Capital Market in India”, Conference Proceeding at London School Of Business, 2nd Oct. 2006 7. Barua S K & Varma J R (1992), "Gorbachev Betas : The Russian Coup and The Market Blues", Working Paper No. 1054, (Jul-Sept), Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad 8. Barua S K, Raghunathan V & Varma J R (1992), “Portfolio Management”, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, pp. 256. 9. Bhalla U K (1983), “Investment Management, Security Analysis and Portfolio Management”, S. Chand, New Delhi, pp. 391. 10. Chakrabarti, B.B., & Mohanty, M. (2005), “A status report on India's financial system: a view from the standpoint of intermediation and risk bearing” . Paper for Asian Development Bank and Ministry of Finance, Government of India 11. Chhaochharia S. (2008), “Capital Market Development: The Race between China and India”, http://ssrn.com/a bstract =1130074 , pp. 1-15 12. Cho, Y J (1998), “Inefficiencies from Financial Liberalisation in the Absence of Well-functioning Equity Markets”, Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, Vol. 18 13. Chandra Prasanna (1990a), “Investment Game: How to Win”, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi (1990), pp. 230 14. Chandra Prasanna (1990b), "Indian Capital Market: Pathways of Development", ASCI Journal of Management, Vol. 20, No. 2-3 (Sept-Dec), pp. 129-137.

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15. Eswar S. Prasad & Raghuram G. Rajan,(2008), "A Pragmatic Approach to Capital Account Liberalization," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 22(3), pp. 149- 72 16. Francis C K (1991a), "Towards a Healthy Capital Market", Yojana, Vol. 35, Mar.1-15, pp. 11-13 17. Francis C K (1991b), "SEBI - The Need of the Hour", SEDME, Vol. 18(3), pp. 37-41. 18. Gupta Ramesh (1987), "Is the Indian Capital Market Inefficient of Excessively Speculative?" Vikalpa, Vol. 12, No. 2,(Apr-Jun), pp. 21- 28. 19. Gujarathi Mahendra (1987), "Do New Equity Issues fetch Extra normal Returns?", Vikalpa, Vol. 12, No. 4 (Oct-Dec), pp. 43-50. 20. Gupta L C (1980), "Long Term Rates of Return on Industrial Equities in India", Economic & Political Weekly Review of Management, August, pp. M85-92. 21. Gupta L C (1981), “Rates of Return on Equities: The Indian Experience”, Oxford University press, New Delhi. 22. Gupta L C (1992), “Stock Exchange Trading in India: Agenda for Reform”, Society for Capital Market Research and Development”, Delhi, pp. 123. 23. Gupta O P (1985), “Behaviour of Share Prices in India: A Test of Market Efficiency”.

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ELECTRA COMPLEX IN THE POETRY OF SYLVIA PLATH

Dr. Syed Aamir Syeed Faculty Department of English Govt. Degree College (Boys) Anantnag, Jammu and Kashmir

It is said that Sylvia Plath was an outrageous person. But her outrageousness is not unfounded. It has had a real cause, making her life hellish. Following the tradition set by modernists like Eliot, she uses various myths to highlight her predicament created by authoritarian structures which invest power in patriarchy. In this connection her relationship with her father and husband are intriguing. In her poem “Electra in Azalea Plath” she remarks: “I borrow the stilts of an old tragedy”. (Plath, Collected Poems117). She exploits the Greek myth of Electra who conspired with her brother Orestes to avenge their father’s death by attempting to murder their own mother. It is this myth of Electra and the emotional complex associated with it that provided her the subject matter for most of her important poems. For example, in “Daddy” she is engaged with this classical psychological dilemma of love and hatred for her parents. Recording her turbulent attitude in “Daddy”, she writes:

The poem is spoken by a girl with an Electra complex. Her father died while she thought he was a God. Her case is complicated by the fact that her father was also a Nazi and her mother very possibly part Jewish. In the daughter the two strains marry and paralyse each other- she has to act out the awful little allegory once over before she is free of it. (Alvarez 65).

These two contrasting forces of Nazism and Judaism merge in Plath only to puzzle her. As a sensitive child she had to bear the brunt of her

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overbearing father. He wanted to discipline her according to his own perception, wishes and whims. As a god-like figure he would use all means at his disposal to condition her childish behaviour.

The mourning for the father and the wish to unite with him in Sylvia Plath’s earlier poems turns into a bitter and revengeful mode in her later writings in an attempt to do away with the haunting of her father. Of the poems about her father, “Daddy” is considered best of them. A textual analysis of the poem makes it clear that the happenings and occurrences from life have been selected and manipulated and made relevant by her. Like ‘Colossus’, ‘Electra on Azalea Path’, ‘Letter to a Purist’, ‘The Lament’, etc. this poem also belongs to a group of poems exploring the theme of father fixation or Electra complex. Her father is the focus of attention because his memory is constantly haunting and torturing the poet’s mind. “Daddy” is about the speaker’s possession by the image of the father – a childhood version of the father which persists into adulthood. Sylvia’s complex emotions of love, hate, guilt and anger towards her father are well expressed in the poem. The traumatic past co-exists with the present, which causes the confusion of the subject’s temporality and locality. The haunting image of the father is so obvious in this poem that the persona has to rise up in the end to do away with it.

The poem starts out stating that the speaker’s father is no longer physically harming her; however, she still cannot escape from his influence:

You do not do, you do not do Any more, black shoe In which I have lived like a foot For thirty years, poor and white Barely daring to breath or Achoo. (Plath, Collected Poems 222)

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The image of the black shoe where the speaker lives for thirty years creates the prolongation of the oppression from the father. The black shoe is an overt symbol for the male sexual organ. The image also indicates Sylvia’s entrapment by the father’s memory; hardly daring to breathe or sneeze, the girl suffers because the father has oppressed her for a long time and all her endeavors to recover him have been unsuccessful. The poem continues:

Daddy, I have had to kill you. You died before I had time. (222) This address to kill the father indicates a strong need to hurt the one who has hurt her so terribly, a childish reaction to her pains which has prolonged throughout her life. The father-daughter relationship is described in terms of the victimizer and the victimized. The ambivalent love-hate relationship is reinforced when the speaker said:

I used to pray to recover you. Ach, du. ….. At twenty I tried to die And get back, back to you. (222-24) These emotions are contrary to her former address to kill the father. The trauma of the paternal loss has been so great that the persona has attempted to die in order to get back to her father.

Among the influences that shaped Sylvia Plath’s personality, the most important was that of her father. When her father was alive, he made her write verses every evening after dinner. Her father’s death created a void in her life and she never wholly recovered from this emotional loss. His shadow looms large in her poetry as an ominous figure, “A Man in Black” (Daddy), as a colossus or as a creature of the other world inviting her to join him. She felt that had he lived longer, her life would

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have taken a different course. Her father’s death was her first encounter with death, and all her life she remained obsessed with death in one form or the other. She felt uncannily attracted towards death because she thought that death is the only way that she could join her father. Her first poem with her first sketch was published immediately after her father’s death, for which she won a prize. It was a poem about a firefly:

Hear the cricket chirping In the dewy grass. Bright little fireflies Twinkle in the grass. (Aird 5) Her father is present as an unavoidable deity in her poetry, directly or indirectly. Sometimes she is furious at him for abandoning her; yet at other she is helpless at his persistent presence in her conscious and unconscious mind. She herself has projected her so called Electra complex in a number of poems. In Greek mythology, Agamemnon’s death had been depicted by drowning; and the daughter Electra was to retaliate her father’s death. Sylvia Plath takes a fancy to this image which she uses in many of her poems. Her untoward love for her father led her to the feelings of ‘guilt’- a secret guilt and vexation thereof to her mother, which she expressed in her only novel The Bell Jar and in poems like “Medusa’ and “The Disquieting Muses.” She was tortured so much of a feeling of imagined incest that she had to give it an outpouring in her most important poems. His death is imaginatively viewed as an act of desertion or as a lover’s jilting his beloved. This sense of betrayal often turns her love for her father into hatred for him in her poems. Thus the memory of her dead father arouses complex feelings of love and hate. Sylvia Plath once recalled her feelings for her father to her friend Nancy Steiner:

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He was an autocrat. I adored him and despised him, and I probably wished many times that he were dead. When he obliged me and died, I imagined that I had killed him. (Steiner 10).

The autocratic father becomes a hated Nazi, a one legged panzer-man in her poetry. In some of her poems Plath expressed how she was afraid of her father and how she hated him. But hatred is not the only emotion she has for her father. Throughout her work, underlying the forceful expressions of hatred for her father is a fierce love for him, making the father-daughter relationship a complex affair.

The love and the remembrance about her father flourish in many of Sylvia Plath’s poems. We see the complex emotions of loss, guilt, resentment and abandonment aroused by the death of her worshipped father which happened when she was eight years old. The traumatic loss of the father persists to the present and still greatly affects the adult Sylvia. In many of her earlier poems, mainly collected in her first book Colossus, the mourning of the father and the wish to be united with him constantly and repeatedly appear. Her later poetry, especially in Ariel is working in another mode entirely. Her later poems show her effort in doing away with the influence of the image of the father, and her wish to be free from the predicament.

The life of Sylvia Plath represents the experience of an individual traumatized by her past and lives the repetition of her own traumas as it shapes her life. The poems are the traces of Sylvia’s scars, old and new alike, crying out of pain and wound. In living, she is wondered to death. The intolerable trauma of paternal loss which Sylvia Plath has never worked through during her life leads her to find the replacement for her loss, which is her husband. When Ted Hughes ultimately disappoints her and denounces her, death seems to be the only option

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for her. However, love, death, knowledge, emotion and predicament which troubled her:

…are the isolate, slow faults That kill, that kill, that kill. (Plath, Collected Poems 193) Sylvia Plath once wrote when annotating T.S. Eliot’s mourning “Four Quarters” that we live by memory of the past (the dead). The young Sylvia never came out through the pain of the loss of the father. She was the traumatized child who suffered paternal loss and repeatedly went through the process of mourning, however, with inconsolable melancholy. The sudden death of the father was incomprehensible to young Sylvia Plath. What came much worse was that there was no appropriate emotional outlet for the child to let go her anxiety and fear. The incomprehensibility and the repressed emotions for the sorrow of her father’s death ultimately lead to the possession by the past, where the father’s image repeatedly returns to haunt her. Her mourning of the father in the poetry is a manifestation of traumatic symptom and acting–out of her trauma.

The poem “Electra on Azalea path” is Sylvia’s one such poem which reflects the trauma of her paternal loss and the impact of the father’s death on her:

The day you died I went into the dirt. Into the lightless hibernaculum. (116) Sylvia in the poem voices how she felt after the father’s death. It was as if she “went into the dirt” and into the hibernation. Sylvia Plath employs vivid imagery and an evocative tone to convey her feelings of grief, guilt, and disdain the day she first visited her father’s grave in the cemetery, and the devastating effects his death had on her. Plath addresses the poem to her deceased father, of whom she harbours a deep daughterly love for, along with a bitterness created when he seemingly abandoned her and her mother when he died. Several times

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throughout the poem, Plath conveys how she feels as if her father’s death had killed her as well. The title of the poem as it refers to the character in Greek drama; ‘Electra’ bears much to say about Sylvia’s Electra complex as Freud refers it for the daughter’s libidinal feelings towards the father and her hostile and jealous feelings towards the mother.

In the poem Sylvia ironically makes fun of the similarity of the words between “Azalea Path” and “Aurelia Plath”, between the name of a ‘lane’ in a public cemetery where her father was buried with her mother’s name. Plath disdainfully depicts the melancholy scene of Azalea Path, the site of her father’s tomb, and the impact of the scene upon her mind was so deep that in her poem she recalls each image down to the very detail. In “Colossus”, Sylvia though sometimes speaks in ironic and mocking tone, yet she again expresses the mourning of her father; who submerges as a shattered statue, or a kingly titan.

Perhaps you consider yourself an oracle Mouthpiece of the dead, or of some god or other Thirty years now I have labored To dredge the silt from your throat Scaling little ladders with gluepots and pails of Lysol I crawl like an ant in mourning Over the weedy acres of your brow To mend the immense skull plates and clear The bald, white tumuli of your eyes. (129) The father –daughter relationship is treated through the medium of an archaeological metaphor. The father is seen as a great but broken statue, a ruin from some former time.

O father, all by yourself You are the pithy and historical as the Roman Forum. (129)

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As is evident from the poems analysed so far, she does not deal with her father-daughter relationship niggardly; rather it is one of her basic concerns. The various pulls and pressures she experienced ultimately led her to succumb to violence and commit suicide. However, as a tragic heroine, her predicament is one of courage and choice. Her anguished cry “I am finally through” points to the unassuageable misery caused by the Electra complex she had to reckon with in secular conditions. Although Electra complex is a mythical construct, it is argued that it has a biological basis as well. Such a phenomenon, it is believed, hampers the normal growth of a child and, in turn, causes suppressed feelings to manifest themselves, often unconsciously, in hysteria, schizophrenia, madness and death-wish. In the case of Sylvia Plath, negation of fulfilment led her to oscillate between two opposite poles. On the one hand, she shows the defiant attitude of “you do not do” and, on the other, a deep longing for her father. This duality affected her with masochism and melancholia responsible for her lack of control and coordination. A disintegrated personality being the inevitable result of such a turn of events, therefore, makes Electra complex the most vibrant theme of the poems analysed in this connection.

References :

1. Aird, Eileen. Sylvia Plath: Her Life and Work. New York: Harper & Row, 1973. Print.

2. ______. Sylvia Plath. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1973. Print. 3. Freud, Sigmund. Sexuality and the Psychology of Love. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963. Print. 4. Plath, Sylvia. Collected Poems, ed. Ted Hughes. New York: Harper & Row, 1981 Print. 5. Plath, Sylvia. Johnny Panic and the Bible of Dreams. London: Faber and Faber. 1977. Print.

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6. ______. The Journals of Sylvia Plath, ed. Ted Hughes and Frances McCullough. New York: Dial. 1982. Print. 7. Plath, Sylvia. Letters Home: Correspondence 1950–1963, ed. Aurelia Plath. New York: Harper & Row. 1975. Print. 8. Steiner, George. “Dying is an Art”. The Art of Sylvia Plath: A Symposium, ed. Charles Newman. London: Faber and Faber, 1970. Print. 9. Steiner, Nancy Hunter. A Closer Look at Ariel: A Memory of Sylvia Plath. London: Faber, 1974. Print.

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आगमशोधछाः

राियसंकृतवयापीठं

तपतः तनोतीत तम ्। तनुत इयय वतारयत इयथः। कं वतारयीयुतौ पुषोतमसंहता। वणुसंहतादभः तमसमातान वपुलान ् अथान ् इत लयते। तथा च तमसमातान ् अथान ् वपुलकरोतीत तशदय पटाथ इत वतुं शयते। कृते लमीतम ् नाम वणुपयाः लयाःवैभवं तेऽ वणतं वतते इत नामेदं साथकं भवत। लमीशदय जगतया लयमाना सा लमीरत गीयते इत अहबुयसंहतायां युपादतम ्। तमदं पाचराागमेषु अयतमवेन परगयते। अहबुयसंहतेव सवषु सामायवषयेषु सावतसंहताम ् इयमप संहता अनुसरत। कुचत ् सावातसंहता नामाप नदटम ्।वैणवसंदायथेषु वुशय पितवषये रहययसार -नरपेादषु बहु लोकाः अमादेवचता यते। अतः पाचरासमये थोयं सवथा माणब इत शटपरगृहत इत च ायते । न केवलं

पाचराकानां अप तु इतर साितनोप तमदं अनुमयते।

चकलातुत यायायां अपयदतोप पाचरालमीत वचनान

दशयत। त इमान शं त-

ीमहालमी वचनान –

महालमीरहं श पुनवायंभुवोऽतरे।

हताय सवलोकानां जाता महषमदनी।। इयुवा

सवा संपदमानोत धुनोत सकलापदः।

मम भावासौभायं कत चैव समनुते।।इत भणतम ्।।

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तथैव ललतासहनामतोय 101तमलोकभाये भाकररायदताः

अप... - तदुतं माकडेयपुराणे पाचराे लमीते च भगवयैव

तैव च वधयाम दुगमायं सहासुरम ्।

दुगादेवीत वयातं तमे नाम भवयतः१ ।। इत

उतवान ्।

तथैव तैव 103 तमे लोके भाये तदुतम- ्

तदुतं पाचरा लमीते इं त देयै च

महालमीरहं श पुनवायं भुवोऽतरे

हताय सवलोकानां जाता महषमदनी।।इत च उतम ्।

तैव126 तमे लोके भाये–

पाचराे लमीतेप

वैववतेऽतरे तौ च पुनसुभनसुसुभकौ ।

उपयेते वरोमतौ देवोपवकारणौ।।

नदगोपकुलेजाता यशोदा गभ संभवा।

तावहं नाशययाम नंदाया वयवासनी।।इयुतम ्।

दुगासतशयां योदशायाये 29 तमे लेके यायाने त पाचरा लमीते

सवाते वणतम ्-

१ ल.त-9-37

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एतेषां परमा ोता कूटथा सा महयसी।

महालमीमहामाया कृतः परमेवर।।

अमुयाः ततये टं मायै सकलै सुरैः।

नमो देयादकं सूतं सवकामफलदम२ ् ।।इयुतम ्।

त अपयदताः, भाकररायदताःपाचरा लमीते इत पाचरावशेषण पुरसरं योगमकुवन ् इत पाचराातरत लमीतं कचन वयते इत ायते। तथैव लमीतमत कामाीवैभवकाशकं ,लमीतमत शवपूजा तपादन गथोप उपलयत एव। एतौ नराकतुमेव अ पाचरालमीतं इय पाचरावशेषणं अयवहतं इत वतुं शयते। तथैव नागेशभोप

दुगासतशयां चतुथऽयाये 36 तमे लोके एवं यायानमकाषत ्-

एनामुपय लमीते लमीवायम ्।

अभटुता सुरैसाहं महषं जनुषी णात ्।।

महषातकरसूतं टं देवैमहषुभः।।

उपितं युवाितं तों चेत सुरेवर।

कथयित सुवतीण ामणा वेदपारगाः३ ।।इत ।।

एवं ललतोपायाने सतंशतमे अयाये –

आनुकूयय सकपः ातकूयस वजनम ्।

रयतीत ववासः गोतृवरणं तथा।

आमनेपकापये षवधा शरणागतः४ ।।

२ ल.त – 9-46,47 ३ ल.त – 9-11,13

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इत च अ लमीते वयमानाःलोका एव वीकृताः। इदं च लमीतं शतकोटलोकवतृत मूलभूत लमीतय सारं संगृय ीदेयेव इायोपददेश।

इत अैव नगदतम ्।

ीदेवी शपेण वृतमदं तं ततः पचात ् देवषनारदः मलयगरं आतमुनीन ् उपददेश। तेषु अयतमः अमहषः अमहषः वभाया अनसूयां उपददेश। अमींच ते इतरतेिवव ानादपेण पादवभागः नाित। तथाप ानादपादेषु तपादतवषया एव अाप वषयीकृताः। अतः ताथसंहपेण िथतय अय थयाते यापादं वयाम पुरंदर इत यते। अिमन ् थे सतपाचाशत ् अयायाः सित कतु पचपचाशत ् षपचाशत ् अयाययोः केचन लोकाः न समुलयते।लमीते 276 माः सित। तेषु 53 ीसूतनामान सित।

50 अयाये ीसूतेन पूजावधानं लया उतम ्।

परशीलतथाः 1. -Edited by V.Krishnamacharya,Adayar library series लमीतम ् 2. -Edited by T.Ganapatishastri, Nag publications वणुसंहता 3. –Edited by sudhakarmalaviya, Chaukhamba अहबुयसंहता Sanskrit Pratishthan 4. – Commentary by Nagesha Bhatta, दुगासतशत Chaukhamba Publications, Delhi.

४ ल.त-17-60,61

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THE MUTHANGA AGITATION: AN OUTCOME OF LANDLESSNESS Sajenesh.V.P Research Scholar Kannur University Kannur, Kerala

A ‘Tribe’ is viewed, historically or developmentally, as a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states. A tribe is a distinct people, dependent on their land for their livelihood, who are largely self-sufficient, and not integrated into the national society. It is perhaps the term most readily understood and used by the general public. Stephen Corry, Director of Survival International the world's only organization dedicated to indigenous rights, has defined tribal people as “those which have followed ways of life for many generations that are largely self-sufficient, and are clearly different from the mainstream and dominant society.”1

This definition, however, would not apply in countries of the Middle East such as Iraq, where the entire population is a member of one tribe or another and therefore tribalism itself is dominant and mainstream. ‘Tribe’ is a contested term due to its roots in colonialism. The word has no shared referent, whether in political form, kinship relations or shared culture. Some argue that it conveys a negative connotation of a timeless unchanging past. To avoid these implications, some have chosen to use the terms ‘ethnic group’, or nation instead.

Tribes in Kerala (Adivasis of Kerala) are the aboriginal inhabitants found in the southern Indian state of Kerala. Most of the tribal people of Kerala live in the forests and mountains of Western Ghats bordering Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Waynad has the highest number of tribals, Idukki and Palakkad districts are the next two that make the lion portion of the native tribal people groups in the state.

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The present paper is an attempt to trace the history of tribal uprisings in Wayanad especially in Muthanga. At the end of the endless waiting for land the Adivasis started the Muthanga struggle against the negative attitude of the Government. They made temporary huts in the struggle site of Muthanga on 3rd January 2003 and they proclaimed that the Muthanga is an autonomous region under the discrimination of Gothra Maha Sabha of Adivasis. The Muthanga struggle was a reaction to the delay in allotting land to the Adivasis, which had been contracted in October 2001 signed by the government of Kerala with Adivasi Gothra Mahasabha.

The Adivasis started their protest in August 2001 and that it was carried out chiefly by setting up ‘Refugee Camps’ in front of the State Chief Minister's residence in Thiruvananthapuram. The strike continued for 48 days, and the Government of Kerala compelled to promise to give land for Adivasis. While the Government failed to keep its promise, the Adivasis redesign their mode of agitation. The aboriginal people of Waynad decided to enter the forest under the banner of Adivasi Gothra Maha Sabha (AGMS). The Adivasis put up huts in Muthanga struggle site which is situated in Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and adjacent to Muthanga Wild Life Sanctuary in the Western Ghats where the forest was already divested. The leaders of adivasis argue that the signing of the land allocation agreement between the then chief minister A.K. Antony and Gothra Mahasabha was not eloquently implemented and the government had no concern to actualize the agreement. One can be read it clearly from the laziness and character of the responsible authority and the Chief Minister himself.

P.K.Prakash rightly observes that Chief Minister A.K.Antony has not a person supporting the Adivasi interests. On the other hand when he was Chief Minister of Kerala for the first time he decided to provide ‘Pattayam’ (the title deed of the property) to those who encroached the

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forests and Adivasi land. Along with this, most of the small pieces of land of the Adivasis were taken away by the trespassers. At that time A.K. Antony did not take interest to restore the alienated land of the Adivasis and distribute it to them as per the Act. In short, A.K.Antony did not take any step to implement the Adivasi Land Act of 1975. Further the Antony government stated to dispense land to the landless Adivasi families without having details of landless Adivasi families, and the needed quantity of available land to distribute under the government. Even though Adivasis were given land at Marayur and Kumdala but they could not enter their land due to the opposition of forest department and lack of rehabilitation facilities. Every where the forest department has an arrogant approach towards tribal land issues. Once at Marayoor, they appeared to oppose the land distribution programme of the government itself, therefore it collapsed. They always show pleasure to clash with the Gothramahasabha. The Tribal court of Gothra Maha Sabha started on August 25the 2002 and commenced the agitation campaign which way for grew in to Muthanga and the figurative sovereign rule at Muthanga. The then Chief Minister of Kerala A.K.Antony has the view that if the land to Adivasis should be the forest but central government was against the allotment of forest land. In brief, the Adivasis were deprived of obtaining their alienated land; the Muthanga incident was the result of this impasse. The revenue department had a hidden agenda in the issue of the distribution of land to Adivasi because the recommended land for distributing to them is thick forest. More over the Scheduled Tribe Development Department and the Department of forest have no unanimous decision over this matter. All these three departments failed to convince the problem of landlessness. They each other clashed them on the issue of the Adivasi land allocation.

These kinds of unethical examples of the authorities paved the way to the formation of tribal court and the building of huts at Muthuanga by

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the Adivasi Community. Adivasis made huts at Muthanga where eucalyptus was planted by forest department after clear felling the dense and ever green forest for providing soft wood as raw material for Mavoor Grasim factory in 1980.

Adivasis started their agitation on 3rd January 2003 at Muthanga. The tribal people protested that attempt of the forest department to remove trees from the forest through clear felling. They also defended the department of their breach of the existing forest Act by themselves whom entrusted to conserve the same as genuine obligation. Some tribal men lost their lives amidst of that struggle to sustain the dense forest. Above all, the forest department had interested to convert the area to develop a Zoological park and a tourist spot in spite Muthanga coming in the wild life sanctuary. The Muthanga struggle and the GIM (Global Investment Meet) in Kerala were happening simultaneously. If the government tried to expel the Adivasis from the land and huts that might be led in too many political problems. So the government hesitated to take any strong action against the Muthanga Struggle at the initial stage.

The Adivasi agreement that assured to give land to landless Adivasi families was undermined by the government. The tribal court decided to claim their rights over the forest resources. For the consciousness of the above said goals the tribal court decided to start agitation all over Kerala. The tribal court sitting was attended by around 2000 Adivasis. In the court session details about 18000 acre lands to be restored were submitted. The second phase of struggle started in Muthanga on the basis of the 4th part of the agreement between the Adivasis and the government. The fourth part of the agreement signed by A.K. Antony with the Adivasi leaders to terminate the refugee camp which cited as “The State Government will request to the central government to declare the land possessed by the Adivasis at present and the land newly distributed to them as scheduled areas.” The State Government

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will make legislation to guard the land and traditions of the Adivasis living in these scheduled areas. The Gothra autonomy was the most important compassion to the Adivasis in the agreement signed with the government.

According to the Article 244 of the Indian Constitution which came to exist on 26th January 1950, “the habitat of Adivasis should be included in the 5 and 6 schedule and it must be protected.” After the passing of Panchayati Raj in 1992, parliament appointed Bhooriya Committee to prepare suggestion on the matter of Panchayath Administration in the tribal areas and renew the rules appropriately. According to the suggestions of the Bhooriya Committee the Panchayati Raj Act was passed by the parliament. As per the Panchayati Raj Act even a very small Adivasi habitat also should be defined as village and the decision taken by that Grama Sabha should be implemented by Panchayath and the Panchayath laws should be suited to the life style and customs of Adivasis. The Panchayath law also should ensure that the governing bodies in tribal area, an autonomous one.

There are more than 1000 Adivasi autonomous regions in India. These autonomous institutions possess the following powers like; to ban alcohol, ownership over the resources of small forest, to prevent alienation of Adivasi land, restore the alienated land, power control over the Panchayath establishments and the functionaries, to prevent lending money at the scheduled tribe’s areas. The scheduled area declaration transferred these powers to the tribal autonomous institutions.

The government of Kerala violated the constitution by not to making such legislation which denotes the scheduled areas. Even though the Kerala government assured the Adivasis to legislate scheduled areas when the agreement was signed to withdraw the agitation the government did not take steps to carry out its promise. Grieved by the

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cheating of Kerala Government the Adivasis started agitation in Muthanga and they made huts there and declared autonomous right to it. Some environmental activists, the forest department and the migrants turned hostile at the Adivasis while the agitators make huts and began to live in it at Muthanga. The above said group of defenders alleged over the Adivasis because they destroying the forests through the struggle and making huts in the forest. But this propaganda did not accept the general public. When the Adivasis found fire in the forest they captured the officials of forest department. As a reaction to this, the police started violence against Adivasis. But the accused told to the district collector that not they are but the forest officials were responsible to the fire in the forest.

The Adivasi Gothramahasabha a great assembly of Adivasi Communities comprised of 380 representatives from 31 different Adivasi communities from the Kerala actively participated in the struggle. It also serves as a platform for all Adivasi organizations of Kerala. The Adivasi Gothramahasabha had already given prior notice to the government about the struggle at Muthanga. But the government ignored it at the initial stage and later the state intervened with the brutal force on the 45th day of the struggle. The Muthanga agitation was brutally suppressed by the police resulting in the death of an Adivasis and a policeman and hundreds of Adivasis were severely wounded.

The Kerala government sent a report to the National Human Rights Commission about the Muthanga Agitation. The report says, “A group of 500 Adivasis under the banner of Adivasi Gothramahasabha led by C.K.Janu and M. Geethanandan entered in to the (encroached) block I and II plantations in Noolpuzha Village at Muthanga range on 5-1- 2003, and they declared that the area is autonomous of Adivasis. The Adivasis came from different parts of Waynad and from other districts of Kerala named the place ‘Adivasi Gothramahasabha Panchayath’.

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They arranged Check posts at Thakarapadi, Ponkudi and Ambukuthi and an entrance fee levied to the non-tribe to enter in to the area. Even the forest officials also were not exempted from it.

The Left Democratic Front stated during the election campaign that if they came to power in the election, the Government would provide land to all landless Adivasis and all judicial charges against the Adivasis and would be canceled and would make a rehabilitation package for them. But in fact, they comfortably took all that promises. The left government really upset down the Forests Rights Act 2006 of the Adivasis. C.K.Janu says that the circular issued by the Left government in 2008 was against the interest of Adivasis. In 2008, the government declared that land will be given to those who do not posses even a small piece of land their own. This tactics of the Left government was entirely against the Adivasis who possess only one or two cent. The Muthanga struggle brought up the Adivasi land issue in to a new perspective. A.K.Antony’s promise, that each Adivasi family would be given five acres of land had not been carried out. This fault of the Antony Ministry paved way for the struggle Muthanga.

Muthanga incident was a test dose to examine the role and responsibility of the Governments. In Kerala either UDF or LDF developed an anti-Adivasi approach while they prepare their political manifesto. The root of Adivasi land issue is laid down along with the process of socio-economic changes during the last two centuries. The Adivasis in Kerala fall in to different categories and follow different cultural decent. While some are cultivates, others gathered forest produces and some others make handicrafts for their livelihood. It may be said that the origin of the problems of Dalit of present day is the incomplete land reforms.

The reinstatement of land to Adivasis continued to be a major problem in the Post-Muthanga period. Even before that, since the 2001

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agreement, only 1.06 per cent of the families were provided with land (which came to 2.2 per cent of the identified land) within the first four months of the stipulated 12 months period. At this rate, it was feared, it would take one more fifty years or more for the land allotment to be concluded. This negligence is yet another example of the denial of Constitutional obligations to the Adivasis. The reality is that unless tribal people get rid of indebtedness and the supplementary land alienation, it is unlikely that any legislation will prevent them from transferring their land. The number of Adivasi families who have benefited land allotted on the basis of the declaration during the Muthanga agitation in Wayanad district, according to the Tribal Resettlement and Development Mission, is 997 and for them 2526.6 acre land has been distributed. The number of Adivasi families who have been provided land by the government after 2003 Muthanga Agitation in all districts of Kerala is 5803. To address the hardship of the Adivasis, the State Government decided to purchase land in Aralam farm (Kannur) to be financed from the Tribal Welfare Fund to resettle landless Adivasi families of Kannur and Wayanad districts of Kerala. The government also promised to incorporate a developmental programme for the welfare of the Adivasis. Even after years since the project was initiated, the government failed in honouring this pledge. Even worse, it was alleged that the state government was going to lease out a large proportion of the land to a private corporation, contradictory to the original aim of the plan. In the process, Adivasis were neither consulted nor informed about the proposal. Aralam farm, consisting of 12,000 acres of fertile land, is situated in the district of Kannur.

From the above discussion, it becomes clear that even though the state and the central governments have announced so many plans and programmes for the development of Adivasis and are allocating huge amounts of funds for their progress, it is not helping them. Their

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promises and programmes are becoming false in effect and even their minimum demand for land is not at all approved by these governments. To a great extent, this issue can be solved if they are allotted land from Aralam farm of Kannur district. But no government is giving due attention to this problem and no political parties are highlighting this issue. Hence to prevent violent agitations of Adivasis like that of Muthanga and to be have a more inclusive democratic set up, we will have to pay more attention to their minimum demands and try to empower them. Let us hope that at least the coming governments do not become deaf ears the age old prayer of this marginalized groups.

References

1. Gangadharan, T.K.,Contemporary Kerala, Calicut University, 2012

2. Jacob Jeemon, Sakhavu Vargees Adiyorude Peruman,Pen books, Aluva

3. Prakash, P.K.,Anyadheenappedunna Bhoomi, Adivasi Bhoomi prasnathinte Charitravum rashtreeyavum, Jayachandran Suhrud Sangam, Kozhikode, 2002

4. Prasad, M.K, Adivasi Samarathinte Arthantharangal- Muthanga Samarathinte Paschathalathil Oru Apagradhanam, Kerala Satra sahitya Parishad, Kochi, 2003

5. Stephen Corry,Tribal People for tomorrows World, Freeman press,2011

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HINDU WOMEN FROM 1300 AD TO 1905 AD IN INDIA

Prof.N.Kanakaratnam Head Department of History, Archaeology and Culture Dravidian University Kuppam,Andhra Pradesh 1300 to 1526 A.D.

Slavery - Bullwork was absolutely accustomed and Iv Batutah refers to the accretion of bondservant girls in lots and their administering as gifts. Sadly, a array of accustomed spirit seems to access prevailed in the matter. The Muslims took amusement in enslaving Hindu women enmass. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq beatific as presents to the Chinese emperor 100000 macho disciplinarian and 100000 bondservant dancers from a allotment of the Indian infidels. On the added duke Muslim women were angry by the Rajputs into bondservant girls and accomplished the art of dancing.

Marriage - Girls connected to get affiliated aboriginal except those from Kshatriya families who got affiliated about 14 or 15. The Kshatriya antecedent was afraid that if his babe got affiliated complete early, her bedmate dies in war (very accustomed during this period), how would she administer widowhood afore she came of age. Addition acumen was that abounding Kshatriya women were alleged to access authoritative responsibilities so bare to be accomplished in authoritative duties and aggressive exercises. For girls who got affiliated early, apprenticeship was not possible.

Marriages aural the aforementioned degree became added accustomed although top degree did ally added than once, already aural their own degree and additional time alfresco their caste. As in the beforehand aeon alliance aural the aforementioned gotra was banned and girls were accustomed abroad in alliance afore the age of puberty. Added

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Remarriage was banned during this period. The actualization of alliance in the antecedent aeon connected in this aeon too.

Sati - was added accustomed during this aeon than in beforehand periods. It is best brought out with this adduce from the Prabuddha Bharata affair of November 2000 “After Maharana Sanga dies, his son Vikramditya (1531-36) sat on the arch of Chitor. The baron was weak. Seizing the opportunity, the Pathan kings of Gujarat and Malwa attacked Chitore. The Baron absent the action and run away. The Pathans entered the fort. It was accustomed for women of those canicule to accomplish jouhar i.e.-mass affliction to assure their womanhood. The wife of the king, Jawaharbai was a adult of attenuate qualities. Riding on a horse back, the women army attacked the afraid pathans. Blood flowed, abounding Pathans were killed. About all the women laid their lives down angry and the blow committed jouhar”. Hats off to those women, they were fabricated of steel.

Purdah – The purdah had become a accustomed convenance during this aeon but was alien a allotment of lower classes of society, abnormally in the rural areas. Muslim aphorism was anemic in the South and begin bound accepting there.

General Position of Women - The position of women was not fabricated worse but in actuality adequate on some points. The old rules enjoining aloft the guardians the albatross for marrying their girls aboriginal forth with the appropriate to the babe to accomplish her best of bedmate continued. Aswell the abolishment of alliance with a benedict beneath appropriate diplomacy was allowed. The rules apropos to amiss women connected admitting with beneath severity though. The wife was to abide to attending afterwards bedmate and ancestors and the husband’s barter of advancement the affectionate wife continued. As before, the bedmate is to pay advantage extending to one third of acreage to his supreseded wife.

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However, the activity that women are symbols of accretion became stronger during this period.

A added was advised to be the foremost beneficiary of her sonless and disconnected bedmate as aswell a women’s complete buying of her stridhana (certain kinds of acreage acquired by a woman on specific occasions and at altered stages of life)

1526 to 1707 A.D.

Purdah – Through the ages, there was abasement in the cachet of women but there was no aloneness ever. Austere blind of women was a accustomed convenance a allotment of the Muslims in their built-in acreage and by itself abundant accent was laid aloft it by all kings including a advanced like Akbar. Hindus adopted purdah as a careful admeasurement to save the abstention of their women and advance the abstention of their amusing order. Purdah was, however, beneath anxiously followed in Rajput families. Their women, accomplished in all arts of warfare, took allotment in hunting expeditions. Barring, notable Muslim families, South India did not accept purdah. Hindu women acclimated a dopatta to awning their active with women from lower strata of affiliation not afterward any arrangement of purdah at all.

Sati – was broadly accustomed during this period. Widows who would not bake themselves were agonizingly advised by society, they were not accustomed to action connected hair or put on ornaments.

Education – Women’s apprenticeship was not in actuality abandoned admitting apprenticeship was imparted by their parents. Muslim girls learnt the Quran. The affluent appointed advisers to advise their daughters at home. The daughters of Rajputs chiefs were able to apprehend and write. Mughal princesses were added able to apprehend and write. The boilerplate women had acceptable ability about her built-in language. The ability of Sanskrit was broadly advance in the

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South. However, aback the boilerplate age of girls was low, the boilerplate babe did not get the account of education.

General Cachet – The bearing of a babe was advised inauspicious (in the antecedent periods it was not like that – a artefact of the ambiance they lived in). Girls were affiliated off at an aboriginal age beneath than 10, abrogation no allowance for her to be able or access her partner. Diplomacy was accustomed and paid. In some cases, the benedict has to pay the bride’s guardians. Girls acceptance to top chic Rajput families had greater abandon to access their husband.

Monogamy seems to access been the aphorism a allotment of the lower strata of affiliation in both the communities during this period. Afterwards accepting affiliated the babe was amenable for the administering of her household. She was to be a adherent wife who took affliction of her husband’s needs. On the added hand, her bedmate was to yield acceptable affliction of her. It appears that a lot of Hindus led a blessed calm life.

Divorce and remarriages accustomed a allotment of Muslims was banned to Hindu women. Added Remarriage, except for the lower strata of society, had in actuality abolished in Hindu affiliation during this period.

A Muslim woman affiliated a audible allotment of her husband’s or father’s allotment of acreage with an complete appropriate to actuate it. Unlike her Hindu sister she retained the appropriate afterwards marriage. Mahr was addition aegis for her while a Hindu woman had no appropriate to the acreage of her husband’s parents. A Hindu woman was advantaged to aliment besides adaptable property. Thus, women were led to a position of dejection in every apple of life. They became home birds, period.

Inspite of their seclusion, some Mughal ladies were writers of acumen and administrators of attenuate merit. Mira Bai, Salima Sultana, Zib-

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un-Nisa (eldest babe of Aurangzeb) were poetess of distinction. In Maharashtra, Aka bai and Kena aggregation of Ramdas Swami were imp arcane figures. Shivaji’s mother Jijabai developed in him a spirit of affront and cocky assertion. Tarabai Mohite was the absolute allegorical force in Maharashtra afterwards the afterlife of her bedmate Rajaram. Her accuracy helped adverse the Mughal aggression by Aurangzeb.

Whatever may access been the position of women in society, she absolutely active a a lot of admirable position as mother.

1707 to 1818 A D

From whatever point of actualization the 18th aeon was an blameworthy aeon in the history of India. Bit-by-bit abrasion and collapse of the Mughal Empire and abashed actualization of dignity subjected the country to political turmoil, amusing ataxia and bread- and-butter decline.

Marriage – was a accustomed amusing convenance except on the allotment of those who empiric abstention on religious grounds. To align for alliance of their accouchement was advised to be the parent’s duty. Alliance was an bounden and angelic band and not a arrangement for acquisitive comforts. A appropriately affiliated wife could not be abandoned except on accuse of adultery. Although took abode at an aboriginal age, cleanup did not yield abode till they able maturity.

Purdah – was empiric in Hindu and Muslim families. However, women of poor families who acclimated to go out to access their alimentation and those of South India did not beam it with the barring of the Moplahs of Malabar in Kerala.

Sati – It was added broadly accustomed in Rajasthan and Central India with hardly any followers in the South. In Bengal Sati was not universally followed by all castes. As a aftereffect of Western

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apprenticeship and the aware accessible assessment beneath the administering of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the got of Lord William Bentick abolished Sati in 1829.

Education – Aback a lot of girls got affiliated early, they did not access the allowances of education. ? No aloft changes from the antecedent period.

Polygamy – There was commonly no polygamy amidst the accustomed man except the Rajahs, Princes others. But polygamy had become a belled convenance a allotment of the Kulins of Bengal and the Brahmins of Mithila. Raja Ram Mohan Roy protested angrily adjoin this custom.

Widow Remarriage in top degree Hindu families was not permissible in Bengal. The Peshwas calm a tax alleged patdam on the remarriage of widows. Added Remarriage was broadly accustomed a allotment of the non-Brahmins of Maharashtra. On the whole, remarriage was not accustomed beyond the country.

Status, European Actualization – Ancestors arrangement had Men as the arch of the ancestors while the wife followed his will. Having said that, she had a aloof position in the abode and the ascendancy in acclimation its affairs. Piety, charity, bashfulness and amore were the qualities of a Hindu wife. Contemporary European writers like Orme access accustomed the Hindu women “Segregated from the aggregation of the added sex and strangers to the account of alluring attention, they are abandoned handsomer for this ignorance, as we see in them adorableness in the aloof artlessness of nature”. Quoting missionary Abbe Dubois “Hindu women are by itself chaste. I would go so far as to say that Hindu women are added blameless than any of abounding added affable countries”. Affiliation in accustomed had animosity of admiration for womenfolk.

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Forward-looking women – Angels at home could angle ancillary by ancillary if the charge arose. Quoting Malcom on the women of Maharashtra “The females of both the Brahman and Sudra Marathas, have, if their husbands are princes, abundant influence, not abandoned by their over individuals but sometimes in the diplomacy of the state. If affiliated to men of rank, they usually access a audible accouterment and acreage of their own, adore as abundant alternative as they desire, and hardly abrasion a veil’. Two imp egs. in the 18th aeon are Rani Bhavani of Natore and Shri Devi Ahalya Bai who disqualified over Indore from 1766 to 1795. Rani Bhavani was guided by abysmal religious aesthetics with acceptable authoritative abilities and alms for pious objects, which access immortalized her memory. Ahalya Bai was aggressive by academy virtues of celebrity and piety. She was a acceptable administrator. Quoting Malcom “She appears aural her bound sphere, to access been one of the purest and a lot of admirable rulers that anytime existed, and she affords a arresting e.g. of the activated allowances of a apperception accustomed from achievement of carnal duties beneath a abysmal adroitness of albatross to it creator”. The present day Kashi Vishwanath Mandir at Varanasi is fabricated by Ahilyabhai as a temple at Somnath. Aback a new Somnath temple was fabricated column Ability the one fabricated by her is not as known.

Muslim ladies who alternate in political diplomacy were Dardanah Begum, wife of the governor of Orissa, Zebunisa, wife of Shuja-ud-din, assisted her bedmate in administering and so was the case with Ali Vardin’s wife.

General Notes – Bullwork was addition evil. Beneath bondage men and women were awash as slaves. Unable to bear the appulse of accustomed calamities, humans awash themselves, ancestors to a affluent man in lieu of money. Dancing girls were purchased if

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adolescent by Naikins i.e. ball companies. Changeable accouchement and adolescent women were bought by all ranks.

1818 to 1905 AD

An important acumen for the corruption of Indian affiliation was the bit-by-bit but abiding abasement in the position of women. The acumen why the absorption of English able Indians was aboriginal fatigued to the call of ameliorate in the cachet of women is that it afflicted their own kin whose miseries afflicted their emotions. Inspite of the acceptable words said by European advisers about the activity of women in the antecedent period, on an average, their activity was deplorable. Adolescent marriage, abridgement of education, no added remarriage, and sati were some of the problems that she faced. Their activity in Bengal decidedly was pitiable.

Through the efforts of English able Indians sati was banned, apprenticeship was promoted, added remarriage was legalized. Inspite of best efforts, polygamy was not banned in that period. So aswell the custom of Purdah, added carefully empiric by Muslims and adopted from them by the Hindus of North India was adjoin by religious sects like the Brahmo, Arya Samaj.

In Mumbai, the agitation for amusing reforms started beforehand than West Bengal due to the actuality that the Maratha rulers of the 18th aeon followed the old Hindu attitude of acclimation amusing diplomacy and showed a spirit of readmitting converts, intermarriage, remarriage of girls, and prohibition of auction of girls. The enactment of the Prarthana Samaj gave a abundant catalyst to amusing reform. Jotiba Phule took up the could could could could could cause of women and started a girl’s academy in Pune in 1851, helped widows to remarry.

The spirit of amusing ameliorate was axiomatic in a lot of provinces. The Mysore govt anesthetized a law authoritative alliance afore the age

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of 12 actionable for girls. Baroda anchored the minimum age for girls at 12 and 16 for boys. The arrangement of Devadasis was declining.

Sati was abolished in 1829. The Hindu Widow’s Remarriage Act was anesthetized in 1856. It legalized the alliance of widows and captivated accouchement built-in of such marriages to be legitimate. Inspite of the act, remarriage did not accomplish abundant progress.

Education – Although the above-mentioned paras accredit to the top educational accomplishment of women in the Vedic ages and its bit-by- bit decline, things had arise to such a canyon during the 19th aeon that a approved arrangement of changeable apprenticeship was alien in India. Daughters of aloof families got some elementary apprenticeship at home, period. Missionaries did accomplish some adventurous efforts in Bengal to brainwash girls but they bootless because too abundant absorption was placed to admonition of Christianity and abridgement of acceptable teachers.

Although austere efforts were fabricated to brainwash women it bootless because of the actuality of Purdah, alarm of the parents that their daughters would absorb Christian principles, there was no perceived absolute account to the able women; ancestors was afraid that she would not do domiciliary plan because of which ancestors budgets would go up.

We access to bethink the addition fabricated by Pandit Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar to the could could could could could cause of women’s apprenticeship in Bengal. He opened no beneath than 35 girl’s schools amid 1857 and 1858.

In Mumbai women led a analogously freer activity as there was no Purdon a allotment of the Marathas. Is that not accurate even today? In Mumbai and Pune English able boys advance apprenticeship through a girl’s academy set up in 1851.

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Some arresting associates of the Brahmo Samaj started journals for the advance of apprenticeship a allotment of women. The Arya Samaj able apprenticeship in Punjab by establishing the Mahakanya Vidyalaya at Jullandar in Punjab. (My mother went to this school). Gradually the academy accessory and primary schools all over India. Starting 1882, govt grants for schools were added abundantly given. In 1901-02, there were 12 changeable colleges in Bengal, Madras and Affiliated Provinces.

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ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS: OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT AT GLOBAL LEVEL

Dr. Jagadish B Deputy Manager Learning and Development Division Human Resources and Services Group Toyota Kirloskar Motor, Bangalore, India

I. INTRODUCTION

During the year 2000, world leaders came together and committed to eradicate poverty in different forms across the globe. It was also resolved to achieve the Millennium Development Goals by the year 2015. Worldwide, noteworthy achievements have been made on many of the Millennium Development Goals targets. However, on the other side, it is evident that the growth has been uneven across regions and countries, leaving considerable gaps. In spite of global agencies coming together, still millions of people are being left behind, especially the poorest and those disadvantaged because of their sex, age, disability, ethnicity or geographic location. There is a dire need to reach the most vulnerable people through specific interventions. The Millennium Development Goals Report (UN, 2015) throws more light on the opportunities for improvement so that we can accomplish the Sustainable Development Goals.

II. GENDER INEQUALITY ENDURES

Women continue to face discrimination in access to work, economic assets and participation in private and public decision-making. Women are also more likely to live in poverty than men. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the ratio of women to men in poor households increased

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from 108 women for every 100 men in 1997 to 117 women for every 100 men in 2012, despite declining poverty rates for the whole region.

Women remain at a disadvantage in the labour market. Globally, about three quarters of working-age men participate in the labour force, compared to only half of working-age women. Women earn 24 per cent less than men globally. In 85 per cent of the 92 countries with data on unemployment rates by level of education for the years 2012–2013, women with advanced education have higher rates of unemployment than men with similar levels of education. Though certain amount of development has been witnessed, still there is a long way to go in enhancing gender equality.

III. GAPS EXIST BETWEEN HAVES AND HAVE NOT’S

In the developing regions, children from the poorest 20 per cent of households are more than twice as likely to be stunted as those from the wealthiest 20 per cent. Children in the poorest households are four times as likely to be out of school as those in the richest households. Under-five mortality rates are almost twice as high for children in the poorest households as for children in the richest.

IV. THE URBAN-RURAL DIVIDE

In rural areas, only 56 per cent of births are attended by skilled health personnel, compared with 87 per cent in urban areas. About 16 per cent of the rural population do not use improved drinking water sources, compared to 4 per cent of the urban population. About 50 per cent of people living in rural areas lack improved sanitation facilities, compared to only 18 per cent of people in urban areas.

V. ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION CONTINUES

Climate change is altering the ecosystems and we can witness weather extremes like never before. Greenhouse gas emissions have increased risk to the society. Global emissions of carbon dioxide have increased by

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over 50 per cent since 1990. An estimated 5.2 million hectares of forest were lost in 2010, an area about the size of Costa Rica. Overexploitation of marine fish stocks led to declines in the percentage of stocks within safe biological limits, down from 90 per cent in 1974 to 71 per cent in 2011.

Many species are facing the threat of extinction. Species are declining overall in numbers and distribution. Water scarcity affects 40 per cent of people in the world and is projected to increase. Poor people’s livelihoods are more directly tied to natural resources, and as they often live in the most vulnerable areas, they suffer the most from environmental degradation.

VI. CONFLICTS THREAT TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

By the end of 2014, conflicts had forced almost 60 million people to abandon their homes—the highest level recorded since the Second World War. If these people were a nation, they would make up the 24th largest country in the world! Every day, 42,000 people on an average are forcibly displaced and compelled to seek protection due to conflicts, almost four times the 2010 number of 11,000. Children accounted for half of the global refugee population under the responsibility of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in 2014. In countries affected by conflict, the proportion of out-of-school children increased from 30 per cent in 1999 to 36 per cent in 2012. Fragile and conflict- affected countries typically have the highest poverty rates.

VII. MILLIONS LIVE IN EXTREME POVERTY

In spite of all the efforts made, even today, about 800 million people still live in extreme poverty and suffer from hunger. Over 160 million children under age five have inadequate height for their age due to insufficient food. Currently, 57 million children of primary school age are not in school. Almost half of global workers are still working in vulnerable conditions, rarely enjoying the benefits associated with

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decent work. About 16,000 children die each day before celebrating their fifth birthday, mostly from preventable causes. The maternal mortality ratio in the developing regions is 14 times higher than in the developed regions. Just half of pregnant women in the developing regions receive the recommended minimum of four antenatal care visits.

Only an estimated 36 per cent of the 31.5 million people living with HIV in the developing regions were receiving Anti-Retroviral Therapy (ART) in 2013. In 2015, one in three people (2.4 billion) still use unimproved sanitation facilities, including 946 million people who still practice open defecation. Today over 880 million people are estimated to be living in slum-like conditions in the developing world’s cities.

VIII. DATABASE MANAGEMENT

Lack of Critical Data

In several areas, large data gaps exist. Major challenges include poor data quality, lack of timely data and unavailability of disaggregated data on important dimensions. Because of this, many national and local governments continue to rely on old data. This is impacting the quality of planning and decision making.

According to a World Bank study, about half of the 155 countries lack adequate data to monitor poverty and, as a result, the poorest people in these countries often remain invisible. During the 10-year period between 2002 and 2011, as many as 57 countries (37 per cent) had none or only one poverty rate estimate. In sub-Saharan Africa, where poverty is most severe, 61 per cent of countries have no adequate data to monitor poverty trends. Lack of well-functioning civil registration systems with national coverage also results in serious data gaps, especially for vital statistics. According to the UN Interagency Group for Child Mortality Estimation, only around 60 countries have such

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systems; the others rely mostly on household surveys or censuses to estimate child mortality (UN, 2015).

Better Data Required

High-quality data disaggregated by key dimensions beyond the basics of age and sex, including migrant status, indigenous status, ethnicity and disability among others, are vital to making decisions and monitoring progress towards achieving sustainable development for all. Estimating the size and exploring the attributes of small population groups requires large sample sizes or full population counts. National population and housing censuses provide an important data source and sampling frame for estimating the size of vulnerable minority groups.

Real-Time Data for Faster Decision Making

We are living in the “New Information Age”. In this backdrop, real- time information is needed to prepare and respond to economic, political, natural and health crises. However, most development data have a time lag of two to three years. Recent innovations are helping to thwart this problem. For example, UNICEF and partners have used text messaging (SMS) technology to facilitate real-time collection and sharing of information about the Ebola outbreak. In Liberia, hundreds of health workers have used mHero (Health Worker Electronic Response and Outreach) and in Guinea and Sierra Leone, thousands of young people are using U-Report. This real time information has helped rapidly locate new cases, determined what supplies are needed and disseminated lifesaving messages.

Geospatial Data Required for Monitoring

Knowing where people and things are and their relationship to each other is essential for informed decision-making. Comprehensive location-based information is helping Governments to develop strategic priorities, make decisions, and measure and monitor outcomes. Once

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the geospatial data are created, they can be used many times to support a multiplicity of applications. A geodetic reference frame allows precise observations and ‘positioning’ of anything on the Earth and can be used for many social, economic and environmental purposes, such as precision agriculture and monitoring changes in sea level rise.

For example, geospatial information was used to support health care and design social intervention measures during the chikungunya virus (chick-V) outbreak across the Caribbean. In Trinidad and Tobago, geospatial applications for smart phones assisted the Ministry of Health to identify the location of infected persons and use the information to contain the outbreak.

Strengthening Statistical Capacity

Strengthening statistical capacity is the foundation for monitoring progress of the new development agenda. To improve the availability, reliability, timeliness and accessibility of data to support the post-2015 development agenda, sustainable investments are needed in statistical capacity at all levels, especially the national level. The scaling-up of national statistical capacities and the strengthening and modernization of statistical systems will require ensuring effective institutional arrangements and internal coordination, sustainable human resources, sustainable financial resources (internal and external) and technical cooperation. National statistical offices should have a clear mandate to lead the coordination among national agencies involved and to become the data hub for monitoring.

For instance, improving a country’s civil registration and vital statistics system requires strong commitment from the government and long- term efforts in strengthening administrative infrastructure. Progress in the past 20 years has been very slow, but a few countries have made great strides. In South Africa, for example, 85 per cent of births in 2012 were registered compared to 56 per cent of births in 2003. In Thailand,

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thanks to efforts begun in 1996, more than 95 per cent of births and deaths are now registered!

New Technology for Data Collection and Dissemination

New information and communication technologies provide unprecedented opportunities for data collection, analysis and dissemination. Today, 95 per cent of the global population is covered by a cellular network, while mobile cellular subscriptions have grown to over 7 billion. Internet penetration has increased to 43 per cent of the world’s population, linking 3.2 billion people to a global network of content and applications. New data collection technologies, such as Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI) and mobile text surveys (SMS), and new data sources, such as social media posts, online search records and mobile phone call records, allow faster data collection and provide near real-time information.

The 2010 Brazilian Census introduced several innovations in its operation. Digital census mapping was developed and integrated with the National Address File, which made the census data collection more efficient and more accurate. Field operations through CAPI devices equipped with a Global Positioning System receiver allowed better monitoring of the field operation and real-time data editing.

To cover difficult-to-reach populations, Brazil also used Internet data collection as a complementary system. However, new data sources and new data collection technologies must be carefully applied to avoid a reporting bias favoring people who are wealthier, more educated, young and male. The use of these innovative tools might also favour those who have greater means to access technology, thus widening the gap between the “data poor” and the “data rich” (MDG, 2015).

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Integrated Statistics System

International standards are important for building national statistical capacity. One of the Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics states that “the use by statistical agencies in each country of international concepts, classifications and methods promotes the consistency and efficiency of statistical systems at all official levels“. The Secretary- General’s Independent Expert Advisory Group on the Data Revolution for Sustainable Development also highlighted in its report the need for a “Global consensus on data” to adopt principles concerning legal, technical, privacy, geospatial and statistical standards that facilitate openness and information exchange while promoting and protecting human rights.

Measuring sustainability is a highly technical task that requires capturing complex economic, societal and environmental interactions. Therefore, an integrated framework of indicators is needed to cover these three dimensions cohesively. Integration benefits not only data users, but also data producers and providers by reducing the respondents’ burden, the likelihood of errors and the long-term costs. Harnessing the benefits of statistical integration requires investment in the adoption of statistical standards, developing and re-engineering of statistical production processes, and changing institutional arrangements.

Promoting Data Literacy

Data for development are public goods and should be made available to the public in open formats. Open data supports government transparency and accountability, enables the use of collective intelligence to make smarter policy decisions, increases citizen engagement and promotes government efficiency and effectiveness. Besides data, information on definitions, data quality, methods used in collecting data and other important metadata also need to be made

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widely available. In addition to opening up data, great efforts need to be made to release data in machine readable formats and to provide free visualization and analysis tools.

With an increasing volume of data available, people will also need the skills to use and interpret them correctly. Governments, international organizations and other stakeholders should support implementation of data literacy programmes, provide e-learning opportunities and include data literacy as a part of school curriculum.

IX. CONCLUSION

India has a diverse population of 1.2 billion. The biggest challenge is to take the levels of growth to all sections of the society and to all parts of the country (Yojana, 2015). Though adequate progress has been made in achieving the Millennium Development Goals, there are still opportunities for improvement. Gender inequality has to reduce, gaps between haves and have not’s need to be abridged, development focus has to shift from urban to rural areas, immediate steps to stop environmental degradation and efforts to lift people who are living in extreme poverty and hunger will go a long way in further accomplishing the MDGs. Further, data, as the basis for evidence-based decision-making and accountability, are the crucial pillars to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. The necessary data revolution is a joint responsibility of governments, international and regional organizations, the private sector and civil society. Building a new partnership will be essential to ensure that data are available to inform the post-2015 development agenda and support development decision- making for the next 15 years.

References

1. Gandhi, M, K. (2015): Gandhigiri, Inspirations from the Mahatma for Today, Times Lifestyle Series, Times Group Books, New Delhi.

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2. GoI. (2015): Millennium Development Goals Country Report 2015, Social Statistics Division, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India.

3. Jagadish, B. (2015): Social Work Approach in Achieving Millennium Development Goals, Prateeksha Publications, Jaipur, India.

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शतलोककरणानुसारेण मायानपणम ्

ट. सलगेवरयः शोधछाः,

अवैतवेदातवभागः राियसंकृतवयापीठम, ्त

पतः,

आदेशः

भूमका भगवयाः ुतेः उपांतभूतानां तवसारगभतानां उपनषदां आमभोधोपैकय बादरायणमहषणा णीतय सूथय अवैतभावामना भायणयनवधाता त भगवान ् शकराचायः अवैततवय संतोपदेशाय शतलोकं यरचयत ्।त जगतः आकृिटमूलकमायावप वचाराथ सातं करणमदं यथामत तूयते।

मायामाहायम ्

देहीपुमानुचरहयवृषातोषहेतुममेथं

सव वायुनयित थतमलममी मांसमीमांसयेह।

एते जीवित येन यवतपटवो येन सौभायभाजः तं ाणाधीशमतगतममृतममुं नैव मीमांसयित ।।(शतलोक – 5) ममवभावेन जेजीयमानाः जनाः अवयया मांसभूयठशररवषये चतयतः वजीवतायुः नाशयित।मदया पुी,धारा इममे, पुा इमे, पशव इमे तवत ् ी-पुी –धन-शररादनां वषये अहोरां कालयापनं कुवित।इदमेव तेषाम ् आयतकं परमयोजनं भवत।ययाितवे इमे सवऽप तभाित।ताशं शरराधपम ् आमानं वमृय संकुचतभावनया अनयपशररयामोहेन जीवतो

जनान ्तेषां लोकयवहारं च वा आचयमनुभूयते।

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अयासभाये कथताः सवऽप अंशाः पंचमलोके नपताः वतते। “ कोऽयं अयासो नाम युमदमययगोचरयोवषयवषयणोतमः काशवववभावयोरतरेतरभावानुपपतौ सायां तमाणामपसु तराम तरे तरभावानुपितरयतोऽमययगोचरे वषयण चदामके युमययगोचरय वषयय तमाणां चायासः, तवपययेण वषयणतमाणां च वषयेऽयासो मयेत भवतुं युतम ्। तथाययोय िमनयो याम कतामयोय धमाचायायेतरेतरववेके न,अयतववतयोधमधमणोमयााननमतः सयवेन मथुनीकृय अहमदं, ममेदमत नैसगकोऽयं लोकयवहारः ” एतावपयतम ् वयमानः भायसारः अिमन ् लोके कटकृ तः, देही-पु मानुचरादना।अतयामनं भगवतं सानं वमृय सवऽप भरणपोषणरणादभः ढेमानुबधेन व आयुनयित।देहवताम ् इदमेव योजनमत यथम ् आयुः ययीकुवित। वतुतः गूढम ् आमतवं परमं योजनवेन ेयम ्। लोके इदमाचय व देहे वभायादवषये एव सौदयपटवः ये भावित तैव सौदय भजित। मृतशररेतु तथाभमानः न यते। अतगतम ् अतयामवेन िथतम ् ाणोशं ाणमुयम ् अमृतं यमाणेषु देहेषु अमृतशीलं “ ” अनुभवैकवेयं न मीमांसित। न वा अरे पुाणां कामाय इत (बृहदारयकोपनषद)

ेयच, ेयच मनुयमेतौ इयाद ुतः अायाः।

किचकटः कथिचपटुमतरभतः कटकानां कुटरं

कुवतेनैव साकं यवतवधये चेटते यावदायुः।

तवजीवोप नानाचरतसमुदतैः कमभः थूलदेहं

नमायाैव तठननुदनममुना साकमयेत भूमौ।। (शतलोक ६) कचन कटवशेषः वलालनया वपरतः कटकगृहं नमाय तिमन ् कटकगेहे यथा कटेन वासं करोत तवत ् मनुयोऽप वनमतसंसारे भवबधननामके कटकावृतनीडे वलुठन ् दरयते। देहः आमनः पृथभूतः इयजानन ् मूढमतः कटकावृतगेहे बधीभूतः यते।अनेकवधकमफलपेण ातं थूलदेहं यथ नाशयत। अनेन देहामनोः साहचय पटतया अ

तपादतम ्।

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देहामैयमः यः आमैकवानेन नयत।तवषकं चतनं षठमलोकेन अे कयते। वशेषः अधुना शतलोयातगततवनपणाथ केचनवषयाः नयते।परमतवनपणाथह शतलोकायः थः भगवपादैः रचतः।तदेवतवं दशलोयामप नपतं वतते।परम तवमेव शववपमत त पटतया उतम ्। साबः परमेवरः वदयाएव वयम ्। सवप सुरासुरगणाः सेवयैव सतारताः वतते।साबात ् परं तवं कमपनाित। सवऽप साबय अनुचराः, सवऽप अते साबे एवलयं ानुवतीत पटतया “ ” “ ” भगवपादैः त कथतम ्। ववानामपात ् वमुतः , तजलात ् इत ुयथः त पटतया नपतः भगवपादैः।अयासभाये भगवपादैः कथतं यत ् “ तमादवयाववषयायेव यादन माणान शााण ” च। पवादभचावशेषात ् । यथा ह पवादयः शदादभः ोादनां संबधे सत शदादवाने तकूले जाते ततो नवतते अनुकूले च वतते, यथा दडोयतकरं पुषमभमुखमुपलय मां हतुमयमछतीत पलायतुमारभते, हरततृणपाणमुपलय तं यभमुखीभवित, एवं पुषा अप युपनचताः ूरटनाोशतः खगोयतकराबलवत उपलय ततो नवतते, तवपरतात वतते, अतः समानः पवादभः पुषाणां माणमेययवहारः। पवादनां च सोऽववेकपुरसरः यादयवहारः।तामप पुषाणां यादयवहारयकालः समान इत नचीयते। स एव सारः वणायच पुरयम ् इयिमन ् लोके यं शंभुं भगवन। ् वयं च पशवः अमाकं “ वमेवशरः(दशलोक) इयनेन सूचतम ् । कतुम, ् अकतुम, ्अयथाकतु च ” शयमत भाये एकं वायं वतते। तेदं पटतया नपतम ् दशलोयां इत ाथनाप यते।कच वणुमसुराधपभृतयः देवाः सवऽप जलधेः सभूत ् वशात ् परभवं ाताः तानथान ् शरणागतान ् सुरान ् अधपात ् यः अरयत ्

तवपमप परमवपमत त सुठुतया नपतम ्। “ तजलान ् इत ुयथः अयाप यते। तदेव आमवं यतो वा इमान ” भूतान जायते येन जातान जीवित यययमभसंवशतीत (तैतरयोपनषद)अनया ुया यतपादतम ् तदप वेदसारशवतोे कटयते।तथाह परमामानमेकं जगबीजमायम। ् यतो जायते पायते येन

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ववम ्। तमीशं भजे लयते य ववम ्। अ च पूवतुयथः पटः। साी चेता केवला नगुणचअथूलमननु,अचु, अोम ् इयाद उपनषदथप अैव पटः।तथाह नभूमनचापः,न विननवायुः,नचाकाशमाते न न तवा, न ना, नचोणं, न शीतं, न देशो, न वेशः, नयचाच मूतः मूतम ् अहं ईढे इयनेन

लोकेन पटकृतम ्।

वीकुवन ्यावेषं वजठरभृतये भीषयन ्यच मुधान ्

मवा याोहमथं स नरपशुमुखान बाधते ् कं नु सवान ्।

मवा ीवेषधर यहमत कुते कं नटो भतुरछां

तवछारर आमा पृथगनुभवतो नेहतो यः स साी ।।(शतलोक ७) नरः भनवेशं धृवा जीवनयापनाय अनुवेशं वगुणान ्नवतयत।तनाम नाटके किचत ् कयचत ् पावशेषय वेषं धृवा तवत ् नटत। तथैव लौकके यावेषं धृवा यावत ् आचरत। परं वतुिथतः भना भवत। यः यावेषम ् अधरत ् न सः याः। एवमेव केचन पुषाः नाटकादषु ीवेषं धृवा तदनुभाषते, अभनयित, यवहरित च। परं ते केवलं नाटके ीवत ् भाित। नैजतु अयथा एव भवत। अनेन वायते यत ् देहे वयमानः आमा भनः भवत। स एव साीभूतः तटथच तठत। तदथम ् आमानुगुणा वृितःयात ् , न तु

देहानुगुणाम ् ।

ओतः ोतच ततुिवह वतपपटिचवणषु चः।

तिमिजायमाने ननु भवत पटः सूमाावशेषः।।

तव ववं वचं नगनगरामपवादपं।

ोतं वैराजपे स वयत तदप मण ोतमोतम ्।।(शतलोक ४९) नैयायकाः ततवः पटय समवायकारणमत वदित।इह ततुषु पटः इत तीयते।तीतयवहरायां वतुसः इत तेषां वचनम ्।तवतरतः अवयवी तेषांमते सः।परतु वेदातानां ततुरेव ओतोतपेण वयमानः संयुतः पटसंांलभते।चपटः इत संामप लभते।स च ऊवततुषु ओतः,तयततुषु ोतःसन ् यःपदाथः पटसंां ातःसूयतरेकेण अयःकोऽप पदाथः नानुभूयते।तवत ् नग-नगर- नर-पवादपम ् इदं वचं ववं वैरायवहे माडपं ोतं,स च वैराजः वयत आकाशे ोतः तदप आकाशं मण ोतम ्

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अनेकपं तभात।तदनयवमारभणशदादयः अधकरण सारोप अायः।स उवाच यदूव गाग देवो यदवाक् पृथया यदतरा यावापृथवी इमे यूतं च भवच भवयचेयाचत आकाश एव तदोतं च ोतं चेत किमनु खवाकाश ओतच ोतचेत।स होवाचैतवै तदरं गाग ामण अभवदयथूलमनववमदघमलोहतमनेहमछायममत-मोऽवाव नाका शमसंगमपशमगधमरसमचुकमोमवागमनोऽतेजकमणमुखमनामागे नमजरममरमभयममृतरजमशदमववृतमसंवृतपूवमनपरमनतरमबायं न तदनात कंचन न तदनात कचन। भायं जनकसभायां यावयेन सह ववदमानेषु ामणेषु गगकया वाचवी,तया पृटो यावयतयाः नम ् अनुवदत म।स होवाचेत। स यावयः ह इत निचय गाग युवाच। भो गाग वयैतत ् पृटं तिकं दवो यदूव वगादयुचं तथा पृथयाः सकाशात ् यत ् अवाक् अधो वतते ।तथा यदतरा यमधे इमे यमाने यावापृथवी तथा यूतमतातं भववतमानं भवयदागाम पदाथ इयाचते।तत ् किमनोतं ोतं चेत वया पृटे सत मयोतरयं तदाकाश एव ओतं च ोतं चेत।पुनवया पृटं किमन ् वा आकाशः ओतच ोतचेत।तोतरं ूयतामयाह स होवाचेत। भो गाग वया एतवैपृटं तह ामणाः माः पुषाः एतदरं अवनाशी म अभवदित।तिमनरे मण आकाश ओतच ोतचेत शेषः। त कभूतं अरमत यद पृछस तह ूयतामयाह अथूलमत। थूलादच तुवधपरमाणातीतम ् जायभायेणैकवनदशः।अलोहतमत।लोहतादवणातीतं तथा अनेहं नेहिचकणतागुणतहतम। ् अछायम ् अमूतम। ् अतमः तमोभावपाानं मायायं ततोऽयतीतम ्।अवायु,अनाकाशं तायामतीतम ् असगम ् असंमलतम ् ।अपश संपशरहतम।तथा ् अचुकमयादतः इियरहतम। ् अथ तगतं अददैवतपं तेजो न भवतीयतेजकं।तह इियचालकः ाणो भवयतीत चेतदप नषेधत।अाणमत।अमुखं मुखरहतं, नामगोरहतं च।अजरं जरातीतं च।अमरणवभावं, वतीयाभावात ् अभयम ् अमृतं नयमुतवभावं अरजं गुणातीतं लोकातीतं वा।अशद शदगोचरम। ् अववृतं ववतविजतम।असंवृतम ् ् अवछेदरहतं,अपूव न वयते कंचत ्पूव यमात, ्अनपरं न वयते अपरं यमात ्

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अनतरं न वयत ् अतरमयतरं यय।अबायं न वयते ायमावरणं तय एवेवधं यतिकंचन कमप न अनोत नागीकुते।असगोदासीनवात ्।तथा

कचन तनानोत यानोत अायवात ्।

पं पं तीदं तफलनवशात ्ातपं पेदे।

येको टाऽवतीयो भवत च सलले सवतोऽनतपः।।

इदो मायाभराते ुतरत वदत यापकं म तमात ्।

जीववं यायकमादतवमलतरे बिबतं बुयुपाधौ।।(शतलोक ५॰) पं पं तपंबभूव(बृ.उ 2-5-19) इत ुतः।तदय पं तीयणाय “ ” इोमायाभ पुरपमीयते युताहय हरयो शतादयः (बृ.उ 2-5-19)ुत इत एका ुतः इः वमायाभः लोके अनेकपेण काशमाणः वतते।इः वमायाभः बहु पो ायते इयमुना कारेण ुत यापकं म वदत।अ कांचन अयायकाः ुतषु उपलयते।तथा ह इदं म तफलनवशात ् पं पं तपं पेदे दयङाथवणोऽिवयामुवाच तदेतिटः पयनवोचत ् ।पं पं तपो बभूवेत।पूवमिवनौ देवभषजावामानोपदेशाथ दधीचं त गवा आवायां आमवयोपदेठाएवेयूचतुः।तेनोतरयं णातरे उपदेयामतदधीचवायं ुवा वगृहं गतौ।तदतरे इः समागय दधीचं युतवान- ्वयैतौ मदयभषजौ नोपदेटयौ।अथ यद मदयवचनं न ुणोष तह तव शरः पातययामीयुव नगतः।पुनरिवयामागतम ्।तततौ दधीचमु खाव दतवृता तावूचतुः।भो दधीचे णातरे उपदेयामीत तव ता मया भवतुं नाहतीत।इदानीं तव शरः थानातरे नधाय वशरवय संयोयते।तेन शरसाऽऽमवयामुपदश।तत इ आगयावशरािछवा गमयत।पुनव वाभावकं शरः संयोजययाव इत।नासयवचसा तथावधायां सयां अवशरसा मधुकाडमुपदटवान ् इत पूववृतातः।अथ दयङाथवण,अथवणयापयं आथवणः,एवंवधो दधीचः अिवयां यदुवाच तदेतषवदः पयन ् अवोचत ्।तिकं नाम पं पं तपो बभूवेत, तबिबतं पं ययेत तप इयथः। अ अिमन ् करणे तवकाशनाथ ुतयं उदाहरणाय दशतम ्।एका ुतः तावत ् पं पं तपो बभूव इत।वतीया सलला एको टा अवैतो भवतीत।अथ

तृतीय ुतः इोमायाभ पुरपमीयते इत।

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ताः पयित बुया परमबलवतो माययाऽतं पतगं।

बुावतः समुे तफलतमरचापदं वेधसतम ्।।

यायावानुपाधः तफलत तथा म तिमन ्यथाऽऽयं।

ातादशानुपं तफलत यथाऽविथतं तत ्सदैव।।(शतलोक - ५१) शुचैतयं बुयुपाधौ तबिबतं सत ् जीववा यात।वमलतरे वछे अतःकरणे ईवर तबबः जीवः इत कयते।ताः बुया निचतातःकरणया पयित।कं पेण पयतीत आकांायां बुलणे समुे अतःपरमामनः तफलतमरयापदं तफलताः तबिबताः ये मरचादयाः करणाः तदेव वपनः यय परमामनः तवपेण पयित।अ एनम ् अथ इयं ुतः वित। पतगमतमसुरय मायया दा पयित मनसा वपिचतः।समुे अतः कवयो वचते मरचीनां पदमछित वेधसः।(ऋवेद संहता10-177-1) असुरय बलवतो दुरतमायय परमामनो माययाऽितं यातं।अत एव पतगं पतनशीलं जीवं वपिचतः ाननो मनसः संकपामकय दा बुपेण बुयेयथः।अतः पयित।समुदनात ्यापनासमुः।स एव बुलणः तिमन ् तफलतानां वेधसः ईवरय चवपाणां मरचीनां पदं थानमत कवयः ातदशनः वदित परम ् इछित च उपासते च।एवमेव आयां मुखं ातदशानुपं तफलत।वतुलो दघः थूलो लघुमलनः शुो वा यथा ातो य आदश दपणः तदनुपेण तफलत।परतु वयं यथाविथतमेवेत तव

माप।

उपसंहारः एवं च यामा सामा इत वचनानुसारेण अवयमानं एनं पचं मनस संथाय वयमानं आमतवं सव वमरित।व आयुषः पु-पौाद पोषणेन नयित।वतुतः चयमाने इयं माया परपर अयासं त कारणं भवत।शररे आमायासः आमन शररायासः सवऽप अानं नमतीकृयैव।एताश

अाननाशेनैव मोः इत तु परमसातः अवैतनाम ्।

।इतशम ्।

परशीलतथा सूची

शतलोक शकाराचायः महेष परशोधसंथा, वारणसी

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मसूशाकरभायीगोवदकृतया भायरनभया मोतलाल बनारसीदास,

दल

ी वाचपतमवरचतया भामया

ीमदादगरणीतेन यायनणयेन

बृहदारयकोपनषशाकरभाय गीताेस, गोरखपूर

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PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF MONOPOLE RECONFIGURABLE ANTENNAS

Tamboli P.M Dr. Yadav D.M Dept.of Electronics and Dept.of Electronics and Telecommunication Telecommunication BSIOTR College/ SPPU, India BSIOTR College/ SPPU, India

I. INTRODUCTION Generally, there are many types of antennas like monopole antenna, bipole antenna, microstrip antenna, horn antenna, yagi antenna etc. But, among the all antenna type the monopole antenna is basic , low cost antenna. Today research is going on the reconfiguration of different antenna. In this paper reconfiguration of monopole antenna is done. This reconfigurable monopole antenna can be reconfigured by radiation reconfiguration as well as frequency reconfiguration. A monopole antenna is a class of radio antenna consisting of a straight rod-shaped conductor, often mounted perpendicularly over some type of conductive surface, called a ground plane. The driving signal from the transmitter is applied, or for receiving antennas the output signal to the receiver is taken, between the lower end of the monopole and the ground plane. One side of the antenna feedline is attached to the lower end of the monopole, and the other side is attached to the ground plane, which is often the Earth. The monopole is a resonant antenna; the rod functions as a resonator for radio waves, with oscillating standing waves of voltage and current along its length. The monopole antenna was invented in 1895 by radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi, who discovered if he attached one terminal of his transmitter to a long wire suspended in the air and the other to the Earth, he could transmit for longer distances. For this reason it is sometimes called a Marconi antenna, although Alexander Popov independently invented it at about the same time. Common types of monopole antenna are the whip,

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rubber ducky, helical, random wire, umbrella, inverted-L and T- antenna, mast radiator, and ground plane antennas. In this we are using ground plane antenna.

II. METHODOLOGY

1. SIMULATION DESIGN

HFSS utilizes a 3D full-wave Finite Element Method (FEM) to compute the electrical behavior of high-frequency and high-speed components. With HFSS, engineers can extract parasitic parameters (S, Y, Z), visualize 3D electromagnetic fields (near- and far-field), generate broadband SPICE models, and optimize design performance.

HFSS accurately characterizes the electrical performance of components and effectively evaluates signal quality, including transmission path losses, reflection loss due to impedance. The following figure shows that the design structure of simulated monopole antenna.

Fig 1 Simulation design of Reconfigurable monopole antenna

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The following figure shows that the results obtained after the simulation. In design we obtain two radiation pattern by giving input to the two monopole elements i.e. one input is given to driven monopole and other input is to the parasite.

Fig.2.3D Rectangular plot for Gain of Reconfigurable monopole (driven element) antenna.

Fig 3. Radiation Pattern of Monopole antenna by Driven element.

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Fig 4. Radiation pattern of Monopole antenna by parasite element.

2.HARDWARE IMPLIMENTATION

This design consists of one driven monopole in the center, surrounded by a ring of six uniformly λ spaced parasitic monopoles which is used to provide reasonable beam steering flexibility .Each Monopole antenna has many degrees of freedom in the design. To simplify the design procedure and to achieve omni-directional beam scanning, identical structural parameters are used for all the monopoles. By using CAD tools such as Ansoft HFSS, the length of each monopole H , is determined to be 0.238 , where is the free- λ0 λ0 space wavelength of the test frequency 2.28 GHz.The radius of monopole is R = 0.01 .The ground plane is circular in shape with a λ0 radius R = 0.75 The parasitic monopoles are spaced from the sub λ0 driven element is calculated as D = 0.25 . λ0

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Fig. 5. Hardware design of Reconfigurable monopole antenna.

III.EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The below figures shows the experimental results obtained after testing of Monopole reconfigurable antenna using VNA. For testing we are taking broad frequency range i.e. from 1GHz to 3GHz.

Fig.6. Shows the return loss of this antenna

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Fig.7.Shows the VSWR graph of monopole antenna.

IV. DISCUSSION

In this paper, we can give input to the single as well as multiple monopole elements at a time so we got different configurations in radiation pattern so this configuration is called radiation reconfiguration . But better results are obtained at Driven element. This antenna can be applicable to the broad range of frequency i.e. from 1GHz to the 3GHz. The broad range frequency operation is evaluated by using Return loss graph and VSWR graph.

References

1. Yu Zhou, Raviraj S. Adve “Design And Evaluation Of Pattern Reconfigurable Antennas For Mimo Applications” IEEE Transactions On Antennas And Propagation, Vol. 62, No. 3, March 2014. 2. M. Jensen and J. Wallace, “A review of antennas and propagation for MIMO wireless communications,” IEEE

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Transactions on Antennas Propagation., volume. 52, pp. 2810– 2824, Nov. 2004. 3. M. Gans, “Channel capacity between antenna arrays— Part II: Amplifier noise dominates,” IEEE Transactions on Communication., vol. 54, pp. 1983–1992, Nov. 2006. 4. S. Nikolaou, R. Bairavasubramanian, J. Lugo, C. I. Carrasquillo, D. Thompson, G. Ponchak, J. Papapolymerou, and M. Tentzeris, “Pattern and frequency reconfigurable annular slot antenna using PIN diodes,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas Propagation., volume. 54, pp. 439–448, Feb. 2006. 5. P. Deo, A. Mehta, D. Mirshekar-Syahkal, and H. Nakano, “An HISbased spiral antenna for pattern reconfigurable applications,” IEEE Antennas Wireless Propagation., volume. 8, pp. 196–199, 2009. 6. H. Kawakami and T. Ohira, “Electrically steerable passive array radiator (ESPAR) antenna s,” IEEE Antennas Propagation .volume.47,pp.43–50, Apr. 2005.

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यायोग के वशट परेय म पातजलयोग दशन क अवधारणा Naveen Chand Research Scholar Dayanand Chair for Vedic Studies Panjab University, Chandigarh

1) ' ’ योग एक परचय

' ’ ' ’ ‘ ’ योग शद युज ् धातु म घञ ् यय लगाने से नपन होता है। पाणनीय ' ’, 1, - याकरण के अनुसार युज ् धातु तीन गण म पाइ जाती है यथा (1) ' ’, ( ) युज ्समाधौ समाध अथ म दवादगणीय आमनेपद (2) ‘ ’, ( ) युिजर्योगे जोड़ने अथ म धादगणीय उभयपद (3) ' ’, ( ) युज ्संयमन संयमन अथ म चुरादगणीय परमैपद ' ’ ‘ ’ सांययोगशा म योग शद का अभीट अथ समाध अथात ' ’ - चतवृितनरोध ह लया गया गया है। यथा

‘ : : :2 ’ - . . . योग समाध स च सावभौमचतय धम । यो सू भा ‘ : ’ - . . 2. योगिचतवृित नरोध । यो सू ' ’ ‘ - ’ पातजलयोग म युत योग शद दवादगणीय युज समाधौ धातु से ‘ ’ घञ ् यय लगाकर नपन हु आहै यक योग संयोगप न होकर वयोग फलक ह 3, ' ’ : , है अथात कैवय देने वाला है। वह दु ख क नवृित कराने वाला है जैसे गीता म कहा - गया है ' : ’ – 6/23 दु खसंयोग वयोगं योगसंतम ् - पातजलयोग तीन कोटय के मनुय के लए अलग अलग माग का दशन करते , हु ए पट करता है क मदाधकार यम नयमाद अटांग का अयास करके वैराय

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( ) : योग ात करते ह एवं उतमाधकार तो जमत ह वैराय म सम होते ह। कतु 4 , मयमाधकार यायोग के अयास से वैराय ात करते ह। तपया वायाय और

इवरणधान इसके मुयांग है। यायोग के ये तीन अंग वातवक प म आज के : सामािजक एवं शैणक तर के लए अयत उपयोगी एवं ासंगक है। वतुत

यायोग के इन तीन अंश का वधवत अवेषीकरण एवं उसक ासंगकता को अत

वतीण प से अभी तक गभीरता से हण नहं कया गया। पातजल योग दशन म

यायायत यायोग के ववध आयाम का समता म वधवत ववेचन करना , अयत आवयक है। पातजल योग के इन तीन अंग को समता म समझना वतमान , शैक णाल म इन अंग के ायोगीकरण भाव का नदशन यह इस शोध प के

तीन मुय ववेय बदु ह। 2) यायोग

' : :’ 5 तप वायायेवरणधानान यायोग । ' ’ , यायोग एक पारभाषक पद है। तपया वायाय और इवरणधान इन ' ’ ' ’ तीन याओं को योग इसलए कहा गया है यक इनके अयास से योग अथात ' ’ समाध स होती है। इस कार साधन और साय के अभेदोपचार क ववा से इन ' ’ याओं का नाम यायोग पड़ा है।

' : : : 6 या एव योग यायोग योगसाधनवात ् योगोपायवायोग ।

अनाद कम और लेश क वासनाओं से भर हु इतथा वषयजाल को उपसथत करने - , वाल रजतमोमयी अशु बना तपया के छन भन नहं होती इसलए यायोग , म सवथम तपया का हण कया गया है। यह तपया चत क सनता को बाधत

न करने वाल सथत तक साधक के वारा क जानी चाहए। ओंकार इयाद पवतर ्

म का जप या मोपरक शा का अययन करना वायाय है। सभी याओं को

परमगु इवर म अपत करना या सभी कम के फल का सयास अथात ् वरित ह

इवर णधान है।

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योग के अय पाँच अंग भी ययप योग के उपाय है तथाप यद ठक से ये तीन , 7 नयम ह पालन कए जाए तब भी योग क स हो जाती है। अथात पहले सवशु हो , जाती है फर अयास और वैराय नामक उपाय से अगल सार योग या हो सकती

है।

इसलए यायोग क वध मयमाधकारय के लए मानी गइ ह। जो साधक , इसम भी सफल नहं हो सकते उनके लए योग के आठ अंग का वधान कया गया है। , 8 इन आठ अंग म से धारणा यान और समाध का अयास तो सबीजसमाध के लए

तीन कार के अधकारय को करना होता है। 1. - तपया

' :9 कायेियसरशुयात ् तपस ।

तप से अशु का नाश हो जाने से कायस और इिय स ात होती है।

अथात वधवत कए गए तप के परनषठत हो जाने से अशु अथात चत के मल का , नाश हो जाने से शरर सबधी सयाँ और इिय क सयाँ ात होती है। अणमा , , , , महमा लघमा गरमा ापत ाकाय वशव और इशव नामक अट सय म - ाक चार कायसयाँ कहलाती है। येक इिय क अलग अलग असाधारण मता , , को इियसयाँ कहा जाता है जैसे दूर से देखना दूर से सुनना आद। 2. - वायाय

' :10 वायायादटदेवतासयोग ।

11 वायाय के सथर होने से इट देवताओं का सपक होता है। सयक वायाय 12 अथात मोद शााययन तथा णवाद के जप अनुठान से साधक को अभीट , देवताओं अथात देवता ऋषय एवं सगण के दशन होते ह और तजय कायस ' ’ : ‘ ’ - सपन होती है। वायाय शद मुयत दो अथो को धोतत करता है

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( ) - ' क वयम अययनम ् अपने आप अथात बना कसी दूसरे क सहायता से अययन

करना। कसी समया क उपसथत पाकर चतन मनन के वारा अपने वचार से ' समया से अवगत होना और उसका नदान करना ह वायाय है। ( ) - ' ख वयामनोऽययन अपने आप का अययन करना। यह एक वशेष दाशनक

लण है। इसम यित अपने अदर के लेश को समझता है और अपने तमोगुण का , सवगुण म परवतन के लए तदन अयास करता है वह वायाय है। इन दोन के ' मलन को ह पूण वायाय कहा जाता है। 3. - इवरणधान

' 13 सामधसरवरणधानात ् ।

इवरणधान से समाध क स होती है। अपने यापार को इवर के त अपत , , करने वाले को समाध क स होती है िजसके कारण वह अय देश म अय शरर म

और अय काल म सथत सभी इिछत पदाथ को उस इवरणधान से यथाथ प से

जान लेता है। इसलए इस योगी क बु पदाथ का यथाथ प से सााकार करती है।

यधप इवरणधान सात समाध क स म समथ है कतु अय योगांग का , : भी ट अट एवं अवातर यापार के प म उपयोग है अत वे भी समाध स के

सहायक होते ह। (3) ववेचन

 योग का उेय

' : 14 ’ समाधभावनाथ लेशतनूकरणाथच ।

समाध को भावत करने के लए और लेश को हका करने के लए योग होता है।

सुसपादत यायोग अवयाद पाँच लेश को बकुल सू्म या हका करने के

लए होता है। लेश के हका हो जाने पर साधक को सात समाध क स हो जाती

है। पातजल योग दशन म इस यायोग के दोन फल के अथम और सौम म

भनता है। पहले यायोग लेशतनू करता है फर सातसमाध क ाित होती है।

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यायोग लेश को हका कर सकता है परतु सवथा बय नहं बना सकता। यह

बयकरण तो आगे चलकर ववेकयात के वारा ह होता है। यह ववेकयात ा , उसी कार लेश को नट कर देती है िजस कार अिन से जले हु ए बीज जो क - अंकुरोपित म काय करणाम अथात ् असमथ होते ह। लेश क ीण हो जाने से , समाधज ा का उदय होता है जो क अयत तव म लन हो जाने से समथ होती है।

यायोग के तीन अंग को समझने के िलए पंचलेश को समझना आवयक है । 1. - लेश

15 , , , ‘ ’ लेश मुयतः अवया अिमता राग वेष एवं अभनवेश पाँच कार के होते ह। 16 , ‘ ’ ये पंचलेश ाणमा को वधताप देते ह इसलए इह लेश क संा द जाती है।

ये पाँच लेश वृित लाभ करते हु एअभयत होकर गुणके काय को ढ़ करते ह अथात ्

गुणामक बु को पुष के भोगापवगप काय म ढ़ता से लगाते ह और गुण क

परणामधारा को चलाते रहते ह। काय और कारण के वाह को बढ़ाते ह तथा आपस म एक , दूसरे के अनुह कारक बनते हु एजम आयु और भोग प कमफल को नपादत करते

ह। i. – अवया

‘ ’ ‘ ’17 अिमताद परवत लेश क सवभूम अवया है। चत म केवल शित प म

िथत लेश का बीजभाव को ात हो जाना ह सुित है। यायोग के सयगनुठान , ‘ ’ से लेश हके हो जाते ह यह लेश क तनुता नामक अवथा है। वरोधी यायोग के , - अनुठान से उपमादत लेश हके हो जाते ह और बीच बीच म टूटकर फर से उसी प , 18 म कट हो जाते ह इसे लेश क विछन अवथा कहते ह। ‘ ’ राग नामक लेश के समय म ोध न दखाई पड़ने के कारण विछनता का ान , , होता है। राग के समय ोध कट नहं होता यह कालक विछनता है परतु राग भी , - एक आलबन के त हो दूसरे के नहं यह भी सभव नहं है। यथा एक ी चै नाम , , पुष म रागयुत है इसलए अय उसम वरत हगी ऐसा नहं है। बिक उस एक ी

म राग लधसर है जबक अय िय के त अनागत प म ह है। यह दैशक , , | विछनता है अय िय म यह राग सुत तनु या विछन रहता है वषय के त

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, जो लेश वपतः कट रहता है वह उदार कहा जाता है। ये सभी अवया के भेद है। 19 अवया इनम यात है।

अवया से जो वतु वषयप म उपिथत क जाती है उसी का लेश

अनुगमन करते है। मयाान काल म ह ये लेश उपलध होते है और अवया अथात ्

मयाान के ीण हो जाने पर नट हो जाते है।

‘ ’ |20 अनयाऽशुचदुःखानामसु नयशुचसुखाऽऽमयातरवया , , , , , अनय अपव दुःखमय और अनामपदाथ म मशः नय पव

सुखमय और आमा का ान होना अवया है। अनय पदाथ म नय का ान अवया , है यथा पृवी चमा तार सहत युलोक नय है। देवगण अमर है इयाद उसी कार - अपव पदाथ जैसे परमघृणापद शरर म पवता देखना। ऋषय ने शरर को गदे , , उदर वप थान के कारण उपादान के कारण मृयु के कारण अपव कहा है उसम - पवता देखना यथा अभनव चकला के संमान मनोरम वह कया मानो मकरद एवं , , अमृतरस के अवयव से बनी हु ईहै। यहाँ पर अपव म मधु अमृत चदन आद पव

वतु का सबध देखना ह अवया है। ऐसे ह दुःख म सुख का ान होना यथा परणाम

ताप और संकार प दुःख के कारण और गुण क वृित के वरोध के कारण

ववेकजन के लये सब दुःख ह है। उसी कार अनामपदाथ म आमा का ान - अवया है। यथा पुादारापवाद चेतन या शयासनाद अचेतन वतु को अपने प म

हण करके उसक सपनता पर अपनी सपनता समझता हु आसन होता है और

वपनता पर अपनी वपनता मानता हु आशोक करता है। वे सब अववेक ह है।

ऐसी ह चार चरण वाल अवया इस लेश वाह तथा जायायुभगप ‘ ’ वपाको सहत कमसंकारसमुदाय क जड़ है और इस अवया क अम और ‘ ’ अगोपद के समान भावामक सता जाननी चाहये। जैसे अम म का अभाव नहं , , है न तो म मा है बिक म का वरोधी शु है। और उसी तरह अगोपद न तो गोपद , , का अभाव है न गोपद मा है युत उन दोन से भन वतु एक देश है। इसी कार

अवया न तो वया है न वया का अभाव है बिक वया का वरोधी एक अय ान 21 है।

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VOLUME 4, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2015

ii. - अिमता

( ) ( ) 22 शित पुष और दशनशित बु क तीयमान एकामता अिमता है।

पुष क् अथात ् देखने वाल शित है और वु दशनशित अथात ् देखने क साधनपा

है। इन दोन तव क परपर भन होने पर भी अभनाकारता क तीत अिमता

नामक लेश है। एक दूसरे से बकु ल अलग अथात ् अमत भोतृशित पुष तथा

भोयशित वु क अभनपता क तीत होने पर ह भोग का अनुभव होता है। दोन

शितय के वकय प के बोध होने पर तो दोन क केवलता ह हो जाती है। अथात ् , अलग प अलग वभाव और अलग जानकार इयाद कारण से पुष को बु से भन

न देखते हु एउस बु को ह लोग अवया के कारण आमा समझ लेते है। iii. - राग

23 सुख का अनुवत राग है। सुख के अनुभवता को सुखानुभव क मृतपूवक , , सुख या सुख के साधनभूत पदाथ के त जो चाह लालच या लोलुपताहोती है वह राग है। iv. - वेष

24 दुःख का अनुवत लेश वेष कहलाता है। दुःख के अनुभवता को दुःखानुभव क , , मृतपूवक दुःख या दुःख के साधनभूत पदाथ के त जो तहंसा मयु मारने क

इछा या ोध होता है वह वेष नामक लेश है। v. - अभनवेश

मरणासानुभवजय अथात ् संकार प से िथर ववान म भी और उसके 25 सश साधारण मनुय म भी िथत लेश अभनवेश है। सभी ाणय क अपने

वषय म यह सावकालक कामना होती है क म सदा रहू ँ। मरणधम का अनुभव कये

बना ऐसी आमवषयणी कामना नहं हो सकती। इस कामना से पूवजम के मरण का

अनुभव कट होता है और यह अभनवेश नामक लेश वभावतः कट मा को भी , , य अनुमान और आगम माण के वारा अेय आमनाश क कपनाप मरण

का भय है यह पूवजम का अनुमान कराता है। यह लेश महान ् ववान और अयत

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ानहन मानव को समान प से बना रहता है यक ानी और अानी दोन म ह

पूवजमलध मरणदुःखानुभव के कारण यह वासना समान प से होती है। 4. वेषण

पातजलयोगदशन के साधनपाद के थम सू म महष पतंजल यायोग , ' :’ : का लण करते हु ए सवथम िजस पद का योग करते ह वह है तप । तप अथात ् : तपया। यह पद वाधयाय ् एवं इवर णधान से पूव ह योग कया गया है। अत यह ' वचारणीय है क तपया वायाय एवं इवर णधान से पूव ह य यायायत क ? गयी है या तपया का थान वायाय एवं इवर णधान के अनतर अथवा मय म

नहं ात हो सकता था। इस न के उतर म ह पतजल का अभीटाथ नहत है। ' ' ’ ' ’ , , वाधयाय ् शद व एवं अधयाय ् दो शद का यौगक प है िजसका अथ है अपने

अधयेय ् वषय म मन को लगाना अथवा केकरण से सबंधत है। जैसा क पहले ह

पट कया जा चुका है क यायोग मधयम ् कोट के अधकारय के लए शत कया : गया है। अत यह समझना अत कठन न होगा क वतमान समय म जो भी यित , , िजस भी े वशेष म कायरत ह उसम उनका सपूणकेकरण ह उनक आजीवका

यश और गत का साधन बनता है। यह मन का केकरण तभी संभव होता है जब

यित का चत पंचलेश के जाल से कुछ सीमा तक बाहर आ गया हो अथात लेश

का तनूकरण हो गया हो। अधम कोट के यितय के लए अटांग म से यान का

वधान उनके मन के केकरण का साधन बनता है। मयम कोट के यितय के लए , , , अटांग म से यम नयम आसन ाणायाम एवं याहार इन पंच बहरांग को तपया

एवं वाधयाय ् वारा नणत एवं ाय माना जाता है यक सवथम तपया यित : के दु ख के कारणभूत लेश का तनूकरण करती है तपचात वाधयाय ् मन का ' ’ केकरण कराकर धारणा एवं धयान ् इन दो अंग का पूव थान परपूण करता है। : ' ’ : िजससे अतत इवर णधान पा समाध क ाित होती है। अत वातवक : , अभेत कुछ मुय बदु ह। थमत वतमान समय म ववध े म कायरत निचत - समय सीमा तथा तदन के काय म अतबिधत यित एवं अययन अयापन के , काय म संलन यित िजह सामायतया मयम कोट के यित य म परगणत , - कया जा सकता है उन सभी क वतमान काल म महततम ् परेशानयाँ पंचलेश

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VOLUME 4, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2015

, , , अवया अिमता राग वेष एवं अभनवेश प म है। यित आज वभन कार के , , भय से आात रहता है परपर वभन वषय म वेष करता है नाशवान वतुओं म , ' ' राग से युत रहता है और इन सबक चरम िथत अवया के कारण अान को अपना ' ' : , ान समझता है। अत ये सभी पी ़डत यित मयम कोट के मनुय है जो तपया

वायाय और इवर णधान से वातवक सुख को ात कर सकते ह। इहं यित ' ' येां के लए थम यायेयत माग तपया का बताया गया है। -  तपया का वप ? तपया का वप या है तपया शद सुनते ह साधारण यित के

मानसक पटल पर जो च बनता है वह है एक भगवा वधार लबी जटाओं से युत

यित का उसी को तपवी माना जाता है या फर वशट आसन का अयास इसका , , तीक माना जाता है अथवा गृह याग कर वन म चला जाना तप है कतु वातवकता , , , यह नहं है। कोइ भी यित जो अपने चत को अवया अिमता राग वेष एवं , , , अभनवेश से दूर हटाने का यन करता है वह तपया है। परपर इया वेष दूसरे के , सुख साधन को देखकर उह अनुचत ढंग से ात करने क कामना नाशवान वतुओं से

ेम और उह अिजत करने क चेटा तथा अान को ान मानकर उस पर अभमान

करने से जब यित वयं को दूर कर लेता है और ाणमा को समान िट से देखने

लगता है तो वह उसक तपया कहलाती है। तप के लए शा म भी हम वणन ात 26 होता है। अपने धम या कतय से न डगना ह तप है।

यह तपया यित अपने दैनक जीवन के काय को करते हु एसपादत कर सकता

है। यद कोइ यित अपने कतय को उचत समय पर पूरा कर रहा है तो वह उसका तप , , है। यथा एक शक समयानुसार छा को पढ़ाता है तो यह उसका तप है एक रसा , , चालक इमानदार से याय को गतय थान पर छोड़ता है वह उसका तप है , धानमी इमानदार से सता चलाता है यह उसका तप है। पुलस अधीक , समयानुसार यवथा थापन करता है यह भी तप है। इस कार से हर यित तपया , कर सकता है इसी तप को पातजल योग दशन म यायायत कया गया है। यह - तपया धीरे धीरे चत म सािवक वृतय का घनीकरण करके यित के चत को

लेश के भाव से बचाने लगती है और ऐसे चत को यित सािवक वृितय के

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VOLUME 4, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2015

वधक ओंकार एवं अय वायेय वषय म वतत करता है तब चत उनम

शीातशी संलन होकर वातवक चेतना अथात चैतय पुष के त असरत होने

लगता है। यह चत आगे क समाध िथतय तक पहु ँचनेयोय बनता है। , अपने दैनक जीवन म तकृल अवथाओं म भी अडग रहना और बाधाओं

तूफान झंझावात से जुझते हु एनरतर अपने लय क ओर बढ़ते रहना ह तप है। आज

मानव जीवन म तदन अनेक कार क हतोसाहतता देखी जाती है। यित इतना

हताश हो जाता है क उसे जीवन से मृयु आसान लगती है और वह आमहया जैसे : नकृट कम करते है। अत उनक बु को यूनता और ुटय से हटाने का एक माा

नदान तप ह। तप मानव बु को तेज याशील और वकसत बनाने का एक अमोघ , - उपाय है। िजस कार से सोना तपने से नखरता है उसी कार से तपया से मानव जीवन

भी नखरता है। अयामवाद या भौतकवाद के शखर पर वह लोग पहु ँचतेह जो तपवी

एवं नरतर संघषशील रहते है। यह वातवक तपया है। -  वायाय , वायाय के लए शा म ऐसा उपदेश दया गया है क उसी दन ाहमण

ाहमणव से गर जाता है िजस दन वह वायाय नहं करता अथात वायाय नय 27 28 प से अवय करना चाहए । वायाय म कभी माद नहं करना चाहए । वायाय 29 करना वाणी का तप है । योग और वायाय क सपित से परमामा का सााकार 30 होता है । -  ईवर णधान ‘ ’ साथ ह योग मा यित को कट से मुित नहं दलाता अपतु ईवर णधान

वारा जब यित अपने कम को एक वृहत ् चेतना के त अपत कर देता है तब वह - जीवन एवं मृयु के च से भी धीरे धीरे बाहर आने लगता है और यह या यित को

वयं के चैतय प क मृत एवं अनुभव कराती है। तपया एवं वायाय मा कट

का ास ह नहं करते अपतु ववध शितय का समावेश भी करते ह अतः यित िजस , , भी े म कायरत होता है वह अपनी शितय के कारण न केवल अपना बिक अपने

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VOLUME 4, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2015

- , , आस पास का अपने से सबित यितय का समाज एवं रा का भी हत करने म

सम हो जाता है। 5. वतमानकािलक समयाएं एवं समाधान

आधुनक शा णाल म वायाय को वरयता नहं द रह छा के पास

समयाभाव है। शहर छा अतरत काओं म यत है तो भारत का अधकांश ेतर ्

गाँव म नवास करता है अतः ामीण बच को उचत वयालय ात नहं होते। या फर 3 4 इतने दूर होते है क बच के आवागमन म ह से घटे यतीत हो जाते है। पहाड़ी े

म यह समया अधकतर देखी जाती है। इतनी यवतता म पायम को ह कठनता

से पढ़ा जाता है तो वायाय का वषय ह नहं उठता। यद शा णाल म योग पाय

और योगामक ढंग से ात होगा तो छा के यितव नमाण म अभूतपूव वकास - होगा। आज हम हर दन कसी न कसी वजह से छा क आमहया क खबरे सुनते , और पढते रहते है िजसका मूल कारण है क छा अपनी असफलता को सहन ह नहं कर , पाते अतः वे मानसक प से सशत नहं कहे जा सकते। वायाय से यह वषाद दूर - कया जा सकता है परतु आधुनक दौड़ म उसके लए समय नहं है अतः शा णाल

के बंधनकताओ को देश के सुढ़ और सशत भवय के लए योग को मुख प से

वीकार करना ह होगा।

वातव म भारतीय शा पत म ये सभी शा ाचीन काल से ह ाचीन

वणत एवं यायेयत होते थे अतः यित को अपने अययन काल म ह अान से

ान क कोट तक का पूण अभान हो जाता था कतु वतमान काल म भारतीय

शैणक णाल के ास के कारण यित इस ान से अनभ होकर लबे समय - , तक कट भोगता रहता है। आधुनक शा णाल ाचीन शा का वकुल परवतत

प हो गया है। ाचीन गुकुलणाल म शय आम म ह रहते थे और वे वयं खाना

बनाना इयाद दैनक कम को नपन करते हु एभी वायाय करते थे और गु मुख से

नैतक शा हण करते थे परतु आधुनक शा णाल म वायाय के लए समय ह

नहं है। छा म अयधक यतता देखी जाती है। छः से सात घटे छा वयालय म - पढ़ते और फर जीवन साधन प काये म सफल होने के लए तीन से चार घटे

अतरत काओं म जाते ह। यथा वान के छा वयालय के बाद तवषय यथा

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VOLUME 4, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2015

- , , - रसायन शा भौतक वान गणत और जीव वान आद वषयक एक से दो घटे

क अतरत का लगाते है। िजससे उनके पास वायाय के लए समय ह नहं बच

रहा। आज भारतीय लोग पर पिचमी देश का भाव इतना बढ़ गया है क वे अपने बच

को आंल मायम युत वयालय म ह पढ़ाना चाहते है िजससे भारत के अधकांश

छा आज ाइवेट कूल या कावट कूल म पढ़ते है िजनम क भारतीय मौलक शा - का अंश मा भी नहं है। आज इन वयालय म वातानुकुलत का क तो देखे जा , सकते है कतु द शक उपलध नहं होते जोक छा को िलट वषय को

सरलतम शद म और कम समय म समझा सके। आज तो सफ कताब को रटना और

परा म अंक ात करना ह मा शा का अथ रह गया है। वातव म समथ यित का

नमाण ह शा का उेय एवं लय दोन ह। यद योग को आज क शा णाल म , पाय और योगातमक ् ढंग से अपनाना है तो परवतन आवय लाने पडग। वयालय

म छा को नैतक एवं मौलक शा अनवाय करनी चाहए। शक अपने वषय म , द हो। िजनका काम याद करवाना नहं वषय को समझाना हो। वयालय म

अतरत पायगामी याये होनी चाहए। सांकृतक कायम म योग को भी महव

दया जाए और तपया तथा वायाय का वातवक प जो है उससे सभी को अवगत

कराया जाए। यद आज से ह इस शा णाल म योग और तपया वायाय क , कोटय को पट कया जाने लगे तो हमार अम पीढ अनेको अनागत कट से

मुित ात करेगी। 6. - िनकष

यायोग के सदभ म पतंजिल ारा कये गए वणन को आधुिनक म प करना ह | इस प का मुयोेय रहा है िनकष के प म यह कहा जा सकता है क - - - , पातंजल योग दशन म वणत यायोग जन सामाय के िलए लाभकार है न क मा | , योगी वशेष के िलए पातंजल योग म वणत यायोग के तपया वायाय और ईर | णधान को सयक प से समझना चाहए आधुिनक िशा णाली म इनका | ायोगीकरण होना चाहए इनके दूरगामी भाव का िनदशन होना चाहए अथात , सामाय जन इसके दुा शद म न फंसे और यायोग के सरल सुगम और दैिनकचया , म होने वाले योग और भाव को समझे जससे न केवल य वशेष का अपतु

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VOLUME 4, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2015

, , , , सपूण समाज का रा का व का तथा मानवजाित का एककरण सुढ़करण और | वकास होगा - पाद टपणयाँ , . 30 1. पातजलयोगदशन पृ : : : - . . 1/1, . 2. योग समाध स च सावभौमचतय धम । यो सू भा , . 31 3. पातजलयोगदशन पृ ‘ : ’ - . . 1/2 4. योगिचतवृित नरोध । यो सू , . 156 5. पातजलयोगदशन पृ ' : :, :|’ - , 6. या एव योग यायोग योगसाधनवात ्योगोपायवाोग योगवातक . 133 पृ

– 7. सवशु सव क अिधकता

- , , 8. सबीजसमाध यवेकाे चेतस सूतमथ योतयत णोत च लेशान ् , , कमबधनान लथयत नरोधमभमुखं करोत स सातो योग , , इयायायते । स च वतकानुगतो वचारानुगत आनदानुगतोऽिमतानुगत ” इत । ' :’ - . . 2/43 2, . 9. कायेियसरशुयात ् तपस । यो सू पातजलयोगदशन पृ 293

' : - . . 2/44 , . 294 10. वायायादटदेवतासयोग । यो सू तदैव पृ

– 11. देवताओं यान क आधारभूत वतु इयाद ।

– 12. णवाद ओंकार । ' ’ | - . . 2/45, , . 294 13. सामधसरवरणधानात ् यो सू तदैव पृ

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VOLUME 4, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2015

' : ’ | - . . 2/2, , . 159 14. समाधभावनाथ लेशतनूकरणाथच यो सू तदैव पृ : : - . . 2/3, , . 161 15. अवाऽमतारागवेषाभनवेशा पञचलेशा ् । यो सू तदैव पृ

– , , 16. वधताप आयामक आिधभौितक आिधदैवक । ‘ ’ | 17. अनयाऽशुचदुःखानामसु नयशुचसुखाऽऽमयातरवया - . . 2/4, , . 18. अवा ेमुतरेषां सुततनुवचछनोदाराणाम ्। यो सू तदैव पृ 263

, . 163 19. पातजलयोगदशन पृ , . 169 20. तदैव पृ , . 170 21. तदैव पृ | - . . 2/6, , . 174 22. दशनशयोरेकामतेवामता यो सू तदैव पृ : | - . . 2/7, , . 176 23. सुखानुशयीराग यो सू तदैव पृ - तेन सुखसााकारतः सुखमृतत रागो भवत इत रागय कारणमुतम ् . . . 155 यो वा पृ : : - . . 2/8, , . 177 24. दु खानुशयी वेष । यो सू तदैव पृ : - . . 2/9, , .177 25. वरसवाह वदुषोऽप तथाढोऽभनवेश । यो सू तदैव पृ ' : ’ - 313/88, . . . 26. तप वधम वतवम ् महाभारत आदपव वन : : : - 5/85, तप सार इिय नह चाणय सू | 27. तदहरहमण भवत यदहवायायं || 11/5/7 - नाधीते तमावायायोऽधयेतव शतपथ ाहमण

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VOLUME 4, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2015

: | - . 28. वायायामामद तै उपिनष |- 17/15, 29. वायायायसनं चैववाङमयंतप उयते गीता |- 1/28, 30. वायाय योग सपया परमामा काशते योग यास भाय - सदभ थ सूची , . , 1. पातजलयोगदशन डा सुरेश च ीवातव चौखबा सुरभारती काशन | वाराणसी , , 2. पातजलयोगदशनम ् महष पतजल मुन वरचतं चौखबा संकृत | संथान वयावलास ेस वाराणसी ( ), , 3. कम मीमांसा दशन यापाद और मोपाद महष भरवाज ी भारतधम - | महामडल महामाया टनध से काशत , . , , 4. योग सू एवं भगवदगीता डा कैलाशनाथ ववेद आर बी एस ए पबलशस 340, , -302003 | चौड़ा राता जयपुर , , 5. योग एवं ाकृतक चकसा ावचस वेद माता गायी ट शांत कुं ज | हरवार , , | 6. जीवन दशन वामी रामदेव वधा काशन ट पतजल योग पीठ हरवार

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UNDERSTANDING LINGUISTIC, CULTURE AND TRADITION IN AFRICA

Mamatha Puram Freelance Scholar Flat No: 203/A, Block No: XI, Phase 1 Prajay Nivas Apartments Mohan Nagar, Kothapet Hyderabad, Telangana, India

Introduction 'Caste system', alone bounded or continental phenomenon. Amusing and cultural and beyond the boundaries of regions and abstraction the behavior of the humans the degree adjustment is acutely a all-around phenomenon. What acquire to be fatigued however, the attributes and admeasurements of the samples taken is different. Apparently, consequently, variations and designs are archetypal of the connotations Snowballing amusing adjustment is the aforementioned as the abhorrence and abashment Amusing conflict, analysis and chic stratification, paving the way. Amusing While some of the disparities created artificially formed by itself or belted by architecture and tradition. Thus a phenomenological appraisal Episteme the cultural character of the basal models of the apple represses Acceptable agreement and altitude and orders. For example, plural societies, such as Algeria and India, inter-group relations to acquaint Inter-racial marriages amid tribes or altered groups are encouraged to inter For the purpose of architecture societies beefcake affable behavior and to advance accord and admitting their altered country. However, in the case of this abstraction group. This accustomed accuracy is defied. The advance of this abstraction is to appraise the conveyance so accustomed OSU Nigeria Igbo banal and Dalit degree adjustment of India. It is searching for their origin, nature, traditions and the social, political, and agnate productions Bread-and-butter denial in which they are bounden experience. Even And the advertisement of the accretion of the anemic and abortive laws is putting The appellation appears to favor the applied as able-bodied as the United Nation (UN), Race, religion, beastly acclimatization or afterwards the agreement of according aegis of all citizens, Source. It is a battle to accord with these groups and is a globally allusion as able-bodied as amusing accessories and to abjure the bondman the aforementioned acquaintance abandon The roots of bargain citizens in their own land. This abstraction utilizes the analytical assignment is to accommodate acumen into the ability of the conceptual framework A allusive abstraction of the assorted groups. Conclusively, it is said to Attitude and www.ijmer.in 155 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE CTOBER V 4, I 10(3), O 2015 ability amalgamate to aftermath a altered anatomy of amusing bull work Degenerated into abandon in abounding situations, it (caste), concrete In adverse to the Adjustment of the basal beastly appropriate to advance and abasement Connecting Africa to Asia. Institutionalization of Degree Adjustment an allotment of the Igbo Humans of Nigeria and Dalit of India Igbo humans of Nigeria's three basal aboriginal groups. They active amid the southeast and south Nigeria. Like abounding added Nigeria, Igbo aboriginal groups of people, its origins active in obscurity and largely eclipsed by customs. An attitude that represents the aboriginal beastly Niger Igbo citizenry of the acreage from the north, probably, from the confluence. However, with the admonition of the altercation has been faulted By archaeological affirmation and estimation of men about the breadth five thousand years of beastly history aback the alpha of the Igbo active in the acreage Addition attitude is the bearing of the age-old accompaniment Umeri acquire a passport, They (Igbo) and Igala two added age-old still-born "states that Anabra Valley affiliation that can advance to added accent the tradition. ", But Igala In a way, Aguku another, Amanuke another, Nteje addition and went Igbariam Other: Separation is said to acquire happened a connected time ago that the two What is not barefaced languages Igbo and Igala. In actualization of the aloft Views, Obiechima Comments: Unless one is prepared to invest tribal myths of so called common historical origins with the seriousness of proven scientific facts, one must regard the Common sense identity of the Igbo, expressed in common name, in a linguistic traits (in spite again of local variations) on a much more solidity based interior for establishing the intractability of Igbo life and civilization than the dubious and highly suspected aristocratic fiction of the racial emergence from one commodious an central bosom.1 As mentioned above, the sources applesauce acquires to not adjournment us Here In the aboriginal ninth century, based on archaeological affirmation (about 850 AD), in a assertive admeasurements of acculturation was already blooming in some areas Igbo land. This acceptance is borne out by the analysis of archaeological about IgboUkwu Professor Thurston Shaw. It acquire to be emphasized that in the absence of a accounting pre Africa Afterwards the actualization of the Arabs and the Europeans, who are on articulate sources and arbor Revolves African history. Therefore, there is a abridgement of accounting Especially the Igbo humans of Nigeria on the affair of caste-based adjustment of record. Historically, the degree adjustment in Igbo land, OSU

1 https://books.google.com.pk/books?isbn=3825849643 www.ijmer.in 156 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE CTOBER V 4, I 10(3), O 2015 anachronous aback to time age-old and burden and were based on the attitude of learning. A adaptation of attitude A few centuries ago, the gods created the allegation for some able jonaraja The basal temples in miniature (monasteries) of the priest, were too abundant for the advice Acquirements to handle and abiding adjustment aural the about of the basal temple Supply assistants. And are based on the assumptions of the Gods Powerful, they are analytical of religion, which acquire to be abounding to on a accustomed basis, The affiliation and their shrines. On arrive consequently, calm monks in their (The goddess of acquirements to serve) airy functions were assigned unfairly Igbo Pejorative name of OSU. Addition adaptation contends that 8 humans to become OSU Afterwards the community, boondocks or apple absent in the war with their neighbors. It argued that the Please winning, loser-town, some giving as their kith and kin Appeasement of the gods and goddess of the altar to live, and as has become OSU. Yet addition antecedent to clue down the agent of the conveyance of the degree adjustment OSU Offering beastly cede to the gods, or gods. The antecedent claimed that humans Cede to allay God for the annihilation acquire to not be accustomed the night they ambition to be adapted either wrong, or sad, or stop streaks the bad events. It added that some of them acquire lived and died for God Shrine. The aggregation represents some of the belief on the OSU affiliation OSU Igbo adjustment and their bearing the acreage of the gods, and actualization The lot of important shrines of the gods and all the needs of the afar themselves The draft of the affiliation has abstruse the accustomed engagements. Getting agents of the Gods Osus the draft of civilian affiliation to abide giving. Out Reverence or fear, adapted communities as well captivated that the aphorism set Osus collaborate with them. Perhaps, beneath the perceived abeyant of the Gods They thrived and performed their religious function. It is cogent that afore the accession of white men (Europeans) and the Christian religion, and bigotry that abide in relations OSU and Diala (that is perceived as a free-born) is a allotment of the a lot of accustomed Thing. Osus communities confined the gods to be accomplished in their lives. In the In return, they acquire a reasonable alimentation from the assets of those submissions they served in the courtyard of the gods, and have been gradually. However, 'White men' (Europeans), which led to the actualization of the amusing allegation Because of the abounding barbarian, accustomed aboriginal Igbo society. In the past, with the account of some of the Igbo states affianced in religious wars to annex captives and slaves. Stone age, there are beastly cede Accustomed and the addicts generally acclimated for this purpose. According to Elizabeth Isiechi, Ugbo Ukwu abounding disciplinarian as the rulers of the asleep acquire was active Sacrifice. If the accomplished trans-Atlantic bondservant barter contributed the abundance of inter-clan www.ijmer.in 157 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE CTOBER V 4, I 10(3), O 2015 wars. As a aftereffect of this the adjoining communities Disciplinarian to the attacks and to allure anniversary added booties. Baby Aegis of money to seek apartment in the campus communities in adjustment to avoid the approaching doom and the accident of seizures if beneath the abutting Shrines Heightened advance from the advancing forces. Once the priests of the goddess to admit and from the aegis accustomed to refugees and accessible to attack, they OSU are automatically adapted to the status. In some cases, prisoners could be awash and the new owners of inter- communal captured during the battles some of them acquire to enlist, by giving them the cachet of an OSU The action of the bounded celestial and placation. Added captives could be awash as a bondservant has become the article of a ritual annihilation or aloft death, the able chieftains. However, clashing some of the adopted cachet of war captured by the OSU As the citizenry has increased is getting awash to bondservant abroad in abroad acreage Igbo acreage OSU. First, because they are beheld as fair bulk Osus Of the gods. This abominably has snowballed into amusing ostracism. There the bulk has added and that their cachet has beneath badly as they have become a hated and despised, ridiculed and abandoned from the nineteenth century. Dalits in India, one of the lots of abhorred and discriminated groups. And OSU is the case in Nigeria, India, the degree of Dalits archetypal the architecture of the everyman stratification. Casting adjustment in India charcoal Just over two years ago, able-bodied over one hundred thousand accomplished Activities (2500) for. India The degree system, the 'characters' that the bankrupt amusing accumulation or caste, fabricated aloft and inferior abode in a anchored order. And the aloft And scholars, which constitutes the priest degree 'Brahman' is accustomed as. In this category, purity, asceticism and adherence example. They are pro Learning, law, acumen and truth. The lot of important religious issues and functions bound to Brahmins. The additional in the bureaucracy 'Kshatriya' is. They The added they breach into two; 'Vshya' and 'Shidra'. Two groups College castes, which captivated the cartel of the acceptable representation of the Earth Holding system. 'Vashyas' are merchants and accomplished artisans. 'Shidra' Accustomed laborers. In the architecture of the 'Harijans' is. The accumulation And the alleged untouchables, accustomed as the outcast and barn Shudras Impurities. Dalits, who are absolute as adjoin to in the endure chic affiliation typifies and to accomplish the role of disciplinarian in their homeland. There is a role Barn and aspersing to accomplish abject jobs, such as scavenging debris best up the afterlife of the animal. They abjure that amusing interactions are added accustomed affection A lot of households reside in abreast from the added groups, in accord with the Indian groups\ The party, decidedly in bound communities, poor and generally Advised to be inferior, www.ijmer.in 158 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE CTOBER V 4, I 10(3), O 2015 abominable and snubbed. This anatomy is apparently fit AL Kroeber ascertain an endogamous degree and ancestral advice Occupying a position in a chase aloft or inferior rank or assemblage subdivision Amusing account in allegory to others. This analogue is acclimated to call the degree adjustment Rank aggregates of individuals, amusing stratification system, for archetype Attributed to the almighty adamant birth, and acquiesce any alone mobility. Nature and Accustomed Implication of Degree Adjustment A allotment of the Igbo Humans of Nigeria and Dalit of India OSU apostle of the ahead of the degree adjustment and the credo of Igbo acreage Diala, or added frequently referred to as those appointed as OSU. They (OSU) derogatorily humans "scarified" or the gods, "dedicated" or by allegorical the Igbo community, to allay the gods and goddesses. The Chinua Achebe The acclaimed novel, Things Fall Apart, acutely illustrated the attributes of Igbo land, OSU He alleged them outcasts. He was and they go to the people, "he said Dedicated to the gods; One affair that will never be a anathema and his accouchement afterwards him, that sets it apart. What Dials he could not ally nor be affiliated freeborn. "They lived a appropriate breadth of the village, abutting to the shrines afar as outcasts. Igbo humans with assorted aspersing names referred to OSU. Of these, AduEbo are Oruma, Nwani, or Ohualusi. Added names Ume, Ohu, Omoni (OkpuAja) are It is the aforementioned betoken barn chic or slaves. Igbo No bulk the acreage of their abundance or amusing status, and the acceptable communities the churches could hardly apply just over the positions OSU because of their ascribed status. Born free commonly Diala or You are banned to draft them or animosity for alliance or alliance proposals. The affiliation tends to avoid any alone who goes adverse to the practice. The Perhaps the acumen Chinua Achebe Okonkwo "is no best at Easy" justifies says His son, Obi 'OSU' in the minds of our humans that like a leper! Rave To burden from bistro or bubbler in with supporters of the adjustment that OSU With the aforementioned water-Port. It was added of the aforementioned from authority to buy the bazaar is advised to be a taboo. Things today, it will no best be taken It poses the aforementioned as the aboriginal Igbo acceptable system. There is no OSU from today banning the acquirement of the aforementioned bazaar rules. However, the allegation does not beggarly that there is no allegory amid the groups. Segregations are still clearly manifesting the political apple Community. Igbo clans in the adjustment in the country are still affecting people's voting behavior. Conservatives vote adjoin any baby-kisser who suggests that condemns or the adjustment jettisoning. Some communities’ debris to abutment the best out of (OSU), which discriminated, adjoin by any baby-kisser from the accumulation to represent them His / her political endowments, and sources and amusing cachet matter, Community. Diametrically, the attributes of India's Dalit degree adjustment was connected www.ijmer.in 159 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE CTOBER V 4, I 10(3), O 2015 the apple No problem. India, Verna Aryan speaking came about if the aboriginal degree adjustment A accumulation of nomads from the arctic migrated to India in about 1500BC. The Is allotment of the Hindu religion, degree system, believed to be about 3000 years old. Degree is an indicator of amusing and bread-and-butter lateritic India. Harijans (the everyman of the lower unclean, outcast, or) the abstract abject jobs performed by the ability that society. They officially denied admission to accomplished jobs and landed acreage by advantage of their Cost. Religious restrictions, amusing bureaucracy that imposes a assignment Except by alteration the adamant amusing norms of religion. It is absurd to escape Abstention and austere prohibitions on alliance are not run by socially abuse or added amusing alternation amid the high and lower caste. In India, Condemned to amusing displacement from the punitive, it is actual harder to Violence. Uttar Pradesh, an high degree and lower degree boy of the arctic India accompaniment A roof, a affiliate of the Dalit babe was abject and hanged about Hundreds of beholder in the accessible annihilation of their own ancestors to be looked on. The boy suffered was for an inter debris to end the relationship. In the Labor in the basal of India, Dalits accomplish up the majority of the added than five thousand in agreement of five hundred cleaners Dhaka City- limits Affiliation to work. They are small; reside with the city-limits affiliation provided basal basement in poverty-thirds Accessories and poor accomplishment is paid on a circadian basis. Dalits as well brand pigs Dhaka Pullers. Vendors and barrow boyhood Hindu citizenry and the plan of Christians A lot of of the Dalits in India as well abide to reside in poverty, afterwards acreage or Acceptable job or befalling for education. With one barring India benefited from the action of quotas in education, boyhood and Government jobs, Dalit accouchement accomplish up the majority of accouchement awash into High degree bull work to pay off creditors. According to the government Statistics, about one actor Dalits in India a "manual scavengers" (R. The majority of them women) who bright carrion from accessible and clandestine latrines and Animals. Actuate of asleep is abundant college actionable estimates. Handling Beastly decay a lot of "pollution" and "filthy" accounted a caste-based occupation, is But the Dalits anyone. Dalits are the abandon and abhorrence of the advance so that they reside in connected Fear, crisis and disturbing lives. It is a austere beastly rights violation, accompaniment Area governments, such as the Dalits in Maharashtra dead in contempt Khairlanji Haryana, area five Dalits were lynched like animals, like the family, the Beneath the absolution of the accomplishing of the law and a day of ablaze (the bounded police), abduction Five-year-olds, Dalit girl, mutilating and acid arms, legs, amateur as adolescent as Brad affectation a Dalit woman's naked children, adults and animal organs, Some day there are bags of ablaze in the attendance www.ijmer.in 160 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE CTOBER V 4, I 10(3), O 2015 of the absolute apple Dalits.. Examples of atrocity adjoin Dalits, caste- organized and acceptable Dirt cheap, or beneath than animals, and the adverse cachet of India as a analysis all over India With the agenda apple of cartoon displayed on the absolute advice affiliation The median. In the twenty-second neon of the acceleration of advice broadcasting the bulk of ablaze to the world, India, officials, politicians and law sitting quiet and encouraged the accomplishing of such abhorrent crimes to go in the arcane India. In particular, the bread-and-butter and educational disparities abide amid the lower and Upper-caste communities in India. An allotment of the lower castes such as the Dalits and generally bedeviled by low articulacy levels and a abridgement of admission to bloom affliction Formal apprenticeship or training, as able-bodied as the abridgement of bigotry that education. Effective forms of employment, and none of the confined them from active Protected by law, and its abode of caste-based application perpetuates as at 1997, the ancestral attributes alive. The address includes alone two of the Dalit lifetime amount of fifteen medical doctors and engineers Nepal. Nepal Dalit face with a civic boilerplate of five baby.80.children And malnutrition in the accustomed citizenry lacks admission to apple-pie accident India are landless Dalit bubbler baptize or able bloom service. Agronomical workers are the courage of the country's agronomical economy. Admitting decades of acreage ameliorate legislation, conducted an analysis of over 86 percent today, those who own actual little land, prime acreage are generally endemic by the landless. In rural areas of the country and the social, claimed accustomed to actuate the acreage Status. Several added lower-caste population, abridgement of admission to land, like makers Dalits economically vulnerable; the top of the exploited and their annex the average degree landlords and allows abounding abuses to go unpunished. Contrast Amid Igbo Degree Adjustment of Nigeria and Dalit of India Nigerian Igbo banal appraisal of the degree adjustment and the accomplished arena India's Dalit shows cogent similarities and differences. In both cases, the communities are absolute on the base of their birth. In the case of Igbo, Diala is the accustomed buyer of the land, however, is apparent as Born Free Untouchable. In India as a appointed accumulation of OSU and are apparent as outcasts Communities Brahmins (priests and teachers) Ksyatriyas (rulers and soldiers), Vaisyas (traders), and Shudras (laborers and artisans) are Saw alike people. On the added hand, the Dalits, or accustomed and accountable citizens are referred to as affected as the untouchable Ridicule, ache and added forms of abasement as OSU on the Igbo land. In both cases the problems of bigotry as able-bodied as the Dalit, which agency OSU Two societies. This affection is awful bidding in marriage, amusing Organization and political structures. It is impossible, for one thing, added or beneath Dials to acquire or OSU Igbo alliance angle with the land. Ditto India societies, it is added or www.ijmer.in 161 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE CTOBER V 4, I 10(3), O 2015 beneath a anathema Ksystriyas Brahmins, Vaisyas and shudras, acquire or accomplish proposals of alliance with a Dalit who is appointed as untouchable in plural societies such as societies. Nigeria and India, marriages amid altered groups and humans the accord of multi-ethnic groups, are encouraged to advance accord Nigeria and India has defied the will of the Dalits and the cares of the Osus Accustomed truth. OSU afore the era of addition is not accustomed to reside calm Affiliation and the accustomed populace. Especially if they reside alone abandoned Shrines. This acreage is referred to as gods because they are justified. Sugar pikestaff of India's Dalit communities in accurate are limited. The Added groups see this as a weapon to comestible communities in low-status India's Dalit amusing and bread-and-butter strata. They were physically abused and the accident of bread-and-butter and amusing displacement from the affiliation for abnegation to any attempts to change to added jobs, such as the caste-based works etc. The apple customs, amusing order, or the appeal for land, accomplishment acquires increased, or As allotment of the political rights of those threatened a lot of the changes can advance to abandon In the cachet quo. In short, punished for the Dalit communities Violations of all intends and purposes, it is not of their own making. The additional chic citizens. Moreover, both groups politically analysis of their degree for example, the ability acquires to never into any of OSU Diala vote I ambition the political appointment of any of them. Aside hardly acquiesce itself to be adopted for OSU the aforementioned goes for Dalit political affiliation with Diala in Igbo land. In India. For example, in Nepal, the abstraction as well reveals that political bodies However, about eighty percent of the citizenry is Dalit, they Aback 1958, alone fourteen of the Dalits in Nepal are hardly represented in government. Through a adjustment of Parliament (Upper House) acquire become associates The nomination, all of them men. Just a Dalit was adapted to the House Representative. In the faculty that there has been a absence of Dalit Studies According to the Nepal administering and the administrative adjustment as able-bodied as the army. Nepal, the NGO abstraction on bigotry adjoin Dalits, the Brahmins There are alone sixteen percent of the population; they represent fifty-seven Eighty-nine per cent of the Parliaments of amazing judiciary. Economically, OSU lot of humans acquire been discriminated adjoin in Igbo Acceptable societies. By barter with anniversary added is acute for this to be done Deportation. Igbo Nigeria's basal activity of the barter accumulation and E- commerce. OSU appointed as abnegation to avoid those food Dials or their appurtenances and casework purchased. This adjustment leads to bread-and- butter OSU's breath. The alone way to survive in an alternating or assorted times By drift out of the country as allotment of their character may OSU Do not, admitting traders by the Dalits of India, will be analogously known. And acute bread-and-butter www.ijmer.in 162 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE CTOBER V 4, I 10(3), O 2015 weapon charcoal one of the arch strategies and abandoned and relegated to base groups. Financial important India disparities abide to abide amid the low and high-caste communities. Lower degree groups generally low articulacy akin and are bedeviled by a abridgement of Admission to bloom care. The accustomed abridgement of superior bars, a aloft apprenticeship or training Abounding of them from application form. There is no aloft law Protected accomplishing of this legislation to about-face the trend. This is however, the gap amid Brahmins and Dalits in India has a advanced range. As at in 1997, the address includes alone two Dalit medical doctors and fifteen Nepal. Dalit engineers Effects amid the two groups beneath abstraction actuality is the degree systems, allegory we can calmly infer that the degree adjustment and can advance to abandon amid the two groups. As Whole Tyranny. Accumulate bashful in the face of the man who dead Soyinka accurately noted, if the wind began to draft at up to 1950's addition is the cachet quo throughout. This abstraction has amorphous to accomplish their articulation is aeroembolism aspect of their and calls on the corresponding governments to arbitrate articulation heard. Attack their appropriate to a altered blazon of abandon triggered by the stand-off. It is rather Stir to allure the absorption of the colonial government the botheration is, abundant beforehand in India. Efforts acquire been fabricated to actual the perceived amiss But changes to the advantaged groups beheld as an abuse adjoin them. Aback September 1932, Mahatma Gandhi fought adjoin the angry of the degree adjustment He was assassinated in 1948, he led the attack until he sees weakness In India, the colonial government's efforts to accompany accord and amends The humans of India. He began the attack to accompany about a quiet anarchy The anatomy of Indian society. Mahatma Gandhi lamented that untouchability was crushing He is the actual body of the Indian adoration and the poor and the affiance society. The poor, the untouchables of India's abject - would capitalism them from their misery. He connected to action as generally as he led the Indians to accomplish cocky Independence in 1947, he begin that his ambition is to action to eradicate the convenience of degree Abhorrent to his death. The arch and a lot of appalling aboveboard advance Afterwards the afterlife of Mahatma Gandhi, is the Constitution of India, the degree adjustment in India November 26, 1949. Accustomed Question\ The Constitution guarantees that appropriate Justice, freedom, adequation and address of the citizen. Similarly, a accumulation of OSU pre-colonial Nigeria at the time, suffered astringent bigotry Nigeria for a connected time. OSU's agent as able-bodied as the attitude is alloyed about Sustained by tradition. Therefore any attack to deliver the botheration has commonly helped Period. However, admitting their connected OSU affiliation the marginalization they acquire been able to prove. This is because they are Forth the way, accustomed the aboriginal humans to www.ijmer.in 163 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE CTOBER V 4, I 10(3), O 2015 their religion, Christian missionaries Their Western education. They saw it as a absolution for the advancing of the missionaries Abuse of the tradition, captivated them and bootless to embrace the Dials Their religion. This is the aftereffect of the changes in the pre-colonial; OSU began as the administration of abundance that is referred to as Nerds, Igbo acreage and wealth, class- leading. However, do not drive especially in rural areas and villagers in the adjustment 1950, affected a new ambit to the affair of caste-based practice. The In convenience the degree adjustment and added accordant all-embracing cachet and because of the accepted Concern. To ensure that the axiological abandon of beastly rights Crusade Humans acquire for centuries. Thomas Jefferson's affirmation acknowledgment Independence (United States) is a acceptable example. He commented; We hold these truth to be self evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.2 Went forth the way, allowance the way for the accumulation of the aloft E.g. the All-embracing Beastly Rights The All-embracing Covenant on Civilian and Political Appropriate (1966); All-embracing The Racial Bigotry (1965) Convention on the Elimination of all Form. However, UN Accustomed Acknowledgment of Beastly Appropriate stands Cornerstone. Clearly, the all- embracing and bounded beastly rights abstracts Beastly rights and abandon are enjoyed by all afterwards distinction. No one, race, color, sex, language, adoration should be denied rights on the base of and civic or amusing origin, political or added opinions, acreage or birth61. Are the aggregate of the efforts of the United Nations The two countries, India and Nigeria, the degree system, the botheration is still to be a attenuate Nigeria and the Igbo banal of Dalit contagion in the back of a accumulation of OSU India. Conclusion In fact, as has been examined, there is added to the accord amid Igbo Nigeria and India's Dalit degree system. Convenience Amid the two groups, the groups in catechism is a amusing stigmatization.62 And the attitude has been relegated to segregated. They are apparent as about a additional Chic citizens in their homeland. While the assorted measures acquire been taken To eradicate the phenomenon, the bearings seems to acquire besmirched the amusing order. UN Admitting active efforts to accompany ad equation and equalitarian societies A acceptable abode for all the apple to accomplish the

2 https://www.andrew.cmu.edu/course/80-241/guided...vcr.../2500.html

www.ijmer.in 164 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE CTOBER V 4, I 10(3), O 2015 bearings in the degree adjustment This is a plural groups in this abstraction seemed to prove wrong. And the accumulation is encouraged to advance accord amid the societies alliance But amid the two, area the degree adjustment and in adjustment to abuse this accustomed truth. However, according to Tamil Nadu, the degree adjustment and adjustment statement. In this none of the two groups if it comes to practice, he acclaimed that in actualization of the degree adjustment However, the actuality of the abstruse activity of sex and abstruse relations with the accessible Addition approach is that activity does not exist. The accomplishment acquires to be fabricated to actual this all- around amusing disorder, as it may be Groups beneath consideration. It is adjoin the attributes of the adolescent these groups do not acquire problems of their making, abide to ache however, as empiric in the acuteness of the accomplishment to attending on the apple Eradicate. References 1. For details see The Encyclopedia Americana International (ed),Grolier, Vol.6, 1999, pp.768-776, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the United Nations (them chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt) and endorsed by the UN General Assembly on Dec.10,1948. 2. Sarchet-Waller, D.V. “The Caste System from the Beginning until Now” The New World Outlook; The Mission Magazine of the United Methodist Church, Nov.1996. 3. Isichei, E. The History of the Igbo People. Macmillan, London, England, 1976.P.I 4. Ibid 5. See Frobenius, L. The Voice of Africa, (1913) pp 274-275, quoted in Jeffries, M.D.W. “The Divine Umundri Tradition of Origin, African Studies”, XV(19560)121 6. The Conch; ‘Igbo Traditional Life, Culture and Literature’, Sociological Journal of African Culture and Literature Vol.III, No.2 September 1971, pp. 12-13. 7. Obayemi, A. “Oral Evidence as an Introduction to the History of the NorthEast Yoruba-Speaking People”. An Unpublished paper presented at the 15th Annual Congress of the Historical Society of Nigeria, Lagos, 1969. 8. An Oral History Related by chief Emeka linus, 1971 9. Isichei, E Igbo World: An Anthology of Oral Histories and Historical Description. Macmillan, London, England, 1977. 10. Dike, V.E. The Caste System in Nigeria, Democratization and Culture: SocioPolitical and Civil Rights Implication, Online Publication: www.afis.com accessed June 13, 1999. 11. Ibid 12. Ibid

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13. Agbaegbu,T. “Moves to stop Slavery in Igbo land.” New Watch Vol.31,No.1 Jan. 12, 2000. 14. Isichei , E. Igbo Worlds: An Anthology off Oral Histories op cit 15. Dike, V.E. “The Osu Caste System in Igbo land: Discrimination Based on Descent” A Paper Presented to the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination Conference in Geneva, Switzerland (August 8-12, 2002) 16. Ibid 17. Ibid 18. Isichei , E Igbo World: Anthology of Oral History op cit 19. Ibid 20. Nwosu, O.R. “OSu Caste System: A Cultural Albatross for the Igbo Society” Online Publication; www.nigeriaworld.com. Accessed June 13, 1999. 21. Sivapragasam, P.P. “Indian Origin Tamils in Sri Lanka: An Oppressed people” (paper presented by the National Campaign on Dalit Human Right for the Global Conference Against Racism and Caste Based Discrimination /Occupation and Descent Based Discrimination Against Dalits, New Delhi, India, March 1-4, 2001. 22. Parsons, T. The Structure of Social Action, Illinois free press 1937. pp.26- 29. 23. David, L.S.(ed) International Encyclopedia of Social Science, Vol. II, Macmillan New York, 1996. 24. Embree, A. (ed) Sources of Indian Tradition From the Beginning to 1800 (New York: Columbia University press, 1988; Kolenda, P. Caste in Contemporary India: Beyond Organic Solidarity (Merlo Park: Benjamin/Cumming Publishing Co., 1978; Srinivas, M.N. (ed) Caste; Its Twentieth Century Avatar (New Delhi: Viking, 1996) 25. Bishwakarma, P. “Caste Discrimination and Untouchable ability Against Dalits in Nepal” Paper prepared by the Society for the Liberation of Oppressed Dalit Castes, Nepal, for the Global Conference on Caste Discrimination, New Delhi, March 1-4, 2001. 26. David, L.S. (ed) International Encyclopedia op cit p 333 27. Achebe, C .Thing Fall Apart (Doubleday: New York, London, Anchor Books, 1959. Pp.47-63 28. Achebe, C. No Longer At Ease ; Heinemann, London, Ibadan, --- , 1960. 29. Ilo, I. Christian Vs Osu Taboo: “The Ragging Battle in Eastern Nigeria Today’s Challenge”, New Watch Magazine, May 2,1992, p.2 30. Achebe, C. No Longer At Ease op cit 31. See Dike, V. Osu Caste System in Igbo land op cit 32. Murthy, J.S. “Restorative Justice and Indian’s Caste System.” The New World Outlook : The Mission Magazine of the United Methodist Church, July August 1999

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33. Sarchet-Waller, Dodie V. “The Caste System: From the Beginning Until Now” The New World Outlook: The Mission Magazine of the United Methodist Church, Nov. 19 1996. 34.Stephanie, N. “Cross-Caste teen lovers brutally. Slain families charged in torture, killing of Indian Couple who defied ingrained tradition.” Globe and Mail (Toronto), August 9,2001 35.Sivaprasgasam, P.P. Indian Origin Tamils in Sri Lanka ; An Oppressed people “(paper presented by The National Campaign or Dalit Human Right for the Global conference Against Racism and Caste Based Discrimination /Occupation and Descent Based Discrimination Against Dalits, New Delhi India March 1-4 2001 36. Bishwakarma, P. “Caste Discrimination and Untouchability against Dalits in Nepal.” Op cit 37.http://www.ambedkar.org, accessed, 11/02/2011 38.http://www.dalits.org, accessed 11/02/2011 39. National Commission for Scheduled Tribes, Highlight of the Report for the years 1996-97 and 1997-98 (New Delhi; Government of India, 1999). 40. Ibid 41. Vishwakarma, H. “Reservations for Nepal’s Dalit” Kathmandu Post, July 27, 1997. 42. Bishwakarma, P. “Caste Discrimination and Untouchability Against Dalits in Nepal op cit 43.Human Rights Watch, Broken People, p .28 44. Dike, V.E. The Osu Caste System in Igbo land op cit 45. See Embree, A. (ed) “Source of Indian Tradition from the Beginnings to 1800” New York; Columbia University press,1988; Kolenda, P. “Caste in Contemporary India ; Beyond Organic Solidarity “Melon Park: Benjamin/Cumming Publishing Co., 1978; Srinivas, M.N.(ed) Caste; Its Twentieth Century Avatar. New Delhi; Viking, 1996. 46. See Okeke, I.R. The Osu concept in Igbo land A study of the Types of Slavery in Igbo-Speaking Area of Nigeria. Nigeria Access Publishers, 1986; Achebe, C. Things Fall Apart op cit; Bishwakarma, P. “Caste Discrimination and Untouchability Against Dalit in Nepa” op cit ; 47. See Sivapragasam, P.P. “Indian origin Tamils in Sri lanka; An Oppressed People op cit; National Campaign for Dalit Human Rights Black papers ; Broken promises and Dalits Betrayed (India National Campaign on Dalit (Human Right, 1999) 48. Sarchet-Waller, D.V. The caste System ; From the Beginning Until Now op cit; Dike , V Osu caste System in Igbo land op cit 49. See Agbaegbu’s report, “Moves to stop Slavery in Igbo land ; New Watch online , 12 January 2000 50. See Bishwakarma, “Caste Discrimination and Untouchability Against Dalits in Nepal’ op cit 51. Ibid

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52. Dalit NGO Federation (Nepal), “Nepal Alternative Country Report 2001, “paper submitted to united Nations Committee for the Elimination for Asian Regional preparatory Meetings on the occasion of the world Conference Against Racial Discrimination 2001, Teheran, Iran, February 17- 21, 2001. 53. Ilo, I. “Christian Vs Osu Taboo: The Ragging Battle in Eastern Nigeria” Today’s Chanllenge, 2, 1992. 54. Bisbwakarma, “Caste Discrimination and Untouchability Against Dalit in Nepal op cit 55. Soyinka,W “The Man Dies” Oxford University press, London, 1972 56. Murthy, J.S. “Restorative Justice and India Caste System” op cit 57. Ibid 58. Ajayi, N.A “A History of the Osu Caste System in Oweri, it Origin, Nature and Changes Up to 1990. An Unpublished Long Essay, Dept of History, University of Ibadan , 1995. Pp 36-40 59. Ibid 60. Tomonaga, K. NGO Response to the first and second Report prepared by the Government of Japan Concerning the International Convention on Elimination of All form of Racial Discrimination 2000 61. See The Encyclopedia Americana, 1999, pp. 552d-552h 62. See details in the International Movement Against All from of Discrimination and Racial. Human Rights Research Institute, Febuary 2001. Pp 7-8 63. See The UN Declaration and Racism. UN White paper 1990. Pp. 22-28

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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AMONG TRIBALS THROUGH DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES-NEED FOR NEW INITIATIVES

V.Naveen Kumar Dr.V.Venkateswarlu Research Scholar Assistant Professor Dept.of Sociology & Social Work Dept.of Sociology & Social Work Achary Nagarjuna University Achary Nagarjuna University Guntur Guntur

Human Development is defined as “the process of enlarging people’s choices in terms of knowledge and skills, health and longevity and levels of income”. The other additional choices are employment, environment, human dignity and freedom. Thus, the human development is a people-centered strategy and not production centered strategy. Human development facilitates to increase social welfare and wellbeing of the people which is the ultimate objective of the development planning. India is democratic and secular nation committed to the development and welfare of the backward community. Even abier completion of eleventh five year plans. Indian Tribes constitute 8.6% (Census, 2011) of the total population. India ranks second in the world. There are 705 different tribal communities spread all over India, tribal poverty has come into sharp focus since their food sources from the forest have started dwindling. The United Nations Human Development Report (HRD) 2014 ranked in India HDI at 135 among 187 countries. In past 2010 ranked in India 119th out of 169 countries. In India Human Development is backward. But, in the country there are variations in term of human development from one section to another section due to varied geographical settings and economy, historical background and cultural types. The Human Development remains a major issue calling for a serious attention from policy makers and development agencies. As it has been well recognized by the policy maker until unless human development takes place in the

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country, development of the country cannot be attained. So, in order to attain human development in the country emphasis should be given to the most disadvantage and marginalized sector like Scheduled Tribes.

Tribal people live usually close to nature, poverty, illiteracy, absence off safe drinking water, poor hygiene and sanitary living conditions and ineffective coverage of national health and nutritional services have been traced out in several studies as possible contributing factors to dismal health conditions prevailing among the tribal population. The Government of India has seriously shown its commitment to reduce the social and economic disparities through the strategy of inclusive growth with focus on equity and social justice during the Twelfth Five Year plan (2012-17). The initiatives under special component plans for SCs and Tribal Sub Plans for STs have not created desired impact on the BPL families of these communities, and thereby the extent of their backwardness and vulnerability is persistently perpetuated. Human Development is one of the important aspects for determining the literacy, health and economic levels but there are dearth of studies on Human Development in relation to tribal development. Therefore this peper explores the Human Development among Tribals in India and also the need for new Intiatives for the better development of tribal people.

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State wise Scheduled Tribal Population India, Census-2011

Sl.No State / Union Territory Total Rural Urban INDIA 104,281,034 93,819,162 10,461,872 1 Jammu & Kashmir 1,493,299 1,406,833 86,466 2 Himachal Pradesh 392,126 374,392 17,734 3 Punjab NST NST NST 4 Chandigarh # NST NST NST 5 Uttarakhand 291,903 264,819 27,084 6 Haryana NST NST NST 7 NCT of Delhi # NST NST NST 8 Rajasthan 9,238,534 8,693,123 545,411 9 Uttar Pradesh 1,134,273 1,031,076 103,197 10 Bihar 1,336,573 1,270,851 65,722 11 Sikkim 206,360 167,146 39,214 12 Arunachal Pradesh 951,821 789,846 161,975 13 Nagaland 1,710,973 1,306,838 404,135 14 Manipur 902,740 791,126 111,614 15 Mizoram 1,036,115 507,467 528,648 16 Tripura 1,166,813 1,117,566 49,247 17 Meghalaya 2,555,861 2,136,891 418,970 18 Assam 3,884,371 3,665,405 218,966 19 West Bengal 5,296,953 4,855,115 441,838 20 Jharkhand 8,645,042 7,868,150 776,892 21 Odissa 9,590,756 8,994,967 595,789 www.ijmer.in 179 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE CTOBER V 4, I 10(3), O 2015

22 Chhattisgarh 7,822,902 7,231,082 591,820 23 Madhya Pradesh 15,316,784 14,276,874 1,039,910 24 Gujarat 8,917,174 8,021,848 895,326 25 Daman & Diu # 15,363 7,617 7,746 26 Dadra& Nagar Haveli # 178,564 150,944 27,620 27 Maharashtra 10,510,213 9,006,077 1,504,136 28 Andhra Pradesh 5,918,073 5,232,129 685,944 29 Karnataka 4,248,987 3,429,791 819,196 30 Goa 149,275 87,639 61,636 31 Lakshadweep # 61,120 13,463 47,657 32 Kerala 484,839 433,092 51,747 33 Tamil Nadu 794,697 660,280 134,417 34 Puducherry # NST NST NST 35 Andaman & Nichobar Islands # 28,530 26,715 1,815 Source: Census, 2011

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According to the 2011 Census there 24,94,54,252 Households, of which 2,14,67,179 households being to ST population. Total population in the country is 2,21,05,69,573 out of these 10,42,81,034 are classified as ST with 5,24,09,823 Males and 5,18,71,211 Females. The decadal growth rate of the tribal population during 2001-2011 is 23.7% which is higher than India’s total decadal growth (17.6%). In India, nearly two thirds of the population lives in small villages scattered in rural areas. Majority of tribes reside in the rural areas. More than half of the villages are mainly characterized by low accessibility to Education, Transportation, Health and Hygiene and Development. For the overall development of a country, there is need to develop all the areas uniformly in all aspects.

Human Development among tribals is to improve the quality of people’ lives by creating an environment for them to engage in a wider range of activities, to be healthy and well nourished, to be knowledgeable, and to be able to participate in community life. The programmes meant for tribal development may be divided into two categories, those relating to the tribal education and other welfare measures and those concerning the economic support schemes for the tribals under the anti-poverty protrammes of the Government. To capture the progress in human development at the state level in India, the three major indicators are- Education Index, Health Index, and Income Index.

Education Facility for Tribal Societies

Literacy is an important and primary index of Human Development. Education is a key factor for accelerating the pace of development of individual and the society as a whole. It is also a good intervention procedure for main-streaming the tribes. Literacy as an indicator of socio-economic status is highly essential for the economic development as well as social development of scheduled tribes. According to Article-46 of the Indian constitution, special emphasis is

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laid on the educational development of tribals. The development of education during the post independence period has been conditioned by the natural goals and aspiration as enshrined in our constitution. Several committees and commission were formed to increase the educational status of nation. Large numbers of educational institution were opened in rural and tribal areas for spreading of education among the Scheduled Tribes. A number of schemes and incentives such as scholarship, free residential facilities, free books and above all reservation of seats in educational institutions were introduced and however, the gap between the literacy rates of Scheduled Tribes and of the general population continued during the three decades between 1991 and 2011 has 29.40% increased. The slow progresss in formal education and literacy reveals that there are obstacles in the way of education…Hence; identification of the constraints in education is a pre-condition for evolving a suitable policy having a clear perspective for education of the tribals.

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Literacy amongst Schedule Tribal Groups in India

General Population ST Population

S.No Year Male Female Total Male Female Total

1 1961 34.44 12.95 24.02 13.83 3.16 8.53

2 1971 39.45 18.70 29.45 17.63 4.85 11.3

3 1981 46.89 24.82 36.23 24.52 8.04 16.35

4 1991 64.1 39.3 52.2 40.65 18.19 29.6

5 2001 75.3 53.7 64.8 59.17 34.76 47.1

6 2011 82.14 65.46 74.04 68.5 49.4 59

Source: Census, 2011.

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Since independence there is an increase in the tribal literacy but not as per the national average. According to 2011 Census, the total literacy rate among tribals (excluding children aged 0-6 years) in India is 59% where it is 74% at the national level. Literacy rate in tribal is lower than the national average. And on the basis of male and female percentages, the male account 68.5% and 49.4% among females. There is literacy gap of 19.1% between males and females and it is higher in rural area (19.9%) as compared to the urban areas (12.9%). Overall literacy rate among tribal is the highest in Lakshadweep (91.7%) and lowest is Andhra Pradesh (49.2%).

Education imparts knowledge, and knowledge of self identity and human environment will infuse a sense of confidence, courage and ability among the weaker sections of the society to know and overcome their problems associated with exploitation and deprivation, and avail socio-economic and political opportunities extended to them. Although there is a significant increase in the literacy of population of all categories in India, the tribals are far behind from the national increase. So education among the tribes should be viewed against their background of economy and society.

Medical Facilities in Tribal Societies

The tribal villages are located in the interior parts of the forests and not easily accessible. The well being of the tribes largely depends upon their health and the availability and intake of the food. In order to keep them fit the government is trying to improve their quality of life, by extending the health services to the tribal hamlets. The tribal population is less likely to afford and get access to healthcare services when required. Remoteness of villages, uncooperative attitudes among medical personnel, limited manpower and a lack of awareness with in tribal communities all pose difficulties in achieving adequate health care delivery. The expansion of rural health services primary health

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centers, sub-centers and ANMs, though inadequate, has weakened the belief in supernatural elements among the sample households. Infant and child mortality rates reflect a country’s level of socio-economic development and quality of life and are used for monitoring and evaluating population and health programme and policies. There was a clear shift in government policy from family planning to family health during the last decade. The policy makers, of late, recognized that unless health status of the mother and child is improved and mortality declined, the family planning programmes will not succeed. The National Family Health Survey, India which has provided data on a variety of health and nutritional indicators by tribe, education and standard of living, provides ample scope for examining the social inequalities in health and nutrition.

Economic Scenario of Tribal Society

The wide gap between rich and poor has always been a matter of concern in India as well as other developing countries. It is now widely accepted that needs to be addressed is the inequality of opportunities. In fact, the task before the nation, which Pandit Nehru identified half a century ago included ‘ending of not only poverty, ignorance, disease’ but also ‘ending of inequality of opportunities’. The dimension has assumed special significance recently in the context of the new economic reforms. Tribal poverty has come into sharp focus since their food sources from the forest have started dwindling. The poverty levels of India’s tribal population have remained persistent over time. Deprived of formal education and with little access to capital, they fail to find work, either self-employed or within regular jobs, ending up in casual employment or in agricultural laborers, casual laborers, plantation laborers, industrial laborers etc. In most of the areas the tribals have been badly over-powered economically, politically and socially by the local moneylenders. The tribals have, at number of places, been reduced to the position of bonded laborers. Indebtedness

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and exploitation grow faster in an atmosphere of ignorance prevailing in the tribal communities. A several form of exploitation has grown under the system of bondage.

The basic constitutional safeguards of a nation to secure its citizens are: Educational & Cultural, Economical, Social, Political and Services. Central and State Government have formulated and introduced different types of poverty alleviation and Educational supporting Programmes and Sub-plan for Scheduled Tribes. In the present scenario, an action plan needs be formulated that could be executed at the grass root level with participation of the local people. Education, Health, Employment, participation in socio-economic culture and political activities of tribes are still in a rudimentary state. In this scenario there is need to assess the human development among tribals in order to know how far development programmes contributed for their human development.

Life Expectancy

The life of the tribes is so beset with these disorders right from birth and the average life expectancy is much lower in contrast with the national average (NFHS-3) of 58-60 years. The expectation of life is the Indian most often used when one wishes to summarize the wish of mortality in country. The available of values of life expectancy at birth for individual tribes is limited. Sometimes even the existing hospitals and dispensaries remained without doctors, compounders, nurses, etc. In some dispensaries stock of medicines, necessary instruments, equipments and essential provisions for the patients were found quite inadequate and lagging behind in providing right type of medication in tribal areas.

Tribal Problems in India

In India, the tribes are socially and economically very backward compared to the rest of the nation’s population. The tribal areas have

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remained under- developed, neglected, and even alienated from the rest of the land for centuries. The tribals are living under precarious economic conditions due to continuous neglect of the rulers and the successive governments over a long period and a lack of appreciation of their special problems, inadequate investment and non integration of the tribal economy. Owing to the lack of transport, communication and other facilities, they have been cut off from the main stream. Till recently they were virtually enslaved and kept as bonded labors by money lenders from whom they had borrowed money at fantastic rates of interest and failed to repay. Tribal economy is relatively backward, underdeveloped and open and exploited. The impact of development programmes on it and the tribals capacity to absorb them are limited.

They live generally in inhospitable terrain where productivity of the soil is low and their hamlets are found in the interior forest areas along with the hill steams. There are no communication facilities between the various isolated tribal groups, as well as between the tribal and the world at large. Tribal area agriculture is therefore somewhat different from other area mainly on account of the difference in natural topography. And also the typical topography of undulating and hilly areas has made tribal area agriculture less profitable.

Strategies for Tribal Development

The basic objectives of tribal development strategy should aim on

1. Ensure to enhance political representation among Tribals.

2. Development of educational status should be key factor for betterment of Human Development.

3. All the fruits of development programmes should reach very needy among tribes.

4. Rapid reduction in the incidence of poverty and unemployment among tribes.

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5. Reduction in inequalities of income and wealth.

6. Development of human resources through proper education and training.

7. Infrastructural development in tribal regions to utilize native resources and talents to the fuller extent.

8. Alternative measures to prevent exploitation of tribals by middlemen.

9. Betterment in quality of life of the tribes by implementing minimum needs programmes.

Development Paradigm

Examined from the perspective of quality of life indicators, tribal development strategies will need to be more human-centered. This means bringing about a shift in the mindset and a redefinition of the word development; or measuring development by looking at outcomes such as the number of children or women saved from premature death; increasing literacy levels, reducing drop-out and increasing retention in schools, etc. As Government to focusing only on number of Silveroak trees planted, Coffee produced, Houses constructed, Buffalos, Sheeps distributed. This means having an agenda that consists of provisioning of basic education, basic health care and capacity building within the framework of a stable and sustainable land use policy: where there is a basic interlinkage of the individual activities. Among the tribal’s, it is not only necessary for improving awareness but more importantly, carefully bringing about attitudinal development and behavioral changes for the promotion of good health values. Focus would need to be on interpersonal communication and training of community based organization mother groups, the village development societies. Tribals are the poorest of the poor. The state’s inability to provide a credible and feasible health care

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system that is accessible and affordable is indicative of the system failure in an important area of concern. Wisdom lies in learning lessons and having courage to get out of given formats and mindsets.

Development Programmes

Tribes in India, geographically and culturally, are at widely different stages of social and economic development and their problems differ from area to area and within individual groups. An essential virtue of tribal life is that in a tribe man does not live for himself alone. He views himself as an integral part of the community to which he belongs. This identity of interest between the individual and the community, which is almost absent in non-tribal societies, is real and has a profound bearing on tribal attitudes. A number of employment, welfare oriented and developmental programmes for tribals have been introduced by the Government of India. The major programmes are IRDP, IAY, PMRY, MGNREGS, IKP etc. All this schemes are implemented in the state by Rural Development Programmes in collaboration with Commercial and Cooperative Banks. ITDA had Economic; Educational and Health support programmes are conducted. Special for tribal welfare programmed like: Vocational Training Centers in tribal areas, Educational complex in low literacy pocket, support to National / State ST Finance & Development Corporations, Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowships for ST students, Ashram Schools in tribal Sub-Plan Areas, Special Assistance (SCA) to TSP, Reservation of Posts in Government Services, Training-cum-Production Centers & Subsidies etc.

Ensuring a better Future for Tribal Society

The word ‘Tribe’ is nowhere defined in the constitution of India, which has been content to declare, in its Article 342 that the Scheduled Tribes are the “tribes or tribal communities”. The constitution of India has made several provision to safeguard the interests of the STs in

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Article 15(4), 16(4), 23, 24, 29, 46, 164, 243, 244, 275, 320(40), 330, 334, 337, 350,371 in the Fifth as well as in the Sixth Schedules; besides these, several laws have been enacted by the Central Government like the protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955; the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Act, 1989; the provision of the Panchayats (Extention to Scheduled Area) Act, 1996; the Scheduled Tribes and other traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006; etc Articles of the constitution relevant to the scheduled tribes. Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of Religion, Race, Cast, Sex or Place or Birth.

Conclusion

It is suggested that the Government should ensure that their socio-economic conditions are improved by educating them in all respects and bring them into the mainstream of general public. Tribals are more superstitious, backward. In the present scenario, an action plan needs to packages for the overall development of the tribals in formulated that could be executed at the grass root level with participation of the local people. Government has announced separate packages for the overall development of the tribal in Education, Health, Food, Housing, Transported and other Infrastructure facilities have to be implementation. Appropriate machinery has to be devised to make sure that these facilities do reach the tribals to bring about the desired improvement in Human Development among Tribals in India.

References:

1. Census of India Report, 2011.

2. Hooja, Meenakshi (2004), “Polices and Strategies for Development”, Jaipur: Rawat Publication.

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3. Ramachandrudu.G(2007), “Tribal Development-Fertility, mortality & family planning behavior among STsin AP”.The Associated Publshers, India.

4. Somasekhar.K (2008), “Development Programmes and Social Change among the Tribals”, Serials Publications, New Delhi.

5. Soubhagya ranjan.P(2013), “Current Tribal Situation Strategies for Planning, Welfare and Sustainable Development”, Mangalam Publication, New Delhi.

6. Suryanarayana M. (1997), “Role of Communication in Tribal Education : Formal and Non Formal,” in George Preffer and D.K. Bhera (eds.,) op.cit., pp. 224-227.

7. Tribal Health Bulletin. January, 2014.

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INDIA’S EFFORTS TO ACCOMPLISH MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS: KEY LEARNINGS AND WAY FORWARD

Dr. Jagadish B Deputy Manager Learning and Development Division Human Resources and Services Group Toyota Kirloskar Motor, Bangalore, India I. INTRODUCTION

India has made noteworthy progress towards reaching the Millennium Development. However, the progress across different Goals varies. According to UN ESCAP Report (2015), India has already achieved the target for reducing poverty by half (Goal 1). India has attained gender parity in primary school enrolment (Goal 3) and is likely to reach parity in secondary and tertiary education also by 2015. Further, the country is set to achieve reducing hunger by half (Goal 1); to reduce maternal mortality by three quarters (Goal 5); control of the spread of deadly diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis (Goal 6); has increased forest cover and has halved the proportion of population without access to clean drinking water (Goal 7). However, India is lagging behind on targets for achieving universal primary school enrolment and completion and achieving universal youth literacy by 2015 (Goal 2); empowering women through wage employment and political participation (Goal 3); reducing child and infant mortality (Goal 4); and improving access to adequate sanitation to eliminate open defecation (Goal 7).

II. KEY DRIVERS WORTH EMULATING

India can improve performance by helping the weaker States emulate the good performers. The analysis finds that States that performed better on the MDGs focused on the following “drivers”:

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 Accelerated broad-based and employment creating economic growth

 Channeled resources into human development  Promoted good governance and effective delivery of public services

 Extended basic infrastructure networks  Promoted gender equality and empower of women. III. POVERTY, HUNGER AND EMPLOYMENT

Based on the UN ESCAP (2015) Report, it is evident that India has achieved the poverty reduction target, but the progress made is uneven. Faster reduction in poverty since the mid-2000s helped India halve the incidence of poverty from the 1990 level. This was a result both of economic growth (including in agriculture) as well as increased social spending on interventions such as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM). Nevertheless, over 270 million Indians in 2012 still remained trapped in extreme poverty – making the post-2015 goal of eliminating extreme poverty by 2030 challenging, but feasible. Divergent growth experiences and rising inequality have led to poverty becoming increasingly concentrated in poorer states. The incidence of poverty in rural India is twice that of urban areas, and higher among excluded groups — Scheduled Tribes, Scheduled Castes, female-headed households, and religious minorities such as Muslims.

With the objective of eliminating poverty, the tasks required are:

 To widen implementation of poverty alleviation programmes, such as MGNREGA and Food Security in poorer States; and focus greater attention on rural development, states falling behind and socially-excluded groups (including the urban poor).

 To guarantee more inclusive growth through universalization of the Government’s financial inclusion programme Pradhan

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Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana across the nation, and integrate it with expanded micro-finance and micro-insurance schemes.

 Over the medium-term, continue emphasis on both increasing growth and social spending on poverty eradication programmes as essential elements to reduce inequality across income, geographical regions and between socially advantaged and disadvantaged groups.

India is on-track to achieve the hunger targets Accelerated economic progress in recent years leaves India on-track to achieve halving hunger just after the 2015 deadline. Nevertheless, India remains home to one quarter of the world’s undernourished population, over a third of the world’s underweight children, and nearly a third of the world’s food- insecure people. India should join the new global pledge to end hunger by 2025. Hunger responds sluggishly to growth and requires complementary interventions in several other areas including access to balanced food and medical facilities by the poor, better child nutrition and immunization, adequate sanitation and hygiene, and faster- changing cultural practices to promote nurturing physical and mental environments for development of children and adolescent girls. Immediate actions required to curb hunger are:

 Incorporate improvements into targeted child nutrition programmes such as the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme  Utilize National Rural Health Mission  Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls-SABLA  Public Distribution System  Sanitation programmes  Implementation of National Food Security Act  Double agricultural productivity  Promote new green revolution  Sustainable agricultural practices  Improve mothers’ feeding and caring behaviour  Clean household water

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 Adequate sanitation  Strengthening access to health system  Better access to local nutritious diets to meet protein and micro- nutrient requirements Employment

India needs to step up efforts to expand youth employment. Limited employment creation despite high growth has slowed India’s poverty reduction. Greater efforts are needed to take full advantage of India’s demographic “bulge” as the working age group expands by creating decent productive jobs to reinforce and underpin India’s sustainable growth. The factors responsible for low employment growth include insufficient absorption of surplus labour from agriculture in industry, particularly manufacturing, and services; and a drop in female labour force participation affecting the overall labour force participation rate. Other priority actions to bolster employment include:

 Skill India programme  Expanding productive jobs in manufacturing and services sectors  Promotion of small and medium enterprises  Implementing ‘Make in India’ programme  Leverage large domestic market  Infrastructure development  Credit provision  Land and labour reforms  Stimulating domestic enterprise development  Enhancing ease of doing business  Examining alternative policies and measures to make informal employment more productive and inclusive  Focusing on employment of women, especially in the unorganized sector  Placing greater emphasis on creating decent jobs. IV. EDUCATION FOR ALL

Latest data suggest that India is off-track on the targets to achieve universal enrolment and completion. Large numbers of children still

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remain out of school and fail to complete primary education. The quality of education is also a major concern. Direct testing of primary school students indicates very poor learning achievements in core areas of reading and mathematics with little improvement. Far greater effort is needed not only to achieve quality universal primary education, but also to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) target of universal secondary education.

 Scaling up efforts to reach the most excluded groups such as Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST)

 Provide instruction in the mother tongue of students  Ensure that children are enrolled at the official age of entry to primary school

 Encourage early childhood education  Improve accountability of teachers  Accord priority to improving learning outcomes.  Step-up resources to basic education  Supporting states with insufficient funds  Improving efficiency in use of public resources  Regular assessment of teachers’ performance  Providing teachers incentives linked to improvement in students’ learning.

 Increase the teacher-pupil ratio particularly in remote and disadvantaged areas.

 Encourage participation of non-public players, such as civil society and the private sector, parents and communities. V. GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWERMENT

India is on track to achieve gender parity at all education levels, having achieved it at primary level already. But women’s literacy rates lag that

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of men, indicating women’s poorer learning outcomes and opportunities. Important initiatives which require attention are:

 Mandatory improvements in areas of water and sanitation  Women safety  Teacher training  Gender-sensitive curricula  Campaigns to promote secondary and tertiary education of girls and women

 More reliable and safer transport options are necessary  Providing women vocational education  Promoting parity in wages  Implementing laws providing women with property and land rights

 Promoting more employment of women  Providing more than 100 days of work to them under MGNREGA

 Provide 33 per cent reservation of seats in Parliament for women must be passed and similar measures taken for states

 Making workplaces safe  Regulating informal and domestic work  Promoting women’s entrepreneurship with specialized capacity- building programmes

 Exclusive credit provision  Formation of self-help groups  Change in discriminatory social norms and behaviors against women.

 Better implementation of legislation to prevent violence against women.

 Effectively implement laws preventing under-age marriages.

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 Provide legal assistance to fight injustice and violence  Change social norms through education and by scaling up campaigns involving the private sector and NGOs to bring about attitudinal changes.

 Vigorous pursuit of the new Government’s Beti Bachao-Beti Padhao campaign especially in the States with adverse sex ratio. VI. HEALTH FOR ALL

India has achieved success on maternal health and on priority diseases but is off-track on child health although recent trends show acceleration towards achieving this goal. The control of diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and polio has been a major success for India. Also, its efforts mainly through the adoption of the National Rural Health Mission in 2005 (now expanded country-wide across rural and urban areas through the National Health Mission) have speeded up progress in child and maternal health but while the maternal mortality target is likely to be achieved, the targets on infant and child mortality will not. The NRHM adopted a targeted approach focusing on underserved rural areas and lagging states and emphasized health of women and children and improving service standards. More vigorous and sustained efforts on improving child and maternal health will be needed, especially to meet the new global targets being considered of zero preventable child deaths and a much sharper reduction in maternal deaths by 2030. To improve health services, following efforts are required:

 Fill existing staff vacancies and overcoming gaps in availability of health personnel

 Tackle governance issues to reach the unreached and remote populations

 Better monitoring of programmes  Improve quality of health services

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 Encourage States to pay more attention to health and helping improve their capacities

 Strengthen participation in health by the private sector and civil society

 Adopt integrated fragmented disease-specific services and programmes developed through NRHM, Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY) and other schemes

 Better use of existing resources  Effective implementation and management of programmes  Appropriate and transparent accountability of health facilities  Price regulation  Strengthen procurement and supply systems on essential drugs and generic medicines

 Reduction in premature mortality VII. WATER, SANITATION AND ENERGY

India has already achieved the MDG water target, but is falling far short on sanitation. Despite meeting the water target, several concerns remain such as insufficient availability of water; inequity in its access; and sustainability of water sources. India faces a much bigger challenge on sanitation where progress is held back by the massive open defecation problem. The Government’s Swachh Bharat Abhiyan campaign intends to achieve a ‘Clean India’ by 2019. Initiatives which are required to ensure better water and sanitation facilities include:

 To end open defecation, immediate measures include intensifying the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan campaign

 Scaling-up awareness-raising programmes on sanitation  Involve communities and local governments  Mass-communication messages on sanitation  Efforts by states, districts and social groups

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 Enhance inter-personal communication and community approaches to total sanitation

 Deploy skilled personnel for toilet construction  Monitoring and evaluation of programmes  Prioritize efforts to enable access by all to modern energy, roads, and essential urban and rural infrastructure

 Providing urban amenities in rural areas  Integrate infrastructure interventions with the provision of basic services such as education and health

 Integrate sanitation, waste management and energy generation using new technologies as under Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.

 Review past lessons to provide clean cooking fuels to devise scalable programmes for rural populations.

 Enhancing sustainability of development VIII. ENHANCING SUSTAINABILITY OF DEVELOPMENT

India’s performance on the MDG environment targets has varied. India has increased the area under forest cover and biodiversity protection. India still has relatively low levels of pollution per capita or per dollar of GDP, but India is quickly becoming one of the largest emitter of greenhouse gases, even though per capita emissions are among the lowest and have declined per unit of GDP.

Forests and Biodiversity

Although India has slightly improved its aggregate forest cover between 1990–2013, declines have occurred in some States. Also, India’s forests have changed from multi-product and multi-layer to timber oriented, limiting gathering of non-timber forest products by forest-dependent communities. India’s progress in granting community rights under the Forest Rights Act has been minimal. India has, however, taken major strides in biodiversity conservation and will achieve the MDG biodiversity target. An immediate task is to expand afforestation by

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focusing particularly on reversing the loss of multi-purpose trees from large forested states and increasing gatherable biomass and non-timber forest products.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions

India’s progress in controlling greenhouse gas emissions can be considered satisfactory if the carbon intensity of GDP is taken as an indicator, but not so if Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions per head is considered. India has committed, to reducing the carbon intensity of its GDP by 20–25 per cent by 2020 in support of international climate change efforts. India has the opportunity to leapfrog into low carbon growth paths using advanced technology as it industrializes and urbanizes rapidly in the coming decades.

Terrestrial and Marine Ecosystems Conservation

Apart from the core MDG-related concerns, mentioned above, India will need to confront other environmental challenges to its sustainable development which are addressed more comprehensively under the proposed SDGs. These include conservation of terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Some of India’s major challenges in this area include pollution of its inland rivers and waters; depleting fresh water sources through melting of Himalayan glaciers and depleting groundwater; land degradation, estimated at 20 per cent of land area; and damage to coastal and marine ecosystems with loss of 34 per cent of mangroves between 1950–2000.

Climate Change Mitigation

India upholds the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” in climate change matters, but is aware that it needs to take several measures in this area in its own interest as well. These include energy efficiency measures particularly in incentivizing use of LED lights, as the Government is doing and benchmarking appliances

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for energy efficiency, and encouraging Indian industry to move to more sustainable production patterns and waste recycling. The Government is putting heavy emphasis on renewable energy by focusing on solar, wind, geothermal and small hydroelectric plants including through quintupling the target under National Solar Mission to 100,000 megawatts (MW) by 2022. However, as coal will continue to be a dominant source of energy for many years, access to advanced technologies such as carbon capture and storage (CCS) would be critical. Apart from public action, encouragement of the private sector to support sustainability efforts, particularly by undertaking investments for clean energy deployment, must be a priority.

Resilience to Natural Hazards

Although India has had commendable success in reducing loss of life and property in recent cyclones such as Phailin and Hud Hud through enhanced ability to generate accurate early warnings, it needs to scale up its successes to confront all natural hazards including floods which are occurring at increased frequency. Disaster management practices and large scale climate proofing of infrastructure are needed.

Inclusive and Sustainable Cities

India will face major environmental challenges due to rapid urbanization. Air pollution in Indian cities with pollutants far exceeding norms is increasing. Cities also face other environment related problems such as excessive congestion, unhygienic conditions, poor waste disposal, and lack of green spaces for recreation. The Government’s plan to develop “100 Smart Cities” that are based on low carbon pathways is very timely and should be pursued vigorously including through win-win financial models for leveraging public- private partnerships.

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Government’s Initiatives

The National Action Plan on Climate Change which focuses on both climate change mitigation and adaptation measures is the Government’s major initiative on climate change. It also has initiated measures and campaigns in other environment areas such as Namami Gange for Ganga conservation, revamping the National Disaster Management Authority, more ambitious solar mission, and the 100 Smart Cities initiative. Other measures need to be initiated in particular for conservation of marine and coastal ecosystems and for improving air quality in cities.

IX. SUMMARY

To summarize, substantial development has been made by India on all the eight Millennium Development Goals. Thanks to the collective efforts at global, regional, national and local levels. With MDGs in place, human development has acquired the centre stage. However, there are areas which need further attention in India. With further global support, ample funding and participation from all stakeholders, these numbers can be turned around.

Now, the global community is all set to establish the Sustainable Development Goals. To achieve these goals, the role of Social Work professionals will be similar to a fulcrum. Utilizing Social Work knowledge, skills, approaches and techniques will help the community in improving the standard of living of people across the globe.

References

1. GoI. (2015): Millennium Development Goals Country Report 2015, Social Statistics Division, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India.

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2. Jagadish, B. (2015): Social Work Approach in Achieving Millennium Development Goals, Prateeksha Publications, Jaipur, India.

3. UN ESCAP. (2015): India and the MDGs, Towards a Sustainable Future for All, United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, India.

4. UN. (2014): The Millennium Development Goals Report 2014, United Nations, New York.

5. UN. (2015): MDG Success Springboard for New Sustainable Development Agenda – UN Report, The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015, UN Department of Public Information, 6th July, New York.

6. UN. (2015): The Millennium Development Goals Report, 2014, We Can End Poverty 2015, Millennium Development Goals, United Nations, New York.

7. UN. (2015): The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015, Time for Global Action for People and Planet, United Nations, New York.

8. UN. (2015): The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015, United Nations, New York.

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सयाथकाशे शा एवं वणयवथा Vishwashrawa Research Scholar Education Department Rastriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha Tirupati

ाचीनभारतीय समाजय संघटनं वणाम परपरायाः आधारे आसीत ्। ऋषयः समाजय वभाजनं चातुवयषु अकुवन ्। ते च यथा ामणः, यः, वैयः, शूच।

वणामपरपरायाः पालनं ाचीनकाले अनवायमासीत ्।

वणयवथायाः ारभः

भारतीयसमाजे वणयवथायाः ारभय थमसकेतः ऋवेदय पुषसूते वतते। परमामनः सृयादौ मानवानां उपितवषये मतभेदं नैव कृतवान ्। तदानीं ये जनाः अयोनजाः उपनाः ते सवऽप ामणाः एव आसन ्। तथाप उतमसमाजय संरचनायाः आवयकता वतते। अतः ऋवेदे समाजय वपं अवणयत ्। त एकः ? नः उपनोित यत ् अय पुरषपी समाजय वभाजनं परमामनः कथं अकरोत ् ? ? तय मुखं कम ् आसीत ् तथा तय बाहु, उ तथा पादाः के आसन ् अय समाधानं एवं वतते – ताश समाजपी पुषय मुखं ामणः आसीत ्। तय बाहु यः तय ऊ

वैयः तथा तय पादौ शूः आसीत ्। तयथा ---

यपुषं यदधुः कतधा यकपयन ्।मुखं कमय कौ बाहु का ऊ पादा

उयेते।। ऋवेद 10.90.11

ामणोय मुखमासीत ्बाहू राजयः कृतः।ऊ तदय य वैयः पयां शूो

अजायत।।ऋवेद 10.90.12

समाजे ामणः शीषथानीयः वतते। सः समाजय कृते वचारधारां ददात तथा दशानदशनं करोत। यः भुजथानीयः वतते, यः योदा सशः समाजय रणं करोत। वैयः ऊथानीयः वतते, यः समाजय पालनपोषणं करोत, तथा

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समृयथ उतरदायी वतते। एतदथ सःकृषं करोत, पशुपालनं करोत, उयोगं थापयत तथा ववधयवसायान ् करोत। शूः पादथापनीयः वतते, यः समाजय

तभः वतते तथा सव कारेण समाजय सेवां करोत।

यजुवदे अप समाजय वभाजनं चतुधा कृतं वतते- ामणः, यः, वैयः,

तथा शूः । तयथा-

 ामणो ामणं ाय राजयं मयो वैयं तपसे शूम ्।। यजु 30.3

 यजुवदानुसारं ामणः इयुते यः सव अययनाथ समपणं करोत।  यः इयुते यः युदय अययनामक तथा यामकशाथ समपतः वतते। देशय, जायाच शासनं तथा रायाः उतरदायवं ययोपर

वतते।  वैयः इयुते यः धनोपाजनसबधी ानेन परपूणः वतते, देशय जनतायाच भरण- पोषणं तथा समृदेः उतरदायी वैयः भवत। देशय

अथयवथायाः संचालनं वैयय कतयं अित।  यः सवगुणहनः वतते, तं समाजय सेवायाः काय समपतः तं शूः इत

वदित। ‘ ’ वण पदय रचना वृञ् वरणे इत धातोः नपनोऽित। अय अथः वरणम ्।

मनुयः ववभाव तथा योयतायाः आधारेण वीयवण चनोत।

काय सपादन तथा वभाजनाथ वभन यतीनां आवयकता वतते। कमथमयुते एकः मनुयः समाजय उत वयाप समत कायाण सपादयतुं नैव शयते। वभनयितषु वभनकारकगुणाः तथा योयताः भवित। यः समाजे सामयानुगुणं काय करोत। एतत ् सदाताधारेणैव ाचीन ऋषयः समाजय

संचालनाथ चातुवयषु वभती कृतः।

वणानां गुणकतयान च

वणयवथायाः सदाताधारेण सवषां वणानां कतयानां नदनमप आवयकं वतते। ाचीनभारतीयशापदतौ अयाः वणयवथायाः महत ्

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योगदानमासीत ्। बालकय शा एतेषां कतयानां पालनकणाथमेव वहतवतः।

अनेन बालकय भावीजीवने अय उपयोगता भवत म।

चातुवणानां वभजनं यतेः बुिदः तथा तय ानाधारेणैव भवत म। एतेषां नणयः अप गुः एव करोत म। बालकय वयायाससमायनतरं गुः तय बुिदः तय ानाधारेण तथा तय गुणकमाणां आधारेण सः किमन ् वण योयः इत नचयत म, तदाधारेणैव सः वजीवनं यापयत म।अतः एतेषां वणानां

गुणकतयान एवं सित ----- ामणः

समाजे ामणः ेठतमः आसीत ्। सः परमादरणीयः तथा सवषां हतकता अित। सः परमपजनीयः गुः अित। सः पृथयां देवतावपोऽित। मनुना

गुणकमानुसारं ामणं पितपावनः इत उवा तय गुणान ् अवदत ्। तयथा--

अयाः सवषु वेदुषु सववचनेषु च।ोयावयजाचैव वेयाः

पितपावनाः।। मनु 3-184

ामणय वशट कायाण – मनसः तथा इियाणां शमः, तपः वयाययनम ् वेद तथा ईवरं त आथा। ामणानां मुखकाय अयापनम ् अित। ते अययनं कुवित, अयापनं कुवित, यजित, याजयित, ददत त गृणाित च,

एवं गीतायां तथा मनुमृतौ उतमित-

शमो दमः तपः शौचं ाितराजवमेव च। ानं वानमाितयं

मकमवभावजम ्।। गीता 18.42

अयापनमययनं यजनं याजनं तथा।दानं तहचैव

ामणानामकपयत ्।। मनु 1-88

आयसंकृतेः ारभकालादेव वणषु ामणानां ेठवमासीत ्। संेपेण ामणकम सववणानां कृते कतयोपदेशः, अयापनम, ् जीवकोपायानां ानदानचासीत ्। तफलपेण तेषां (ामणानां) समाजे समानः भवत म, तेषां

भौतकावयकताः पूयते म।

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शतपथामणानानुसारं सामायजनैः ाणणानामुपकारः चतुवधोपायैः कतु

शयते समानेन, दानेन, यानुठानेन, दडभयात, ् मुितदात ्मुितदानेन।

लोकः पयमानचतुभधमः ामणं भुनित –अचया दानेन याजनेन

चाऽवयतया च।। (शतपथ ामण 11.5.61)

तैः ानेन तपसा वा समाजय मागनदशनं यते म। अतः ामणाः

आयजातेः उनयनाय वकासाय वा सवदा तपराः अभवन ्।

यः

बलौजिवतायाः कायशतेच तीकः यः। ाचीनथेषु यकतयाकतयानां वतरं वणनमुलयते। भगवगीतानुसारं यय

कतयान सित शौयम ्–तेजः-धृतः रता – युदेवपलायनम ्- दानं – शासनच।

शौय तेजो धृतदायं युदे चाऽयपलायनम ्।दानमीवरभावच ां कम

वभावजम ्।। (भगवगीता 18.43)

वायुपुराणे बलं – दडः युचैव यय कतयमयुयते। सामेषु वीरता, जाजनानां रा, मसेवा, दानं, तपः वषयेषु अनासितरत भगवता मनुना ोतमित। इतोऽप उतमित यत ् युदमेव परमोधमः याणां परतु त

धमानुकूलं भवेत ्।

सामेवनवतवं जानां चैव रणम ्।शुूषा ामणानां च राां

ेयकरं परम ्।।

जानां रणं दनमयाययनमेव च।वषयेवनवतवं यय

वभावतः।। (मनु 1.69-90)

धयािद युदाेयः यय न वयते। (गीता.2.31)

शतपतथामणे तु लखतमित यत ् शासनं याणामेव काय अित,

ामणाः अयोयाः सित शासने।

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न वै ामणा रायायलय ्। (शतपथामण 2-1.1.12)

दिवजयम- ् रायसूयय अवमेधादनामायोजनं कृवा राः गौरवािवताः

भवित म।

शासनयवथायाः सुचापेण संचालनाय ामणययोः संयोगः आवयकः। मयोः उचतसंयोगेन समाजः उनतं ानोत। मतेजय संयोगेन

ातेजः अजेयः भवत।

दुरासदच ततेजः ं य मसंयुतम ्।। (महावीरचरतम ् 2-5)

यथा ाचीनकाले याणाम ् अययनयायाम,् ामणोचत शायाः

समावेशः यते म।

तयथा – वसठ एव यचाय रघुवंशय सत।

स एव चाऽनयोमकृयं करयत।। (उतररामचरतम ्7.14)

वैयः

देशय अथयवथायाः सचालनं वैयाः एव कुवित म। अथयवथायाः

यः घटकाः आसन ्– कृषः, पशुपालनम, ् वाणयच।

कृषगोरयवाणयं वैयकम वभावजम। ् (गीता 18.44) इत भगवगीतायां

वायुपुराणे च उतमित।

मनुनाप अिमन ् वषये ोतमित यत ् पशुपालनं,दानं, यः, यापारः

कृषचैव मुयतः वैयनां कतयमित।

तयथा – पशुनां रणं दानमयाययनमेव च। वणपथं कुसीदच वैयय

कृषमेव च।। (मनु 1.90)

समावतनसंकारानतरं वैयनातकः ववाहं कृवा कृषकाय

पशुपालनादकच कुयात ्।

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महाभारते येषां कमाणां नदशः ामण – ययोः कृते वतते, तेषामेव वैयानां कृते वतते। ते वेदाययनं तथा यं कुवित एव, तथाप वात

ामणयाणां पालनमप कुवित।

तयथा – वैयोऽधीय ामणान ्यांच, वतैः काले संवभयातांच,

ेतापूतं धूमााय पुयं ेय वग दयभोगांच भुते।। (महा.

उयोगपव 40.27)

वैयय कृते मुता, वाल, धातु, व, लवण, कपूराद ववध गंध यानां ानं भवेत। ् बीजानां वपनवधः वातावरणानुकूलं बीजानां वपनं, ेय गुणदोषाः तोलन मापनवधयः एतेषां ानं अवयं भवेत ्। वाणयय कृते योयवतूनां गुणदोषाः, मूयम, ् किमन ्देशे कः वतुःअयधकं तथा गुणशाल ायते एतेषां सवषां अययनं अवयं करणीयम, ् पशुवानमप अययनं करणीयम ्। वैयाः समृदाः भवेयुः यतोह नधनयितः यापारं नैव कतु शयते। वैयय धमऽित कृषः,

पशुपालनं, यवसायेन धनसपतेः उपाजनं एवं सामयानुसारं दानम ्।

शूः

भारतीयसामािजकयवथायां शूय थानमयतं महवपूण वयते। यथा पयां वना गमनागमनं नैव कतु शयते। तथैव शूेयः वना समाजय गतरेव नैव भवतुं शयते। वैदककाले तु शूाणां िथतः समानजनका आसीत ् परतु कालातरे हना जाता। एतेषामितवं केवलं सेवायाः कृते एव मयते म। तिमन ् काले शूाणां कृते नयमः तपादतः यत ् ते अयवणानां सेवां कुयुः। सेवायाम ् ईयाभावः न भवेत ्।

दासतायाः कृते एव शूयोपितः।

तयथा – जापतह वणानां दासं शूमकपयत ्।तमाछूय वणानां

परचया वधीयते।। (महा शाितपव 6.28)

परचयामकं कम शूयाप वभावजम ्। (भगवगीता 18-44)

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एकमेव तु शूय भुः कम समादशत ्।सवषामेव वणानां

शुूषामनसूयया।। (मनु 1.91)

शूं तु कारये दायं तमतमेव वा । दायायैव ह सृटेऽसौ

ामणय वयभुवा।। (मनु 8.43)

तिमन ् युगे य – तप –वेदाययनादयः शूाणां कृते नषाः आसन ्। मनोः कथनमित यत ् वजय सेवा एव शूय परमो धमः एतदतरय सः यिकमप

आचरत तसव नफलमेव।

वसेवैव शूय वशटं कम कयते।यदतोऽयिद कुते त

भवयय नफलम ्।। (मनु 10.123)

एवं पेण शूाणां िथतः अत दयनीयः आसीत ्। कमथम ् इयुते अय कारणं बुिदः एव। अतः यः बुिदहनः मूखवाद गुणयुतः भवत सः शूः अित। शूाणां ताशी िथतं वा अयः कोऽप यितः वयाययनम ् यवा मूखवत ् न आचरयेत ् इत धया शूाणां कृते तावान ् नयमान ् थापताः। तेन भीतं ाय वयाययने तपराः भवतु इत सूचना आसीत ्। तदानीं एव देशय समाजय च

उनतः अवयं भवत। ? वणयवथायाः आधारः जम अथवा गुणकमाण “ ” जमाना जायते शूः संकारा वज उयते

सव मानवाः जमना शूाः एव भवित संकारानतरमेव वजाः भवित। अतः ाचीनकाले वणवभाजनयाधारः गुणकमाचैव आसन ्। शाातेरनतरम ् आचायः योयतायाः आधारेण शयं वण ददात म। गुणकमणोः वैशयाधारेणैव

समाजः चतुवणषु वभािजतः आसीत ्।

एकवणमदं सव ववमासी युधिठर।कमयावशेषेण चातुवय

तिठतम ्।। (महा शाितपव)

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भगवता ीकृणेनाप वणयवथायाः आधारः गुणकमवभागः एव

वीकृतोऽित। “ “ चातुवय मया सृटं गुणकमवभागशः (भगवगीता 4.13)

आपतब धमसूे उतमित यत ् ननकोटथ जनः अप धमाचरणं कृवा

उचवण ायते। अधमाचरणं कृवा उचवणथोऽप ननवण ानोत।

धमचयया जघयो वण पूव पूव वणमायते जातपरवृतौ।

अधमचयया पूव वण जघयं जघयं वणमायते जातपरवृतौ।।

(आपतब)

मनुना ोतं यत ् शूोऽप धमाचरणं कृवा ामणो जायेत एवं एव

अधमाचरणेन ामणोऽप शूो भवत।

शूोामणतामेत ामणचेत शूताम ्।याजातमेवतु

वयावैयातथैव च।। (मनु 10.65)

ायशः सव शाकाराः मयते यत ् मानवः जमना ामणः शूो वा न भवत अपतु कमभरेव भवत। शुनीतसारे लखतमित ववामः,मातगः,

नारदच तपसा वयाभाषेण च उनतथानं ातवतः।

ववामो वसठच मातगो नारदतथा।तपो वशेषैः साता उतमवं न

जाततः।।(शुनतीसारः 1.269)

शतपथामणानुसारमप ामणय सवथमा योयता ानं अित। ववाम- देवाप– जनकच ानबलेनैव ामणवं आनुवन ्। छादोयोपनषद कथायां शूायाः जबालायाः पुः सयकामः वीयेन सयाचरणेन ववगुरोः शयोऽभूत ्। मातुः नामाधारेण तय गौं जाबालं सदमभवत ्। सः यजुवदय एकयाः शाखायाः संथापकोऽभूत ्। ऐतरेयोपनषदः एका कथानुसारं शूमाता इषायाः “ ” पुः कवषः सदाचरणेन ऋषः भूवा कवषऐलूष इत नाना सदमानोत ्।

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सः ऋवेदय कासाचन ऋचानां ऋषः अित।ऋवेदे

10.30.1.3.39.34एवं पेण जमना नैव कमणा ामणवं ातुं शनुवित।

यथा वायायेन जपैहमैैवयेनेयया सुतैः।महायैच यैच

ामीयं यते तनुः।। (मनु)

शायां वणयवथा –

समाजय संगठनं चातुवयषु आसीत ् तथा येकवणय वीयकायेमासीत ्। अतः तेषां शा एवं भवत म, यः तेषां भावीजीवने उपयोगी भवेत। ् अतः ामण – य – वैय – शूाणां शायाः कृते वशेषनदषान ्

ाचीनाचायः दतवतः।

 ामणः वैदकसाहयं, धम, दशनाद थानां अययनं कुयात ्।सः वेद - ामण – आरयक – उपनषद – वेदाग सूथ – दशन – मृत – ववधदेशीय भाषाणां ानं ानोत म। अय शाीय वषयानां ानं

वेछया करोत म।  यः वकतयपालनाथ वेदान ् धमाशाान, ् वेदागान, ् उपवेदान ् तथा

आवीक अथशायाययनं कृवा तदनुसारं यवहरेत ्।  वैयः अप वेदानां अययनं करोत म। तथा कृषः, पशुपालनं, उयोगः

वाणयाद वषयानां ाता भवत म। तथा पशुशामप जानात म।  शूय कृते वेदपठनय अधकारः नातीत मयते कमथमयुते ये मूखाः भवित म ते वेदमाणां शुदोचारणं नैव कतु शनुवित, तेन अनथः भवत इत धया अययनय कृते नषेधः कृतः। परतु वैदकसंहतायां शूः अप वेदाययनं कतु शनोत इत वणतम ्। यजुवदे उतमित यत ् वेदवाणी

चतुवणानां कृते अतीत। तयाथा –

यथेमां वाचं कयाणीमवदान जनेयः।

मराजयायां शाय चायाय च वाय चारणाय।। (यजु 36.2)

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एवं जैमननाप मीमांसादशने चातुवणयानां कृते याधकारम ् उतमित। ाचीनकाले सवषां कृते वयाययनय अधकारः आसीत ् तेन महषयः अप अभवन ्। शंकराचायणाप वेदातसूे शूय कृते वयाययनय समथनं कृतवान ्।ानधनं सवः ातयं सः किमनप वण उपनः यात ्।शूोऽप यात ्। िजासुं ानातेः

अधकारं अित।

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TEACHING LITERATURES FOR MULTI-CULTURAL CLASSROOMS

Seelam Satish Assistant Professor Department of Basic Sciences and Humanities Vignan’s Institute of Information Technology Beside VSEZ, Duvvada, Visakhapatnam

Culture is a group which shapes a person's values and identity. Cultural identities can stem from the following differences: race, ethnicity, gender, class, religion, country of origin, and geographic region.We communicate the way we do because we are raised in a particular culture and learn its language, rules, and norms. Different cultures (and subcultures) may have different rules and norms. Understanding the other's culture facilitates cross-cultural communication.

In today's increasingly global and diverse contexts (work and non-work), it is important to be aware of Cultural Intelligence. This includes awareness of one’s own Cultural Intelligence and awareness of the Cultural Intelligence of others.Cultural Intelligence (CQ) is a person's capability to function effectively in situations characterized by cultural diversity.It enhances interpersonal interactions in a wide range of social contexts.

Cultural intelligence provides insights about individual capabilities to cope with multi-cultural situations, engage in cross- cultural interactions, and perform in culturally diverse work groups. It includes factors like demographic characteristics, general cognitive ability, emotional intelligence, cross-cultural adaptability, openness to experience, rhetorical sensitivity, and social desirability.

Effective communication with people of different cultures is especially challenging. Cultures provide people with ways of thinking--

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ways of seeing, hearing, and interpreting the world. Thus the same words can mean different things to people from different cultures, even when they talk the "same" language. When the languages are different, and translation has to be used to communicate, the potential for misunderstandings increases.

There are several parameters that may be perceived differently by people of different cultures. These may include:

 Perception of Time: In some countries like China and Japan, punctuality is considered important and being late would be considered as an insult. However, in countries such as those of South America and the Middle East, being on time does not carry the same sense of urgency.

 Perception of Space: The concept of "personal space" also varies from country to country. In certain countries it is considered respectful to maintain a distance while interacting. However, in other countries, this is not so important.

 Non-verbal Communication: Cultures may be either Low- context or High-context: Low-context cultures rely more on content rather than on context. They give value to the written word rather than oral statements. High-context cultures infer information from message context, rather than from content. They rely heavily on nonverbal signs and prefer indirectness, politeness & ambiguity.

Stella Ting-Toomey describes three ways in which culture interferes with effective cross-cultural understanding. First is what she calls "cognitive constraints." These are the frames of reference or world views that provide a backdrop that all new information is compared to or inserted into.

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Second are "behavior constraints." Each culture has its own rules about proper behavior which affect verbal and nonverbal communication. Whether one looks the other person in the eye-or not; whether one says what one means overtly or talks around the issue; how close the people stand to each other when they are talking--all of these and many more are rules of politeness which differ from culture to culture.

Ting-Toomey's third factor is "emotional constraints." Different cultures regulate the display of emotion differently. Some cultures get very emotional when they are debating an issue. They yell, they cry, they exhibit their anger, fear, frustration, and other feelings openly. Other cultures try to keep their emotions hidden, exhibiting or sharing only the "rational" or factual aspects of the situation.

All of these differences tend to lead to communication problems. If the people involved are not aware of the potential for such problems, they are even more likely to fall victim to them, although it takes more than awareness to overcome these problems and communicate effectively across cultures.

Cross-cultural communication, as in many scholarly fields, is a combination of many other fields. These fields include Literature studies, Anthropology, Cultural Studies, Psychology and Communication. The field has also moved both toward the treatment of interethnic relations, and toward the study of communication strategies used by co-cultural populations, i.e., communication strategies used to deal with majority or mainstream populations.

The study of languages other than one’s own can not only serve to help us understand what we as human beings have in common, but also assist us in understanding the diversity which underlies not only our languages, but also our ways of constructing and organizing knowledge, and the many different realities in which we all live and

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interact. Such understanding has profound implications with respect to developing a critical awareness of social relationships. Understanding social relationships and the way other cultures work is the groundwork of successful globalization business efforts.

Language socialization can be broadly defined as an investigation of how language both presupposes and creates new, social relations in cultural context.It is imperative that the speaker understands the grammar of a language, as well as how elements of language are socially situated in order to reach communicative competence. Human experience is culturally relevant, so elements of language are also culturally relevant.One must carefully consider semiotics and the evaluation of sign systems to compare cross-cultural norms of communication.

There are several potential problems that come with language socialization, however. Sometimes people can over-generalize or label cultures with stereotypical and subjective characterizations. Another primary concern with documenting alternative cultural norms revolves around the fact that no social actor uses language in ways that perfectly match normative characterizations. A methodology for investigating how an individual uses language and other semiotic activity to create and use new models of conduct and how this varies from the cultural norm should be incorporated into the study of language socialization.

With the process of globalization, especially the increasing of global trade, it is unavoidable that different cultures will meet, conflict, and blend together. People from different cultures find it is hard to communicate not only due to language barrier but are also affected by culture styles.

There has been an increasing pressure for universities across the world to incorporate intercultural and international understanding and knowledge into the education of their students. International

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literacy and cross-cultural understanding have become critical to a country’s cultural, technological, economic, and political health.Students must possess a certain level of global competence to understand the world they live in and how they fit into this world. This level of global competence starts at ground level- the university and its faculty- with how they generate and transmit cross-cultural knowledge and information to students.

English language teaching should not only focus on listening, speaking, reading, writing and other basic language skills training, and should be appropriate for cultural teaching. Language is the carrier of culture, cultural manifestations, while language is also the influence of culture. In a sense, the process of teaching English in English language and culture is a diagnostic interpretation process. Language teaching should be closely linked with the culture of learning.

Teaching literatures of various cultures increases cross-cultural communication. Students gain understanding about different beliefs and value systems. They develop social sensitivity to the needs of others. Throughliterature students learn to identify themselves with people of other cultures. This can be achieved through teaching of folklores,fables,myths,legends etc.List of cultural aspects in literature texts that can be incorporated are

 Objects or products that exist in one society but not in another  Proverbs, idioms, formulaic expressions which embody cultural values

 Social structures, roles and relationships  Customs/rituals/traditions/festivals  Beliefs, values, superstitions  Political, historic and economic background  Institutions  Taboos

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 Metaphorical/connotative meanings  Humour  Representativeness - to what slice of a culture or society the text refers to

 Genre  Written language status The expected outcome would be

 The link between language-literature-culture  The selection of literary texts: cultural free vs. cultural bound  Reading comprehension: linguistic vs. cultural difficulties  Methodology on teaching culture  Focus on cultural aspects of literary texts  Strategies to overcome cultural problems with texts  Selecting texts properly  Planning tasks/activities with cultural awareness of the selected texts Hence a thorough study and careful analysis should be made in the preparation of materials or texts for cross cultural students along with the following of good teaching methodologies for effective communication of English language.

Research has indicated that certain themes and images such as children, animals, life cycles, relationships, and sports can transcend cultural differences, and may be used in international settings such as traditional and online university classrooms to create common ground among diverse cultures (Van Hook, 2011).

The main theories for cross-cultural communication are based on the work done looking at value differences between different cultures, especially the works of Edward T. Hall, Richard D. Lewis, Geert Hofstede, and FonsTrompenaars. Clifford Geertz was also a contributor

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to this field. Also Jussi V. Koivisto's model on cultural crossing in internationally operating organisations elaborates from this base of research.

References

1. Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and Culture in Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP.

2. Lazar, G. (1993). Literature and Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP.

3. Richards, J.C. &Nunan, D. (1990). Second Language Teacher Education. Cambridge: CUP.

4. Robinson, G.L.N. (1985). Crosscultural Understanding. New York: Prentice Hall.

5. Valdes, J. (ed.) (1986). Culture Bound. Bridging the Cultural Gap in Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP.

6. Bartell, M. (2003). Internationalization of universities: A university culture-based framework. Higher Education

7. Wikipedia article on Cross-cultural communication

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HINDU WOMEN IN ANCIENT INDIA

Prof.N.Kanakaratnam Head Department of History, Archaeology and Culture Dravidian University Kuppam, Andhra Pradesh, India

The sub-continent of India is both assorted in its history and geography. It was not until the Mauryan Empire in the third aeon b.c.e. if a lot of of India was brought calm beneath one cardinal dynasty. Before the Mauryans there was the age-old era accepted as the Indus Basin or Harappan civilization, and again the aggression and adjustment of the Aryans forth the Ganges River plain. The Ganges and Indus Rivers are accepted as the mother and antecedent of India. Added rivers bisect the land, which has a lot of arid regions, the boss Himalayan Mountains, and the arid and boiling south area spices absorbed traders. Yearly monsoons arrest the dry acclimate with its hot humidity. Today the countries of Pakistan and Bangladesh are afar from the accompaniment of India, but in the accomplished there were an basal allotment of the culture. Abounding languages accept served to abstracted the Indians, but Hinduism has been an chain religious and cultural force in added to the appulse of Buddhism, Janism, and afterwards Islam. Just afresh India surpassed China as the a lot of active country in the world.

Ancient India spans a all-inclusive aeon 2500 b.c.e.-250 b.c.e. Archaeology, age-old texts, and artifacts are getting acclimated to reconstruct the lives of women. “The age-old abstracts begin by archaeological excavations advance the adoration of goddesses. The age-old recorded religious texts (ca. 1500 b.c.e.) alarm on the life-giving ability of goddesses to accord activity and to breeding and sustain it.” p. 36 from Vivante. Afterwards the Aryan aggression and the

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development of Hinduism and again Buddhism, India’s absolute accounting texts add abundantly to our knowledge.

Centered on the Indus River valley, the oldest accepted acculturation in India ranged from ca. 2500-1500 b.c.e. Today a lot of of these cities of archaeological absorption are now in Pakistan due to Indian ability and allotment in 1947, although the age-old city-state of Lothal is in the Indian accompaniment of Gujarat. All-encompassing charcoal at Mohenjo Daro, Harrapa, and Lothal appearance a able-bodied organized, affluent agronomics and bartering society, that traded with added civilizations in the Near East. The a lot of acclaimed age-old antiquity is that of a adolescent attenuate babe assuming confidently. Numerous toys begin aback a association that admired ancestors life. While their inscribed age-old seals accept not been deciphered to actuate the absolute meanings, all-encompassing changeable images accept been begin that advance goddesses played a axial role. “Often alleged abundance goddesses, actual few characterize abundant women, women giving bearing or women nursing children. Several of the seals advance a goddess associated with frondescence and fertility.”

Apparently this acculturation succumbed to above accustomed disasters that afflicted the advance of the Indus River. Hitherto it was anticipation that the advancing Aryans baffled these aboriginal people, but the Indus Acculturation was already in a accompaniment of abatement if these nomads came in from the Hindu Kush. These Aryans were ablaze skinned compared to the citizenry and over time apprenticed them, consistent in the degree system. Aryan’s awful hierarchical association was led by the Brahmin priests, who imposed political and religious ability over the rest. The Brahmins composed angelic literature, the Vedas, that accepted the behavior that abide to be admired today by the Hindus. The Rig Veda, oldest of these texts, composed mostly by priests, but a few women too, accord us the aboriginal age-old Indian autograph with clear admonition about their

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assorted gods and goddesses. There is a conception story, area the goddess Aditi gives bearing to the earth, aswell embodied as a goddess, Prthivi. Mother Earth’s role was to be breakable to the asleep and Aditi was to be prayed to for absolution from sin.

Much of the ideal role of women can be absolute from the images of a beginning and helpmate in the Rig Veda. A babe and beginning were accepted for the characteristics of beauty, radiance, ambrosial adornment, candied odors, abounding hips, and ample thighs. This description suggests absorption in feminine sensuality, changeable accommodation of the adolescent girl. At anniversary gatherings, adolescent virgins met acceptable men, with amorous coupling afterwards initiating a relationship. They again affronted to their parents for approval and alliance arrange were made. To be a abstinent helpmate was of ascendant importance. Practical admonition was accustomed to the new helpmate including: she to not be affronted or adverse to her husband, she was to be tender, amiable, glorious, and mother of sons. The acclaimed statement: “May you be the mother of a hundred sons,” was conceptualized.

A woman’s role as categorical in Hinduism at this time was to be a acceptable wife so that the gods and goddesses would acknowledge to the couple’s requests and needs. An chantry tended mainly by the father/husband, was overseen by the wife/mother if he was gone from the home. Her job was to accumulate the angelic blaze afire 24/7. It was aswell the woman’s albatross to recite and sing hymns to the deities, a assignment ascribed to women in a lot of all added cultures. The animal affiliated Indian brace was the archetype active by the Brahmin priests if they expounded on the deities. All-powerful couples like Indra and Indrania, and Surya and Soma acted as models. Goddesses were about beheld positively, although casual glimpses of their darker ancillary surface. Added aboriginal goddesses were the sisters Dawn and Night.

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In the next articulation of age-old texts, the Upanishads, ca. 800-600 b.c.e. writers began to reinterpret beforehand Vedic literature. Now a getting was able to ability the accepted body Brahman through self- knowledge not just through august ability performed by the Brahmin priests. There is affirmation of two abstruse women accommodating in apostolic discussions. How altered this is compared to the aforementioned time anatomy in the Near East area Pandora and Eve are accomplishing evil. Women in India are accomplishing apostolic inquiry. Unfortunately, accepted Indian advisers accept commented afield about these two women.

The next texts that allege about women in Age-old India are the Laws of Manu ca. 150 c.e. Like beforehand law codes in the Age-old Near East, we can accretion insights into the acknowledged cachet of women, but not necessarily what was in fact practiced. Law codes are about consistently accepted not anecdotic literature. As in added age- old societies, women were beneath the administration of males: father, bedmate and son. If a woman married, it was admired as her additional birth, with a new name. In acknowledged religious rituals, the wife was to be present to advance her abundance powers. Adultery was not punished as acutely as in added age-old cultures. Divorce was accessible for the woman too, but alone if he was arid or insane. As accurate of age-old Rome, a wife could be afar if she drank, was alienated or dishonest, was arid (even if she had girls), and was a spendthrift. There is some affirmation of the levirate alliance convenance acclimated by the age-old Hebrews and Hittites. However, the majority of widows allegedly did not remarry.

Women’s bread-and-butter contributions were important in age-old India. As India was an agronomical country, women were bare to abetment the men folk in the assorted melancholia activities. As today, in the accomplished India was fabricated up of bags of villages. It was the ancestors not the alone that was the basal unit. Usually three

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ancestors of the ancestors lived calm in an about affectionate anatomy except forth the Malabar bank in the southwest, area matriarchal amusing alignment prevailed. Poetry accounting by Tamil women in the south batten of their singing while at plan and with their family, and occasionally including balladry on the feats of the aristocracy.

This affectionate arrangement prevailed in the religious rituals. The Indians accomplished a anatomy of antecedent worship, whereby the oldest macho was amenable for administering the rites on a approved base in the home. It was the earlier son’s albatross to lite his parents’ burial pyre. Women could not serve as Brahmin priests or abstraction the angelic Vedas. Some women could be seers, though.

Courtesans and prostitutes were allotment of age-old Indian society. As in age-old Greece, courtesans were generally literate, and accomplished in music and dancing besides the accepted animal services. Approved prostitutes affianced in their barter in active places. Afterwards on prostitutes will appear from a assertive caste. Repentant courtesans and prostitutes sometimes went into Buddhist nunneries.

As Hinduism developed, assertive facets became dominant: the degree system, karma, dharma, and reincarnation. There were originally four capital castes, and women were represented in all of them. Degree bent whom you associated with, who you could marry, and your diet. In assertive cases a man was accustomed to ally a woman of a lower caste, but a woman could not after abasing her ancestors and agnostic herself. Because of the about lower cachet of women in India, if you did not do your able assignment or dharma, again you did not accumulate acceptable abundant afterlife to be reincarnated in a college degree or activity form, including getting reborn as a woman, who was inferior to a man.

Hindus came to anticipate the assorted deities were manifestations or avatars of the Brahma, the apple soul. Anniversary god has had

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abounding rebirths. Goddesses of appropriate admiration were Kali, Saraswati, Parvati, Lakshmi, Durga, and Devi.

Saraswati was the accompaniment to Brahma, who set the apple in motion, but absent accent with the actualization of the gods Shiva and Vishnu. Saraswati was the goddess of learning, writing, knowledge, mathematics, the arts, music, magic, and eloquence. She created the aboriginal alphabet. Abounding accede her the mother of all activity aback it was her all-powerful activity that affiliated with the acquaintance of Brahma, who was built-in from the aureate egg from sea. Thus the two created all ability and all creatures of the world. Saraswati was aswell a river goddess, and her name translates as the abounding one. She is usually apparent built-in on a lotus bloom arch accompanied by a white swan. She has four arms, assuming that her ability extends in all directions. Two of her accoutrements authority books and chaplet (showing her airy knowledge), with the added two accoutrements and easily she is arena the vina, an Indian lute.

Parvati was Shiva’s wife. She is generally apparent with him in statues and paintings. They attending like the archetypal admiring couple. In some of her avatars or reincarnations she is aswell Durga, the ten armed goddess of battle, Kali, or Uma, the admirable one who rides on a tiger. Parvati agency abundance babe and she is advised the babe of the Himalaya Mountains.

Lakshmi was the wife of Vishnu the preserver. She is generally apparent built-in on a lotus as she was built-in from an ocean of milk continuing on a lotus flower. She is the goddess of acceptable fortune, prosperity, wealth, and beauty. Representing all that is feminine, while her accompaniment Vishnu represents all that is masculine. Abounding paintings appearance them benumbed on the aback of Garuda, the eagle, the behemothic baron of birds, as they fly beyond the land. Lakshmi chose Vishnu. They had a son, Kama, who was the god of adventurous love, and in abounding paintings he looks agnate to

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the cupids on valentine cards. Her associates are white elephants. Lakshmi is aswell admired as Sita, the reincarnation of the absolute wife to Rama in the Indian epic, the Ramayana. Once a year on the night of the new moon in November Indian women apple-pie their homes and adhere tiny lanterns alfresco that attending like stars. Women achievement that Lakshmi will be admiring to their homes, absolution them with acceptable affluence and abundance for the advancing year. Lakshmi lives in the sky with the a lot of admirable jewels of all, the stars.

Durga, the warrior goddess, is one of the avatars of Devi. She is bulletproof in battle, and was created by the gods to abort the addle monster that was aggressive their power. Taking a weapon in anniversary of her ten hands, she asleep the beast.

The goddess Devi was the aspect of being, and in this she was the Shakti, beneath animal than the conceptional. She was the one abundant mother goddess, and she was amenable for fire, water, earth, and air. Devi is unknowable, omnipotent, and the allegory of Devi as Kali dates aback to goddess adoration in the aboriginal Indus Basin cultures.

Kali is the a lot of abhorrent aspect of Devi. Sent to apple to abort the chase of demons, Kali acquired such confusion that abounding died. To accompany an end to the annihilation her husband, Shiva, threw himself aloft the asleep bodies. Alone if Kali accomplished she was trampling on Shiva’s body did she appear to her senses. She has four accoutrements and hands. One holds a brand and the added a burst head, both symbols of death. With the added two easily she holds a angelic book and adoration beads, both symbols of life. Sometimes Kali is depicted as a atramentous goddess, blame the aspect of all decaying things, with her aphotic derma absorption the aphotic clay of earth. Her teeth are blood-stained fangs, and rivers of claret breeze from her.

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In India today blood-soaked sacrifices still are fabricated to her at her Kalighat Temple in Calcutta, the city-limits called for her.

Shiva, as the boner and giver of life, and Varuna, as the Lord of Accepted adjustment or dharma were the two a lot of accepted macho gods. Varuna aswell appears as Vishnu, who was reborn as the abundant hero Krishna.

In the two acclaimed epics of India, the Mahabharata, and Ramayana, women are apparent as accepting added abandon and adequacy than in the religious and acknowledged literature. In the Mahabharata, there is affirmation of both polyandry and polygamy. Events in these belief authenticate women’s managing and analytic skills. In the Ramayana, the heroine, Sita, is the archetype of the acceptable wife, who still shows assurance to administer her life. If Sita is accused of animal misconduct, she has to prove her animal purity. Accessible assessment still negates her innocence, banishment her to go into exile, area she goes aback to her mother, Earth. This ritual suicide again becomes the ancestor for sati, the affliction of a wife on her husband’s burial pyre, which occurs afterwards in Indian history. Just as in the medieval west, wives and daughters could become ascetics if their present activity was untenable.

During the 6th and 7th centuries, two new religions developed in India, Buddhism and Jainism, that will accept an astronomic appulse on not alone in India, but in added regions of Asia. Buddha grew up as Siddhartha Gautama, a prince in a able association in the foothills of the Himalayas, what is now Nepal. Kept agilely apprenticed by his parents of the all-knowing poverty, if Siddhartha became acquainted of this, he alone his affiliated abundance and prestige, and went in seek of the causes of this. Turning aboriginal to the brahmin sages, he again approved acute abstinent meditation. Arriving at a bo tree, which is now in Sarnath on the outskirts of Verinasi, he accomplished a beam of understanding, and at this point became the Buddha, the aware one.

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His ambition was to annihilate adversity in this world, and over time his Four Noble Truths and eight-fold aisle admiring adherents and followers. Buddha admired himself as a philosopher and teacher, rather than a architect of a religion. He did not advance the Hindu gods or rituals. For Buddha he capital the abolishment of the degree system, ritual sacrifices and accomplishing one’s dharma according to the Brahmin regulations. Buddha did feel that our accomplishments in activity affect others, thereby advancement the Hindu abstraction of karma. Nirvana was accessible for anybody to achieve. Teaching for blaster years until his afterlife about 483 b.c.e., Buddhism developed monasticism like the west will do about a thousand years later, but Buddha beat women acceptable nuns. Usually it was the widows, alone wives, and courtesans who did become nuns, travelling to assorted areas, giving accessible talks and visiting alone homes. Always, though, nuns were to be beneath the administration of monks. Surviving sources from the age-old Buddhist texts advance monks and Buddha beheld women’s female as a blackmail to airy advance of men and monks, just as in afterwards medieval Christian Europe. Buddhism fatigued that the able accord in India was amid a affiliated couple. Wives should be encouraged to accommodate the home atmosphere accessory to the aliment of society.

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