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Ecosystem Services Assessment and Valuation of Atmospheric Magnesium Deposition

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Ecosystem Services Assessment and Valuation of Atmospheric Magnesium Deposition geosciences Article Ecosystem Services Assessment and Valuation of Atmospheric Magnesium Deposition Garth R. Groshans 1, Elena A. Mikhailova 1,*, Christopher J. Post 1, Mark A. Schlautman 2 , Michael P. Cope 1 and Lisha Zhang 3 1 Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA 2 Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Anderson, SC 29625, USA 3 Agricultural Sciences Department, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-864-656-3535 Received: 26 June 2019; Accepted: 24 July 2019; Published: 27 July 2019 Abstract: Ecosystem services (ES) often rely on biogeochemical cycles, but values associated with abiotic services are often ignored or underestimated. Ecosystem services from atmospheric magnesium (Mg2+) deposition are abiotic flows (wet, dry, and total), which can be considered a source of naturally-occurring fertilizer and liming material, have not been included in economic valuations of ecosystem services. Market-based valuation of these atmospheric ecosystem service flows can partially address this negative externality. This study assessed the value of wet, dry, and total atmospheric magnesium deposition flows in the contiguous United States (USA) within boundary-based administrative accounts (e.g., state, region) based on data from the National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NRSP-(3), and the market price of human-derived material (agricultural dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2). The total supporting ecosystem value of atmospheric magnesium deposition flows was $46.7M (i.e., 46.7 million U.S. dollars) ($18.5M wet + $28.2M dry) based on an average 2014 price of $12.90 per U.S. ton of agricultural dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). The atmosphere is a common-pool resource that plays an important role in the pedosphere, providing important abiotic ES, but its monetary value is often not identified in the market due to a lack of information and/or knowledge of the proper valuation method. This study demonstrates one approach to translate atmospheric magnesium deposition flows entering the soil as an abiotic ES and potential monetary values at various scales. Omission of abiotic services in ES analysis can lead to an incomplete economic valuation. Keywords: dolomite; fertility; food security; replacement cost method; stock; value 1. Introduction The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [1] is based on an ecosystem services framework, which is widely used in connection with the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [2,3]. Ecosystem services are defined as “the benefits people obtain from ecosystems,” which include provisioning (e.g., food, fiber, etc.), regulating (e.g., climate regulation, etc.), cultural (e.g., recreation, etc.), and supporting (e.g., maintenance of life cycles, etc.) [2,3]. Ecosystem services often rely on biogeochemical cycles, but the values associated with these ecosystem services are often ignored or underestimated [3–5]. An example of an ecosystem service provided by biogeochemical cycles is the provision of magnesium, which is a life-supporting nutrient (Table1). Society relies on natural and human-derived stocks and flows of magnesium, which requires a system-based approach to its ES valuation [6,7]. A “system” is defined as a set of connected processes (“flows”) and quantities of resources (“stocks”) [6,7]. Geosciences 2019, 9, 331; doi:10.3390/geosciences9080331 www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences Geosciences 2019, 9, 331 2 of 13 Table 1. Connections between regulating ecosystem services and selected Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in relation to atmospheric magnesium deposition (adapted from Wood et al., 2017 [3]). TEEB Ecosystem Service Sustainable Development Goals TEEB Typology Categories (SDGs) Provisioning Resources SDG 2, 3, 12, 13, 15 Regulating Maintenance of soil fertility SDG 2, 3, 12, 13, 15 Supporting Maintenance of life cycles SDG 2, 3, 12, 13, 15 Note: The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB). SDG 2 “Zero Hunger”, SDG 3 “Good Health and Well-Being”, SDG 12 “Responsible Consumption and Production.” SDG 13 “Climate Action”, SDG 15 “Life on Land.” Atmospheric magnesium deposition flows (wet, dry, and total) provide goods and ecosystem services, which are important for achieving the SDGs to sustain global human societies [8]. Atmospheric magnesium deposition flows are significant and valuable sources of Mg2+, which is an essential nutrient [9]. The significance of Mg2+ in the environment and agriculture (especially as a soil nutrient) is well documented [10], and the following examples are directly linked to the selected SDGs – 2, 3, 12, 13, and 15 (listed below) [1]: SDG 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. Magnesium is not only an essential nutrient for human beings, but also an essential macronutrient for plant and animal nutrition [9]. Plants utilize magnesium for forming and utilizing ATP, activating enzymes, and photosynthesis; however, there is an international concern about low magnesium levels in the soil [11]. The magnesium content in plant-based foods is dependent on the amount of plant-available magnesium in the soil [12]. Magnesium is the seventh most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, but most of it is incorporated in the crystal structure of minerals, thus it is not directly available for plant uptake [10]. Atmospheric magnesium wet deposition is an important source of soluble magnesium, especially in the coastal areas since seawater is enriched in magnesium [13]. SDG 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. Magnesium is an essential nutrient and electrolyte for human health and well-being; however, global magnesium deficiency is in the range of 50–99% according to dietary reference intakes (DRIs) set by the United States and Canada [12,14]. Furthermore, Mg2+ deficiency can be attributed to an inadequate consumption of plant-based foods such as nuts, whole grains, and green vegetables, which can result in related diseases [12,14]. It would require at least 3192 metric tons/day of magnesium to ensure that every person is able to meet their daily magnesium requirement with a global population of 7.6 billion people, and a recommended daily intake of 420 mg per person per day of magnesium [15]. In terms of monetary value, it will cost nearly $45,000/day based on a 2014 average price of $12.90 per U.S. ton of agricultural dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)[16]. SDG 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. Agricultural benefits from the atmospheric magnesium (Mg2+) deposition flows (wet, dry, and total), which can be considered a naturally-occurring liming and fertilizer materials, have not been included in economic valuations of ecosystem services. Market-based valuation of these atmospheric ecosystem service flows can partially address this negative externality in order to “achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources” [8]. SDG 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. Atmospheric (Mg2+) deposition flows play an important role in climate regulation and carbon sequestration (e.g., pedogenic carbonate formation) [17]. SDG 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation and biodiversity loss. Atmospheric magnesium contributes to the increases in the pH of rainwater, and can counteract the effects of acid deposition on ecosystems (especially in the forest ecosystems) because of its buffering capacity [18]. Draaijers et al. (1997) [19] reported that 50% of the potential acid deposition was Geosciences 2019, 9, 331 3 of 13 counteracted by deposition of non-sea salt Mg2+ in the southern European forests. Magnesium is also important in the grassland ecosystems with soil-magnesium depletion linked to overgrazing [10]. Watmough et al. (2014) [20] described the importance of atmospheric magnesium deposition for preventing soil acidification in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region of Canada. Magnesium ions in soils are naturally sourced from either atmospheric deposition (Table2), or as a primarily abiotic lithosphere resource [21] from the weathering of primary minerals such as ferromagnesian minerals (e.g., olivine, mica, amphibole, and pyroxene), secondary minerals such as clays (e.g., montmorillonite, vermiculite, and chlorite) or carbonates (magnesite, dolomite, talc, and serpentine group) [9,22]. These processes that occur in the pedosphere and lithosphere are critical, but often ignored in ES frameworks because they are viewed as being dominated by abiotic services [21,23]. Atmospheric deposition of Mg2+ similarly is mostly an abiotic service with potential economic value. Table 2. Lithosphere–pedosphere–atmosphere–biosphere ecosystem services exchange, stocks, goods, flows (represented by arrows) in relation to magnesium and its availability for use in the biosphere (e.g., plant removal). Lithosphere Pedosphere Atmosphere $ $ Abiotic–Biotic Biotic–Abiotic Abiotic–Biotic Mineral stock Soil-based stock Atmospheric stock (Mg2+ in primary minerals) (Mg2+ in soil solution) (Mg2+ in deposition) Not available Slowly available Readily available Biosphere (e.g., plant removal, etc.) Biotic Typically, slow weathering rates of primary and secondary minerals cannot provide adequate amounts of Mg2+ for annual crop production, while Mg2+ ions within or on the exchange sites of clay minerals supply a slow release to the soil
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