Digital Atlas of Traditional Foods Made from Cereals and Milk Groningen Archaeological Studies Volume 33

Editorial board Prof. dr. P. A. J. Attema Dr. C. Çakirlar Prof. dr. R. T. J. Cappers Prof. dr. P. D. Jordan Prof. dr. D. C. M. Raemaekers Prof. dr. S. Voutsaki

Groningen Institute of Archaeology Poststraat 6 9712 ER Groningen the Netherlands [email protected]

Website www.plantatlas.eu

Publisher’s address Barkhuis Kooiweg 38 9761 GL Eelde the Netherlands [email protected] www.barkhuis.nl Digital Atlas of Traditional Food Made from Cereals and Milk R. T. J. Cappers

Barkhuis & University of Groningen Library Groningen 2018 Photos: René T. J. Cappers (RC), Dirk Fennema (DF), Hussein Madina (HM), Reinder Neef (RN) and Yasar Okur (YO).

Book cover design: Ebel Kuipers Book interior design and typesetting: Ebel Kuipers

Copy editor: Suzanne Needs-Howarth

Printed by: KOPA, Kaunas, Lithuania

Cover illustration: René T. J. Cappers

ISBN 978-94-92444-70-7

Copyright © 2018 Groningen Institute of Archaeology (University of Groningen) and the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (Berlin).

All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission from the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (University of Groningen) or the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (Berlin).

Although all care is taken to ensure the integrity and quality of this publication and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the authors for any damage to property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information herein. Contents

Preface 9

1 Introduction 13 1.1 Late foragers and early farmers 13 1.1.1 Landscape exploitation 13 1.1.2 Cereal domestication 17 1.1.3 Use of milk 25 1.2 Morphology of barley and wheat 26 1.2.1 Pre-harvesting 26 1.2.2 Harvesting and post-harvesting 29 1.3 Nutritional value of barley, wheat, and milk 38 1.3.1 Barley and wheat 38 1.3.2 Milk 39

2 Processing of cereals and milk 41 2.1 Aims 41 2.2 Basic principles 43 2.2.1 Classification 43 2.2.2 Fragmentation 44 2.2.3 Separation 48 2.2.4 Mixing and shaping 49 2.2.5 Heating and cooling 50 2.2.6 Germination 53 2.2.7 Fermentation 53 2.3 Cereal processing 56 2.3.1 Classification 56 2.3.2 Harvesting and threshing 57 2.3.3 Improving edibility and shelf-life 59 2.3.4 Granulating and pulverizing 63 2.4 Milk processing 63 2.4.1 Classification 63 2.4.2 Fermentation of milk sugar 64 2.4.3 Solidifying of fat 66 2.4.4 Solidifying of proteins 68 2.4.5 Removal of water 72 3 Examples of traditional foods 75 3.1 Use of cereals and milk 75 3.2 Cereal products 76 3.2.1 Sprouted grain 76 3.2.2 Beer 77 3.2.3 Roasted grain 78 3.2.4 Bulgur 83 3.2.5 Bread 84 3.2.6 Pasta 85 3.2.7 Couscous 86 3.3 Milk products 87 3.3.1 Kashk 87 3.3.2 Qara qurut 89 3.4 Cereal–milk products 89 3.4.1 Tarhana 89

4 Sequencing traditional foods 93 4.1 Processing cereals and milk 93 4.2 Sprouted grain 95 4.3 Roasted grain 95 4.4 Bread 96 4.5 Partially prepared foods 96 4.6 Beer 97 4.7 Milk products 98 4.8 Tarhana 98

5 Food and cultural identity 101 ATLAS 105

6 Technology 107

7 Sprouted grain 129

8 Galiyya 133

9 Frikeh 167

10 Bread 203

11 Bulgur 269

12 Pasta 341

13 Couscous 373

14 Kashk 395

15 Qara qurut 451

16 Tarhana 473

Captions to the full-page photos 607

References 611

Glossary 619

Indices 629 Subject index 629 Taxonomic index 636

Preface

Every year, in various parts of the world, people harvest barley and wheat from fields and process the grain into food. The processing of the harvest and food preparation that take place today are based on an experience of around 14 000 yearly harvests, starting in south-west Asia. The first 4000 yearly harvests involved wild grains, whereas subsequent harvests involved domesticated cereals. Once domesticated cereals started to be harvested and processed, it took another 1000 years before pottery became available and another 1700 years before metal utensils, such as containers, became available. At the same time as the first crops became domesticated, the first animals were being domesticated. The presence of milk residues on early pottery suggests that milk became part of the human diet quite early on as well, although some 2000 years after the first domestication of crops. This implies that late hunters-gatherers and early farmers had a long trial period during which they had the opportunity to gain experience and develop technologies for the efficient processing of grain and milk.

Initially, food production was dependent on plants and animals from the local environment. Through trade contacts, new ‘ingredients’ gradually became available. The traditional ‘cuisine’ that characterizes the cultural identity of a certain region is therefore quite changeable and often reflects a tradition covering only a limited period of time. The preservation of traditional cuisines can be explained by the availability of stable food sources and the advanced technology that is necessary for ‘harvesting’ and milking, for post-harvesting processing and milk processing, and for final food preparation. This technology is based on basic processes that play a role in cereal and milk processing and food preparation, as well as other crops.

The examples of traditional foods that are presented here most probably have a long tradition. Some of them even go back to the transition from hunting and gathering to early agriculture. These traditional food items are characterized by their amenability to large-scale production and by their long shelf-life, both of which enabled efficient use of labour and fuel. Examples of such foods that were recently collected in south-west Asia and North Africa are presented in the atlas section of this book. These examples clearly illustrate the variation that can be produced even when food is based on simple recipes.

Direct evidence of the characteristics of traditional foods can be obtained from the analysis of subfossil food remains. Some recent publications show an increased interest in the study of such food remains and suggest updates to the standards for their documentation (e.g. Carretero et al., 2017; Heiss et al., 2017; Samuel, 2000). Other recent publications argue that archaeobotanical research and archaeozoological research should become more integrated and more closely linked to the material culture related to crop and milk processing

9 and food preparation, such as pottery, implements for ‘grinding’ and ‘pounding’, and heating installations (Cappers et al., 2016; Vigne, 2015).

In order to assess the quality of traditional foods, further research is required. It is important, for example, to achieve a taxonomic identification of the grain down to the level of subspecies and to determine which processes have been applied to the grain. This is particularly relevant when these processes cause reallocation of nutrients, such as in ‘par-boiling’, or when a part of the nutrients is removed, such as in ‘polishing’ and ‘pearling’.

All of the traditional foods documented in this book have been archived in the reference collection of the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) and are available for such research. This will further increase our knowledge of traditional foods and of the criteria that played a role in crop selection, which in ancient times were often different than in modern times.

I would like to thank everyone who helped me during my fieldwork and in collecting and documenting the samples of traditional foods.

René Cappers Groningen, January 2018

10

1 Introduction

1.1 Late foragers and early farmers

1.1.1 Landscape exploitation For most of their history, humans have been supplied with food by means of hunting and gathering. It is only recently that agriculture was developed as a new form of food economy. Agriculture is characterized by the cultivation of crops in fields and the control and protection of animals, during which these animals are also partly housed in or near the settlement. For both hunter-gatherers and farmers, the landscape must provide enough food for them to survive. There must also be sufficient fuel available for food preparation. Both plant material and animal dung can be used as fuel. When plant material is used as fuel, it is desirable to only use dead plant parts, such as the dead matter of herbaceous plants and dead branches of shrubs and trees. Such dead plant material has the advantage that it burns well and that its use does not affect the carrying capacity of the vegetation as a supplier of fuel. Food is necessary for the building, repair, and maintenance of body tissues and as an energy source. In order for an organism to survive, the energy balance will have to be positive. The amount of energy needed for collecting or producing food, for collecting fuel, and for preparing food should be at least equal to the amount of energy needed to stay alive. The energy present in items of oodf is ultimately all fixed by green plants. This energy originates from sunlight and is used by green plants to make sugar from water and carbon dioxide. Green plants thus form the first link in every food chain. During the last ice age, the availability of water was a limiting factor for plant growth, and therefore also for other organisms, including humans. This forced humans to hunt and gather in small groups in relatively large areas. Research at the 23 000-year-old settlement of Ohalo II, located on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, shows that former hunter-gatherers in this area still had enough plants available to them to survive and that they were able to feed on a wide spectrum of plants. Many temporary camp sites and settlements of hunter-gatherers have been identified in the eastern Mediterranean region dating from the final phase of the last glaciation, the Late Pleistocene (12 700–9 600 BCE). Apparently the conditions were sufficiently favourable for these hunter-gatherers (referred to as Natufians) that they were able to keep themselves alive in small groups. The food collected by the Natufians consisted in part of wild grains and wild legumes. During the Younger Dryas (10 800–9 700 BCE), the climate deteriorated and was once again characterized by Ice Age conditions, and hunter-gatherers were once again challenged to adapt to changing vegetation. Pollen research at various locations in south-west Asia has shown that the climate became warmer and more humid some 10 000 years ago (Zeist & Bottema, 1991). This climatic improvement marks the end of the last ice age, and with that the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the current

13 geological epoch, which is called the Holocene. Of special interest in relation to the early food economy is the development of a so-called Mediterranean climate, which is characterized by cool and wet winters and warm and dry summers. This climate extended, and still extends, over large parts of the Mediterranean basin and the area contiguous with the Taurus Mountains and the Zagros Mountains. As a result of this climatic improvement, herbaceous plants and trees expanded from their glacial refugia. Trees need more water than do herbaceous plants, and their expansion in particular is indicative of the increased availability of water. Different types of vegetation developed, including a tree steppe with undergrowth that was sometimes dominated by huge populations of the progenitors of the founder crops of agriculture. Characteristic trees were deciduous Oak species (including Quercus cerris, Q. ithaburensis, and Q. robur), Almond (Prunus dulcis), and Pistachio species (including Pistacia terebinthus and Pistacia atlantica). Although most of that landscape has now been radically changed through the impact of humans, some large populations of wild cereals are still present where grazing is prevented (figure 1; see also Anderson 1999: figure 12.24). Similarly large concentrations of wild food plants must have become attractive for hunter-gatherers to harvest on a large scale. But to be able to make use of such large quantities of grain and ‘seeds’, which were only available seasonally, they would have to have been stored.

Figure 1: A population of wild Barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. spontaneum) in south- eastern Anatolia. Most of the plants are present without their spikes (Susuz Dagleri, Turkey; October 1998; RN).

The desire to make use of these wild foods, in turn, would have necessitated the protection of the stored harvest, which will have been an important stimulus for hunter-gatherers to give up their mobile lifestyle for a temporary or more permanent sedentary lifestyle. Suitable locations for settlements will have been chosen on the basis of their strategic location in terms of defence and proximity to water. If such suitable locations were at a considerable distance from fields with wild grains and wild pulses, it would have been

14 1 Introduction desirable for hunter-gatherers to create fields in the vicinity of the settlement. In order for them to create fields closer to the settlement, hunter-gatherers would have to have been aware of the life cycle of plants, specifically the fact that a seed that is buried in the soil will provide a new generation the next year. In this way, protection of crop plants could be optimized, transport of harvests over long distances was no longer necessary, and the harvest could be safely stored and well protected. Contemporaneous with the development of the first settlements and the creation of fields, the first animals were also integrated with the domus (home) of humans, receiving care and protection (Zeder, 2011). In west Asia, sheep, goat, cattle, and pig are the first animals to become domesticated. These animals provide usable products both during their lifetime and after their death (figure 2).

goat sheep cattle pig traction hair r skin leather r r milk c c c c dung r r r meat r bones c c c c c c c c Figure 2: Main products obtained from goat, sheep, cattle, and pig ( = ante-mortem products; = post-mortem products). ☐ c By integrating crop production and keeping domestic animals, humans created a mixed agricultural economy in which a large part of the landscape could be, and continues to be, exploited in a controlled manner. The first trophic level, represented by plants, offers a large carrying capacity of energy. It is obtained from a combination of fields, grasslands, and vegetation where edible plant parts are collected from wild-growing plants and where hunting is still practiced. Humans are thus a consumer feeding on two trophic levels: as plant eaters and as eaters of animal products. In the traditional agricultural systems of the Mediterranean basin, south- west Asia, and North Africa that are the focus of this book, the crops cultivated in the fields are generally intended for humans, although in exceptional cases, crop plants are given to animals. For example, grain can be given as an extra food supply to a cow prior to hard work, such as ploughing a field. It can also happen that the quality of a grain harvest is poor and that it would take too much labour to remove the impurities. The grain stock can then be downgraded to animal feed. Sufficient amounts of hay will have to be harvested and stored as winter feed for sheep, goats, and cattle. In some cases, some members of the herd are slaughtered before the onset of the season during which the available vegetation can no longer support the entire herd. Sheep, goats, and cattle thus feed primarily on the vegetation growing outside the fields. The arable weeds that are a companion of crop plants can only be grazed once the harvest has been removed from the field (figures 3 and 4). While sheep and cattle are grazers and feed on herbaceous plants close the ground and on branches of trees and shrubs that are accessible to them by stretching their necks, goats are browsers, and they can also climb trees. Goats thus have access to more plant material than do sheep and cattle. Pigs are real

1.1 Late foragers and early farmers 15 omnivores and feed on a large variety of organic material that is available both in the subsoil and on the ground surface, including kitchen waste (figure 5). Animal dung from animals that can be easily collected and shaped can subsequently be dried and used as fuel. It is also possible to use dung as a fertilizer when long-term harvesting has depleted the minerals in the soil.

Figure 3: This landscape is providing humans with food on two levels. The flat land in the foreground, which can be ploughed without the risk of erosion, is used for crop production. The cereal crop has been recently harvested. The vegetation on the slopes is grazed by sheep and goats and will nourish farmers with milk and meat (west of Kanimaran, Iraq; June 2014; RC).

Figure 4: After harvesting of the cereal crop, sheep and goats are allowed to graze the stubble field. The culms of cereals are cut at some distance above the ground to prevent damage to the cutting tool. The low-growing arable weeds offer good fodder and are partly converted into milk and meat (north of Dagalah, Iraq; August 2013; RC).

16 1 Introduction Figure 5: Browsing of trash that is concentrated at the edge of a street by goats and a pig. Discarded low-quality and inedible food is recycled into high-quality food, namely, milk and meat (Kharagpur, India; September 2014; RC).

1.1.2 Cereal domestication

1.1.2.1 The concept of domestication Plants that are exploited by humans can be designated as ‘economic plants’. These plants are distinguished from ‘wild plants’, which are not used by humans. Economic plants can be used, for example, as food, as medicine, as fuel, for colouring and tanning, as construction material for making basketry or shelter, and to obtain fibres or hairs for the production of fabrics. Within the economic plants, a further distinction is made here between ‘cultivated plants’ and ‘domesticated plants’. In a cultivated plant, the plant is still capable of ‘seed dispersal’ and thus of propagating independently of humans. In a domesticated plant, in contrast, the seed distribution is blocked (Harlan, 1992). Note that the term ‘seed dispersal’ is used regardless of the composition of the dispersal unit (also known as ‘diaspore’). The dispersal unit of a plant can be a seed; a ‘fruit’ containing one or more seeds; or one or more fruits surrounded by vegetative plant parts (exocarp). The dispersal unit of a grass is a 1-seeded fruit with its vegetative plant parts or, in the case of some domestic grasses, only the 1-seeded fruit (‘grain kernel’). The majority of the economic plants are cultivated, whereas only a limited number have become domesticated. An important group of domesticated plants is represented by cereals and pulses. The first cereals to be domesticated were barley and wheat. The exploitation of barley and wheat initially involved wild cereals, which were still characterized by natural seed dispersal. This initial phase of exploitation is referred to as pre-domestication cultivation (for a recent discussion, see Asouti & Fuller, 2013). The domestication of barley and wheat involved not only the hampering of seed dispersal, but also a complex of changes in both morphological and physiological characteristics (figure 6). Hammer (1984) introduced the term ‘domestication syndrome’ to refer to diseases that are characterized by a complex of symptoms. The hampering of seed dispersal is considered to be a major

1.1 Late foragers and early farmers 17 change. For plants that cannot propagate vegetatively, this change is lethal. Of course to us humans, the reality of a farmer sowing a field is more likely to suggest a successful symbiosis than a complex of changes that recall a disease. After all, there is mutual dependency: the plant has become dependent on humans, who use part of the harvest for sowing in order to allow seeds to germinate and to produce a next generation. And humans have become more and more dependent for their food supply on these domesticated crops. The success of this symbiosis is supported by the current large-scale cultivation of domesticated crops, even outside their original distribution area.

Characteristics Morphological Physiological traits traits Growing season – loss of vernalization – different photoperiodic response r Yield r – reduced dormancy – increased photosynthesis r – increased tillering r – increased number of grain kernels r – increased grain size r Harvesting and crop processing r – synchronous fruit ripening – reduced rachis brittleness r – reduced hull tightness r – reduced appendages (awns and hairs) r r Figure 6: Morphological and physiological domestication traits of cereals categorised in relation to growing season, yield, and harvesting and crop processing.

The domestication of barley and wheat is a complex process in which selection by humans was initially unconscious. The morphological and physiological changes have a genetic basis and are caused by mutations. The domestication of barley involved mutations and selection within a single species. The domestic history of wheat is more complex because hybridization has also taken place between different types of Wheat (Triticum) and Goat beard (Aegilops), a related grass genus.

1.1.2.2 Domestication and taxonomy The large variety within domesticated barley and wheat is taxonomically classified into subspecies. In barley we are dealing with three subspecies: wild Barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. spontaneum), domesticated 2-row Barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. distichon), and domesticated 6-row Barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare). In barley, the classification on the subspecies level is based on the ‘rachis brittleness’ and on the fertility of the ‘spikelets’. In the case of 2-row barley, only the central spikelet is fertile, while in the case of 6-row barley, the two lateral spikelets are also fertile (figure 7). Both domesticated subspecies have become available as ‘hulled’ and ‘naked’ forms, but this difference in ‘hull tightness’ is not taken into account in the taxonomic classification.

18 1 Introduction

8 Galiyya 133 ernels can be polished or soaked for some time. The some time. for ernels can be polished or soaked

y, dry-heating had a twofold purpose in cereal processing: a twofold had dry-heating y,

Before roasting, grain k Before Originall roasted florets and grain can be mixed with other roasted seeds or with other roasted roasted florets and grain can be mixed fruits. sale in shops and for offered are still roasted ripe florets and grain Today, but on a limited scale. markets,

offacilitating the removal the chaff making the grain more digestible. and of awns the removal became domesticated, Once barley the rachis and spiny sieving, and/or by winnowing after threshing achieved easily and glumes was the grain of cover tightly that still remaining hulls and the removal the two the dry- therefore, barley, In domesticated hulled not necessary. was kernel by supported This is the digestibility. applied to improve heating is primarily modern samples from concern roasted florets of which Ethiopia, (that barley The transition to from wild present). still with the hulls grain kernels is, the morphology of in contrast, did not change wheat, domesticated hulled the of it unit, and the removal Therefore, harvesting the chaff necessary. remained as one domesticated wheat to hulled applied was is plausible that dry-heating ofof all of the the methods to facilitate the removal the chaff. Unfortunately, concern naked collected modern samples of have that we roasted wheat its digestion. been applied to improve roasting has only the where wheat, Galiyya is an Arabic name for roasted ripe grain kernels. Galiyya is considered Galiyya roasted ripe grain kernels. for Arabic name is an Galiyya to be one of of the most traditional examples because the first a cereal food ofstage ripe grain and because the limited to only cereals was wild harvesting can be done processing of which dry-heating, requires only grain into galiyya for grinding, suitable The roasted ripe grain is not without special equipment. coarse grinding. not even 8 Galiyya Galiyya

Obtained Groningen (province of Groningen, the Netherlands) Origin China Date November 2015 Collector(s) R. T. J. Cappers Context Shop GIA-accession 39658 Length/Diameter – Thickness – Weight – Quantity – Photographer D. Fennema

Composition Hordeum vulgare ssp. distichon Hulled 2-row Barley floret

Impurities Galium Bedstraw fruit (mericarp) Hordeum vulgare ssp. distichon Hulled 2-row Barley floret (burnt) Hordeum vulgare ssp. distichon Hulled 2-row Barley rachis fragments Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare Hulled 6-row Barley floret Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare Hulled 6-row Barley rachis fragments Persicaria Knotweed fruit Setaria Bristle grass spikelet – lumps of clay

Description The grain kernels have been roasted in the chaff (florets). The degree of puffing varies from none to very pronounced. Scorch marks are present, though only to a small degree. Some florets still retain their original shape, whereas others have cracked open, exposing the white endosperm. The cracks are mostly on the lateral faces, where lemma and palea are connected. A few fragments of the rachis of 2-row barley are present, as well as a few fragments of the rachis of 6-row barley. Although 2-row barley is part of the intended ingredients, both sets of rachis fragments are considered to be an impurity. The rachis fragments are partly still connected to the florets and may bear one or both sterile lateral spikelets (and, in the case of 6-row barley, a fertile floret). Other impurities concern burnt diaspores of arable weeds and clumps of clay. Some lemmas also still bear part of the awn. The sample was bought at a supermarket specializing in oriental foods. The label on the package mentions roasted wheat.

134 Atlas 8 Galiyya

cm Figure 90

135 Galiyya

Obtained Amsterdam (province of Noord Holland, the Netherlands) Origin Ethiopia Date December 2017 Collector(s) R. T. J. Cappers & Y. Okur Context Shop GIA-accession 41098 Length/Diameter – Thickness – Weight – Quantity – Photographer D. Fennema

Composition Hordeum vulgare Hulled Barley grain kernel Cicer arietinum Chick pea seed – salt

Description This roasted grain is mixed with a small quantity of chick pea. This combination represents a cereal and a pulse from among the founder crops of south-west Asia. Only the chaff (lemma and palea) has been removed from the barley florets. Remains of the chaff (palea) are especially visible in the hilum groove. The grain kernels have become swollen and the bran has broken lengthwise, whereby the starchy endosperm has become visible. The seeds of the chick pea are unprocessed. The local word for this product is ‘kolo’, which translates as ‘roasted barley’. This product is still a traditional snack in Ethiopia. This sample was bought in an Ethiopian shop in Amsterdam.

136 Atlas 8 Galiyya

cm Figure 91

137 Galiyya

Obtained Amsterdam (province of Noord Holland, the Netherlands) Origin Ethiopia Date March 2017 Collector(s) R. T. J. Cappers & Y. Okur Context Shop GIA-accession 40330 Length/Diameter – Thickness – Weight – Quantity – Photographer D. Fennema

Composition Arachis hypogaea Peanut seed Hordeum vulgare Hulled Barley grain kernel – salt

Description The roasted grain is mixed with a small quantity of peanut. Only the chaff (lemma and palea) has been removed from the barley florets. Remains of the chaff (palea) are especially visible in the hilum groove. The grain kernels have become swollen and the bran has broken lengthwise, whereby the starchy endosperm has become visible. The seeds of the peanut are polished and split. The local word for this product is ‘kolo’, which translates as ‘roasted barley’. This product is still a traditional snack in Ethiopia. This sample was bought in an Ethiopian shop in Amsterdam.

138 Atlas 8 Galiyya

cm Figure 92

139 Galiyya

Obtained Sivas (Sivas province, Turkey) Origin – Date February 2017 Collector(s) E. Boybeyi Context – GIA-accession 40296 Length/Diameter – Thickness – Weight – Quantity – Photographer D. Fennema

Composition Secale cereale Rye grain kernel Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum Bread wheat grain kernel

Impurities Centaurea cyanus Cornflower fruit Elytrigia repens Common couch floret Rumex Docks fruit with perianth Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum Bread wheat chaff – stone

Description Home-made roasted grain made of unpolished grain kernels. The grain consists of a mixture of bread wheat and rye, the latter in small quantities. Judging by the glossy surface, it seems probable that fat was used in the heating process. The intensity of roasting varies among the grain kernels, as does the presence of scorch marks. Chaff remains of bread wheat concern glumes and fragments of the awn.

140 Atlas 8 Galiyya

cm Figure 93

141 Galiyya

Obtained Van (Van province, Turkey) Origin – Date 2015 Collector(s) H. Balcı Context – GIA-accession 40025 Length/Diameter – Thickness – Weight – Quantity – Photographer D. Fennema

Composition Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum Bread wheat grain kernel

Impurities cf. Lathyrus Pea seed

Description Home-made roasted grain made of unpolished grain kernels. The grain kernels have been roasted in animal fat, giving the surface a somewhat glossy appearance. Usually sheep’s fat, taken from the waist area, is used for this purpose. It is unclear if the grain kernels were soaked before roasting.

142 Atlas 8 Galiyya

cm Figure 94

143 Galiyya

Obtained Göcer (Karaman province, Turkey) Origin – Date May 2015 Collector(s) Y. Okur Context Private house GIA-accession 38317 Length/Diameter – Thickness – Weight – Quantity – Photographer D. Fennema

Composition Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum Bread wheat grain kernel – salt

Impurities Avena fatua Wild oat floret Secale cereale Rye grain kernel Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum Bread wheat burnt grain

Description Home-made roasted grain made of unpolished grain kernels. The grain kernels have been sprinkled with salted water prior to roasting. Small scorch marks are present. The impurities consist of a few burnt grain kernels, a grain kernel of rye, and a diaspore of an arable weed.

144 Atlas 8 Galiyya

cm Figure 95

145 Galiyya

Obtained Karaman (Karaman province, Turkey) Origin – Date August 2014 Collector(s) Y. Okur Context Market GIA-accession 34964 Length/Diameter – Thickness – Weight – Quantity – Photographer D. Fennema

Composition Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum Bread wheat grain kernel

Impurities Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum Bread wheat grain kernel

Description Home-made roasted grain that was offered for sale at a local market. The unpolished grain kernels have been roasted. Only small scorch marks are present. The bran may have become isolated from the starchy endosperm at these spots, resulting in puffed scorch marks. Only a fragment of a burnt grain kernel was detected in the sample. The uniform quality of the roasted grain and the almost absence of impurities indicates that this home-made roasted grain was thoroughly checked by hand picking before it was offered for sale.

146 Atlas 8 Galiyya

cm Figure 96

147 Galiyya

Obtained Karaman (Karaman province, Turkey) Origin – Date September 2014 Collector(s) Y. Okur Context Market GIA-accession 35103 Length/Diameter – Thickness – Weight – Quantity – Photographer D. Fennema

Composition Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum Bread wheat grain kernel

Impurities Cannabis sativa Hemp fruit Hordeum vulgare Hulled Barley floret Secale cereale Rye grain kernel Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum Bread wheat burnt grain

Description Home-made roasted grain that was offered for sale at a local market. Unpolished grain kernels have been used for making the roasted grain. The name in Turkish for this product is ‘kavrulmuş bugday’, which translates as ‘roasted grain’. Judging from the glossy surface, it seems likely that fat was used in the heating process. Most of the grain kernels have small scorch marks on the fruit wall. The weakest point of the bran is the hilum groove and the lateral part of the grain kernel. It is in these regions that the bran bursts open and the starchy endosperm becomes visible. A small quantity of burnt grain kernels is present. These burnt specimens are a bit smaller than the roasted and puffed grain kernels. Although in some types of galiyya fruits of hemp are also used for roasting and mixed with roasted wheat, the small quantity of hemp in this sample is considered to be an unintended admixture.

148 Atlas 8 Galiyya

cm Figure 97

149 Galiyya

Obtained Karaman (Karaman province, Turkey) Origin – Date August 2014 Collector(s) Y. Okur Context Market GIA-accession 34963 Length/Diameter – Thickness – Weight – Quantity – Photographer D. Fennema

Composition Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum Bread wheat grain kernel

Impurities Hordeum vulgare Hulled Barley floret Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum Bread wheat burnt grain

Description Home-made roasted grain that was offered for sale at a local market. The grain kernels have been polished and coarsely ground before roasting. The absence of the bran has resulted in a somewhat tuberculate surface. Remains of the bran are only present in the hilum groove. Scorch marks are present but rare. Impurities are present but rare and include fragments of burnt grain kernels and a fragment of a pearled barley grain kernel.

150 Atlas 8 Galiyya

cm Figure 98

151 Galiyya

Obtained Rasht (Gilan province, Iran) Origin possibly Qazvin (Qazvin province, Iran) Date July 2017 Collector(s) R. T. J. Cappers & M. Kaffashi Context Bazaar GIA-accession 40881 Length/Diameter – Thickness – Weight – Quantity – Photographer D. Fennema

Composition Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum Bread wheat grain kernel

Impurities Aegilops tauschii Goat beard rachillate spikelet Fabaceae spp. Pea family seed Galium Bedstraws fruit (mericarp) Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare Hulled 6-row Barley floret Ranunculus arvensis Corn buttercup fruit Secale cereale Rye grain kernel Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum Bread wheat culm

Description The grain kernels have been soaked in water overnight, then dried, and then roasted. After roasting, the grain was sprayed with salt water. The roasting time was rather limited and the grain kernels are still quite hard. But this galiyya is considered good quality. The roasted grain is not a common supply in the bazaar. The impurities consist of a mixture of arable weeds and two other cereal crops: rye and hulled 6-row barley.

152 Atlas 8 Galiyya

cm Figure 99

153 Indices

Subject index

Acidic 38, 43, 64, 66, 68–69, 78, 88, 91, 102, 262, 532, 536, 538, 546, 548, 550, 552, 554, 556, 558, 395, 451, 620, 627 566, 574, 576, 578, 582, 590, 604, 608, Agadir 93, 607 619, 624–626 Alcohol 55, 77–78, 130, 619 Brewing 77–78, 97 Alcoholic fermentation 52, 55, 78, 90, 619 Buğday kavurga 81, 160 Aleuron(e) layer 36, 38, 44, 619, 621, 626 Bulgar 83 Alyok 70 Bulghur 83 Arable weed 15–16, 20, 41–42, 134, 144, 152, 160, Bulgur 42, 47, 49, 56–57, 76, 83–84, 86, 90, 94, 167–168, 170, 172, 176, 178, 182, 186, 190, 192, 194, 96–98, 103, 105, 112, 119, 127, 184, 269–339, 373, 196, 198, 200, 270, 272, 274, 278, 280, 282, 284, 376, 474, 476, 502, 534, 608, 619 286, 288, 290, 292, 304, 306, 308, 310, 322, 326, Burghul 83 328, 334, 336, 368, 510, 536, 574, 578, 607 Butter 39, 44, 46, 63–69, 72, 76, 82, 87–89, 94, 98, Awles 87 125–126, 262, 395, 451, 473–474, 619–620, 622–624, 626 Bacteria 39, 53, 55–56, 64, 66, 69–71, 91, 620 Buttermilk 39, 63–67, 69–72, 76, 82, 87, 89–90, 94, Baking 50–51, 84–85, 96, 101, 114–117, 120–122, 125–126, 264, 395, 473, 528, 530, 534, 548, 558, 203–204, 206, 208, 210, 212, 214, 216, 218, 220, 570, 592, 619–620, 623, 626 222, 224, 226, 228, 230, 232, 234, 236, 238, 240, 242, 244, 246, 248, 250, 252, 254, 256, 258, 260, Camel 25–26, 66 262, 264, 266, 607–608, 619, 624, 625–626 Caramelization 83, 89 Batter 49, 84, 96, 203, 619, 621 Carbohydrate 38, 39, 53–55, 65, 72, 102, 158, 168, Beer 52, 54–57, 76–78, 94–95, 97, 129, 619 172, 262, 264, 300, 302, 320, 370, 386, 388, 390, Bitter 78, 102 502, 574, 620, 623 Black cheese 89, 451, 619 Caryopsis 36, 619, 622 Black kashk 89 Casein 50, 65, 67, 69, 72, 620, 625, 627 Boiling 10, 43, 45–46, 48–51, 56–57, 62, 72–73, Cattle 15, 25 83–85, 90, 96–98, 119, 124, 269–270, 282, 298, Ceramic 97 300, 302, 304, 308, 324, 330, 334, 336, 341, 348, Cereal-milk product 50, 87, 90, 478, 512, 596, 598, 356, 362, 364, 366, 368, 373, 376, 388, 440, 473, 600, 602, 619, 626 478, 494, 502, 546, 578, 590, 619, 623, 626 Chackla 89 Bran 24, 38, 44–46, 60, 62–63, 85, 88, 136, 138, 146, Chaff 20, 24, 31, 33, 42–44, 50, 56, 78, 83–84, 95, 148, 150, 158, 160, 203, 230, 236, 248, 258, 280, 118–119, 133–134, 136, 138, 140, 167, 170, 176, 180, 290, 292, 296, 304, 308, 310, 314, 316, 318, 320, 182, 184, 186, 188, 203, 250, 252, 254, 256, 269– 324, 334, 350, 374, 378, 380, 382, 384, 386, 504, 270, 272, 274, 276, 278, 280, 284, 286, 288, 290, 506, 508, 574, 590, 619– 621, 623–624, 627 292, 328, 334, 336, 374, 510, 620, 622, 624 Bread 42, 47–52, 54–57, 62–63, 66, 76, 81–82, Chakka 70, 76, 87, 89, 620, 623 84–86, 94, 96, 101, 115–117, 120–122, 140, 142, 144, Cheese 39, 43, 63–64, 66–67, 69–72, 87–89, 98, 114, 146, 148, 150, 152, 154, 156, 160, 162, 164, 170, 172, 395, 451, 478, 619–620, 623–626 174, 176, 178, 180, 194, 203–267, 269, 280, 288, Chirpi 87 290, 312, 328, 330, 332, 334, 336, 338, 341, 484, Chondros 90 486, 488, 496, 498, 514, 518, 522, 526, 528, 530, Chura 87

629 Churning 48, 65–67, 70, 72, 87, 125–126, 87–88, 90–91, 116, 203, 400, 404, 406, 410, 414, 619–620, 623 418, 420, 422, 430, 438, 444, 446, 448, 480, 490, Çiğköftelık bulgur 84 494, 518, 544, 546, 588, 594, 621, 626 Clarified butter 620 Dugh 67 Condiment 101 Dung 13, 15–16, 170, 172, 218, 306 Contaminant 42 Cooking 85–86, 90, 96, 269, 300, 302, 324, 364, Edibility 15, 21–22, 26, 29–30, 41–42, 44, 50, 53, 373, 386, 390, 473, 502, 578, 608, 619–620, 625 59–60, 63, 66, 85, 91, 93, 95, 102 Cooling 43, 50–52, 116, 230 Egg 46, 82, 85–86, 93, 341, 346, 350, 356, Couscous 49, 51, 56–57, 63, 76, 86, 94, 96–97, 124, 366, 368, 578 373–393, 609, 620 Embryo 36–38, 44, 154, 621–622 Cow 15, 25–26, 39, 70, 87–88, 270, 274, 395, 398, Endosperm 36, 38, 55, 77, 80, 134, 504, 508, 590, 402, 406, 428, 440, 494, 570 619, 621, 626 Cream 39, 63, 65–67, 70, 76, 87–88, 620, 625 Enzyme 50, 53, 56, 68, 69–70, 77, 98, 619–620, 625 Cream cheese 70, 620 Ethanol 54–55, 77, 619 Creaming 48, 65–67, 70, 87, 620 Evaporating 80, 84, 440, 626 Crushing 80 Cuisine 9, 81, 97, 101–103, 620 Farmer 9, 13, 16, 18, 22, 24, 83, 93, 107, 167, 182, 272, Curd 39, 63, 65, 69, 71–72, 620, 622, 625–626 276, 294, 298, 342, 348, 356, 360, 362, 492, Curdling 50, 65, 69, 72, 620, 626–627 500, 582, 607 Cutting 16, 22, 48, 58, 341, 395, 430, 622 Farming 102 Fat 26, 39, 44, 48, 50, 64–67, 69, 71–72, 85, 87–88, Dairy product 39, 620 90, 98, 140, 142, 148, 203, 395, 438, 473–474, 570, Dehen 68 574, 619–620, 622, 623 Dehydrating 53, 67, 70, 72, 87, 117, 620 Ferike 80 Diaspore 17, 29, 30, 41–42, 53, 57–58, 134, 144, 160, Fermentation 43, 49–50, 53–55, 57, 63–72, 75, 77, 167–168, 170, 172, 174, 176, 178, 182, 186, 190, 192, 87, 89–91, 95, 101, 117, 203, 473, 478, 482, 490, 194, 196, 198, 200, 270, 272, 274, 278, 280, 282, 494, 514, 578, 620–621, 623, 626–627 284, 286, 288, 290, 292, 306, 308, 310, 322, 326, Firig 80 328, 334, 336, 368, 510, 536, 574, 578, Flavour 50, 53, 70, 80, 91, 368, 518 621, 624–625 Flavouring 68, 78, 91 Dietary fibre 39, 84, 88, 158, 262, 370, Floret 20–22, 27–31, 34–36, 38, 39, 44–46, 48–51, 386, 388, 390 59–60, 62, 63, 81, 83–85, 91, 94, 97, 130, 133–134, Digestibility 38, 42–44, 49–50, 56, 69, 76, 85, 136, 138, 140, 144, 148, 150, 152, 154, 160, 170, 172, 93, 95, 133 174, 176, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188, 190, 192, 194, Dish 46, 72, 76–77, 82, 84, 88, 90, 102, 105, 269, 196, 198, 200, 203, 244, 246, 250, 252, 254, 256, 474, 578, 620–621 270, 272, 274, 278, 280, 282, 284, 286, 288, 290, Docker 85 292, 294, 296, 298, 306, 308, 312, 314, 320, 322, Docking 84, 203 326, 328, 330, 332, 334, 336, 374, 516, 518, 520, Domestication 9, 15, 17–25, 27–30, 34–37, 41, 44, 53, 526, 532, 536, 550, 556, 560, 566, 574, 578, 580, 57–61, 75, 78–79, 95–97, 102, 133, 167, 621– 594, 596, 598, 600, 602, 619–623, 626 622, 624–625 Flour 41, 46, 49–50, 55–56, 82–83, 88, 90, 113, 204, Domestication syndrome 17 208, 226, 230, 246, 258, 341–342, 344, 352, 360, Dough 44, 49–50, 55–66, 82, 84–85, 91, 96, 113–114, 494, 534, 540, 619, 621, 623–624 117, 120–123, 203–204, 208, 210, 212, 214, 216, Fodder 16, 46, 88 218, 222, 224, 226, 228, 230, 240, 242, 244, 256, Forager 13 341, 342, 344, 346, 350, 352, 354, 356, 358, 360, Fragmentation 20–23, 29–31, 33, 35–36, 42–47, 49, 362, 364, 366, 368, 514, 550, 607–608, 55, 57, 59–63, 69, 78, 83, 85–86, 88–90, 95–97, 619,621, 623 108, 110, 112, 116–117, 119, 158, 178, 182, 188, 194, Dried milk product 64, 69, 72, 87, 621, 626 269–270, 282, 284, 286, 288, 298, 341, 390, 473, Dromedary 25–26 478, 480, 520, 540, 566, 568, 619–622, 624–626 Drying 44–45, 48–50, 57, 62, 64, 72, 80, 84–85, Fre[e]kah 79

630 Indices Fre[e]keh 79 284, 286, 288, 290, 292, 294, 296, 298, 300, 302, Fresh milk 39, 621 304, 306, 308, 310, 312, 314, 316, 318, 320, 322, Frik 56–57, 580 324, 326, 328, 330, 332, 334, 336, 338, 342, 344, Frikeh 23, 42, 48, 50, 56–57, 62, 79–81, 94–95, 105, 346, 348, 350, 352, 354, 356, 358, 360, 362, 364, 118, 167–201, 621 366, 368, 370, 374, 376, 378, 380, 382, 384, 386, Frikkeh 79 388, 390, 392, 474, 476, 478, 480, 482, 484, 486, Fruit 17–18, 27, 36, 39, 44, 53, 67, 78, 80–81, 89, 488, 490, 492, 494, 496, 498, 500, 502, 504, 506, 133–134, 140, 148, 152, 154, 156, 160, 162, 164, 170, 508, 510, 512, 514, 516, 518, 520, 522, 524, 526, 172, 174, 176, 178, 182, 184, 188, 190, 192, 196, 198, 528, 530, 532, 534, 536, 538, 540, 542, 544, 546, 254, 264, 270, 272, 274, 276, 278, 280, 282, 284, 548, 550, 552, 554, 556, 558, 560, 562, 564, 566, 286, 288, 290, 292, 294, 296, 306, 308, 314, 322, 568, 570, 572, 574, 576, 578, 580, 582, 584, 586, 326, 328, 330, 332, 336, 338, 358, 470, 484, 486, 588, 590, 592, 594, 596, 598, 600, 602, 604, 607, 488, 490, 492, 494, 496, 498, 500, 510, 516, 518, 619–624, 626–627 520, 526, 528, 530, 532, 534, 536, 552, 554, 556, Granulation 22, 24, 36, 44, 46, 48–50, 56–57, 558, 562, 564, 566, 570, 574, 608, 619, 621– 625 62–63, 78, 83, 86, 90, 96, 269, 373, 473, 486, 492, Fruit wall 36, 39, 44, 80, 148, 154, 156, 160, 164, 270, 494, 546, 619–620, 622 274, 296, 526, 619, 622– 624 Grassland 15 Frying 50, 622 Grazing 14–16 Fungi 53, 70, 72, 88 Grinding 10, 24, 41, 46–47, 61–62, 78, 82–83, 97, 110, 119, 133, 178, 182, 203, 252, 269, 274, 282, Galactose 55 296, 324, 328, 332, 334, 341, 374, 376, 382, 502, Galiyya 56–57, 79, 81, 94–95, 133–165, 194, 622 578, 588, 622–623 Gandomak 81 Gas 48, 55, 118, 167, 204, 236, 240, 626 Halloum[i] 70–71 Gathering 9, 13, 23, 25, 36, 368 Handstone 46, 110 Gemead 87 Harvest 9, 14–15, 18, 21–26, 30, 41–42, 44, 50, 56, Germ 24, 36, 38, 44–46, 60, 62, 63, 85, 158, 168, 58–59, 77–80, 85, 90, 93, 95, 97, 103, 172, 288, 203, 280, 334, 368, 504, 506, 508, 620–624, 627 607, 620, 622, 627 Germination 18, 23, 43, 50, 52–53, 55–57, 76–77, 95, Harvesting 9, 15–16, 18, 20–24, 26, 29–30, 36, 38, 97, 129–130, 619, 622, 626 41–42, 45, 48, 50, 57–61, 78, 80–81, 85, 93–96, Ghee 68, 620, 622 133, 167–168, 186, 188, 190, 194, 368, Gibneh beydah 66, 71 619, 622, 624 Gibneh domiata 71 Harvesting knife 21, 23, 58, 622 Gibneh tariyah 71 Harvesting unit 20, 22, 29, 36, 57–60, Glucose 38, 53, 55, 80 93–95, 133, 622 Glume 22, 27–30, 32, 34–35, 44, 59–60, 133, 140, Health 43, 46, 53, 81, 167 284, 620, 622, 623, 626 Heating 10, 24, 42–43, 46, 48–52, 55–57, 60, 62, Glume wheat 22, 622 64–66, 68, 70–73, 77, 80, 82, 84–86, 89–90, 93, Gluten 38, 44, 50, 55, 84, 621, 623 95–98, 115, 120–122, 133, 140, 148, 212, 216, 218, Goat 15–19, 25–26, 39, 43, 69, 72, 87–88, 125–126, 228, 230, 232, 234, 236, 238, 240, 244, 246, 248, 152, 160, 284, 294, 395, 440, 607 250, 252, 256, 341–342, 344, 346, 350, 352, 354, Gofio 83 360, 368, 373, 395, 404, 440, 502, 608, 619– Grading 46, 49, 269, 486 620, 622–626 Grain kernel 17, 20–24, 27–31, 33, 35–38, 42–46, Heterolactic fermentation 55 48–50, 53, 59–60, 62–63, 76, 78, 80–86, 90, Holocene 14 94–96, 130, 133–134, 136, 138, 140, 142, 144, 146, Homolactic fermentation 55 148, 150, 152, 154, 156, 158, 160, 162, 164, 167–168, Honey 102 170, 172, 174, 176, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188, 190, Horse 26, 112 192, 194, 196, 198, 200, 203–204, 206, 208, 210, Hull tightness 18–20, 22, 24, 29, 36, 45, 57, 77–78, 212, 214, 216, 218, 220, 222, 224, 226, 228, 230, 95, 621–622 232, 234, 236, 238, 240, 242, 244, 248, 258, 260, Hull(s), 18–20, 22, 24, 27, 29, 36, 39, 42–46, 48, 53, 262, 264, 266, 270, 272, 274, 276, 278, 280, 282, 57, 59, 62–63, 77–78, 80, 84, 95, 97, 112, 130, 133,

Subject index 631631 174, 194, 203, 244, 246, 510, 518, 520, 526, 528, Kashk siyah 89 532, 550, 556, 558, 562, 566, 574, 584, Kataifi dough 83 619, 621–624 Kavut 82 Hulled 18, 20–22, 24, 27–30, 35–36, 39, 45, 48, Kefir 50, 54, 55 56–62, 77–79, 83–84, 90, 94–98, 130, 133–134, Keş 87 136, 138, 148, 150, 152, 154, 160, 167, 170, 172, 174, Keskek 103 176, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188, 190, 192, 194, 196, Keskesu 86 198, 200, 203, 244, 246, 250, 252, 254, 256, 269, Khisk 89 272, 280, 284, 286, 288, 290, 292, 294, 296, 298, Khumeth 55 306, 308, 314, 320, 322, 332, 334, 336, 374, 473, Kiln 77 516, 518, 520, 526, 532, 536, 550, 556, 566, 574, Kıri 67 578, 594, 622–626 Kishk 75, 89, 474, 476, 623 Hulling 20, 36, 43, 45, 59, 61, 621–622 Kneading 44, 72, 623 Husking 20, 621–622 Köftelık bulgur 84 Hydrolysis 54–55, 65, 70 Koliva 56–57 Kolo 81, 136, 138 Igt 87 Kushuk 89 Implement 10, 48–49, 51, 58, 67, 96, 105, 228, 622, 624 Laban 65–67 Imprint 88, 90, 121, 216, 232, 396, 398, 400, 402, Labneh 65, 70, 76, 87, 89, 623, 627 408, 410, 414, 418, 422, 436, 446, 473, 480, 510, Lactic acid fermentation 50, 55, 65–66, 69–70, 90, 526, 528, 530, 532, 534, 544, 546, 548, 550, 552, 95, 203, 395, 623, 625–626 554, 556, 558, 562, 564, 566, 568, 574, 576, 580, Lactose 39, 43, 54–55, 65 584, 586, 588, 590, 592, 596, 598, 600, 602 Lben 66 Impurity 15, 41, 46, 48, 77, 91, 105, 111, 134, 140, 142, Leavened 55, 85, 203, 234, 619 144, 146, 148, 150, 152, 154, 160, 164, 167–168, 170, Lemma 27–28, 30, 32, 34–36, 44, 46, 48, 59–60, 172, 174, 176, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188, 190, 192, 62–63, 84, 130, 134, 136, 138, 244, 270, 620–623 194, 196, 198, 200, 270, 272, 274, 276, 278, 280, Lipid 38, 53, 59, 62, 84, 158, 168, 172, 262, 264, 300, 282, 284, 286, 288, 290, 292, 294, 296, 298, 304, 302, 320, 370, 386, 388, 390, 502 306, 308, 310, 312, 314, 316, 318, 320, 322, 326, 328, 330, 332, 334, 336, 338, 350, 366, 384, 510, Madeer 87 516, 518, 520, 526, 528, 532, 536, 550, 554, 556, Madir 87 558, 560, 562, 564, 566, 574, 578, 580, 584, Makheed 67 594, 602, 608 Malt 77, 97, 129 Inflorescence 26, 27, 622, 625–626 Malting 50, 77, 97, 130 Infructescence 27, 30, 42, 60, 167, 620, Maska 67 622, 625, 626 Mast 66 Ingredient 9, 44, 46, 56, 57, 64, 81–82, 89, 91, 93, Meal 41, 46, 48–50, 55–56, 63, 77, 82–84, 90, 95–96, 101–103, 105, 134, 204, 246, 250, 254, 256, 264, 101, 112, 120, 203–204, 208, 244, 246, 341, 346, 269, 324, 473, 514, 530, 574, 621–622, 626 350, 356, 366, 368, 370, 473, 619, 621, Insect 26, 42, 82, 85–86, 172, 174, 182, 194, 196, 298, 623–624, 627 341, 346, 356, 368, 540 Meat 15–17, 43, 46, 84, 88, 102, 607 Intermediate food 83–86, 373, 620, 622, 626 Melthuth 56–57, 83 Mercimek köftesi 84 Jameed 87, 444 Microorganism 26, 42–43, 49–51, 55, 66, 77, 90, 101 Milk 9, 15–17, 25–26, 38–39, 41–44, 46, 48–51, 53–55, Kareish 70 63–73, 75–76, 80–82, 84, 87–91, 93–96, 98, 102, Kariesh 65, 70, 87, 620, 623 105, 107, 113–114, 125–126, 168, 170, 172, 174, 269, Karish[i] 70 356, 362, 395–396, 398, 400, 402, 404, 406, 408, Karnemelk 67 410, 412, 414, 416, 418, 420, 422, 424, 426, 428, Karnen 67 430, 432, 434, 436, 438, 440, 442, 444, 446, 448, Kashk 50, 64, 65, 70, 72, 75–76, 87–89, 395–449, 451, 473–474, 476, 478, 482, 484, 486, 490, 502, 451–452, 454, 456, 458, 516, 607, 609, 623

632 Indices 504, 506, 508, 510, 516, 518, 520, 522, 524, 526, Pan oven 51–52, 623 532, 536, 538, 540, 542, 544, 550, 552, 554, 556, Parching 62, 623, 625 560, 562, 566, 570, 572, 576, 578, 580, 582, 584, Pasta 49, 56–57, 63, 76, 85–86, 94, 96–97, 123, 324, 586, 588, 590, 594, 596, 598, 600, 602, 604, 607, 341–371, 373, 608, 623 619–621, 623–627 Pasteurized 66 Milk product 26, 39, 42, 48–50, 54–55, 63–67, Pastoralist 51, 71, 82 69–70, 72, 75–76, 82, 84, 87, 89–91, 94–95, 98, Pearling 10, 36, 42, 44–45, 47, 57, 59–60, 63, 83, 85, 451, 473–474, 510, 570, 619–621, 623, 626–627 150, 203, 314, 336, 374, 619, 623, 624–625 Milk-cereal product 26, 623 Pearling product 624 Milking 9, 25–26, 63, 88, 98 Pearling remains 624 Milling 46, 622–623 Pearling unit 624 Mineral 16, 38–39, 53, 67, 69, 72, 158 Peel oven 49, 51–52, 85, 116, 121, 203, 228, 230, 232, Mirmiz 56, 57 234, 236, 238, 240, 242, 244, 246, 248, 250, 252, Mish 70 254, 256, 258, 260, 262, 264, 266, 607, 624 Mite 26, 42, 341, 346, 356 Pericarp 36, 80, 619, 622, 624 Mixing 15, 39, 41–44, 46–47, 49–51, 55–57, 63, 66, Pestle 46, 607, 624 68–72, 75–76, 81–83, 86, 88–91, 96–98, 101, 103, Pickled 71 112, 113, 120, 122, 127, 133, 136, 138, 148, 170, 174, Pig 15, 17 203, 224, 246, 250, 256, 286, 288, 300, 302, 324, Pilavlik bulgur 84, 332 346, 373, 395, 444, 473–474, 490, 492, 494, 506, Plate oven 51–52, 624 514, 518, 520, 522, 524, 530, 546, 552, 562, 566, Pleistocene 13 578, 584, 586, 592, 608, 619–620, 623, 626 Pligouri 83 Mortar 24, 46, 61, 108–109, 298, 607, 624 Polenta 56, 57 Mould 49, 51, 70, 85, 90–91, 96, 203, 473, 600, Polishing 10, 36, 42, 44–46, 57, 59–60, 62–63, 78, 602, 623–624 83, 85, 90, 108, 127, 133, 138, 150, 170, 203, 254, Msannara 71 269, 276, 280, 282, 292, 294, 296, 298, 300, 302, Mushala[l] 71 304, 308, 310, 312, 314, 316, 318, 322, 324, 328, Mushallaleh 71 332, 334, 376, 378, 380, 382, 384, 386, 476, 502, 506,532, 540, 582, 596, 598, 600, 602, 607, 619– Naked 18, 20–24, 29, 36–37, 39, 42, 48, 57, 59, 621, 623–625, 627 61–62, 78–81, 84, 90, 94–95, 97–98, 133, 167, 172, Polishing product 624 269, 332, 574, 607, 621, 623–626 Polishing remains 624 Neolithic 20, 25 Polishing unit 624 Nomad 66, 82 Popping 51, 624 Non-rennet cheese 64, 69–72, 76, 87–89, 94, 395, Pottery 9–10, 20, 24, 25, 51, 96–98, 122, 341, 373 430, 451, 619–620, 623 Pounding 10, 41–42, 46, 61–63, 67, 83, 88, 108, 203, Noodles 49, 324, 623 269, 298, 341, 607, 624 Nutrient 10, 39, 43, 46, 49, 67, 69, 72, 87, 89, 395, Pressing 72, 114, 341, 436, 440, 444, 473, 451, 473, 476, 620, 622, 623, 626 504, 508, 624 Primary product 24, 624 Oggtt 87 Principal product 24, 29, 44–46, 48, 59, 61, 65, 76, Oil 38, 50–51, 91, 101–102, 113, 119, 262, 240, 619–622, 624, 626 264, 526, 622 Protein 38, 39, 46, 50, 53, 56, 64–70, 72–73, 84, 89, Ondermelk 67 98, 102, 158, 168, 172, 262, 264, 300, 302, 320, Ordinary butter 46, 65, 67, 69, 72, 619, 623 370, 386, 388, 390, 395, 451, 502, 574, 619–620, Oven 50–52, 85, 96, 115–117, 121–122, 203, 216, 218, 623, 625, 627 220, 222, 224, 226, 232, 234, 236, 238, 240, 242, Puffing 51, 134, 222, 624 244, 252, 256, 608, 623–624, 626 Pulverizing 22, 24, 44, 46, 48–50, 56–57, 62–63, 69, 78, 82, 84–85, 88, 90, 96, 180, 203, 341, 392, Pai 66 473–474, 619, 621, 623–624 Palea 27, 34–36, 44, 46, 48, 59–60, 62–63, 84, 134, 136, 138, 244, 270, 374, 620–624

Subject index 633633 Qara qurut 65, 73, 76, 89, 94, 98, 451–471, 262, 264, 266, 341–342, 344, 346, 348, 350, 352, 609, 619, 624 354, 356, 358, 360, 362, 364, 366, 368, 370, 373, Qarakharman 80 390, 444, 474, 478, 486, 488, 496, 498, 504, 520, Quern 46, 62 528, 534, 540, 542, 546, 558, 560, 574, 619– Qurut 87, 89, 451–452, 454, 460, 466, 468 621, 623, 626 Salting 43 Rachilla 27–28, 35, 624 Saman 68 Rachillate spikelet 20–22, 29–30, 32–36, 42, 44, Samanoo 77 58–62, 78, 83, 90, 94, 96–98, 119, 152, 160, 167, Samanu 77 270, 272, 274, 280, 282, 284, 286, 288, 290, 292, Samn 68 294, 473, 608, 621–624, 626 Samneh 67–68 Rachillate triplet 20–21, 29–31, 44, 58–60, 78, Second threshing 45, 625 94–97, 167, 174, 620, 622, 624, 626 Secondary product 625 Rachis 18–23, 27–30, 32, 34–36, 43–44, 57–60, 78, Seed 14–15, 17–18, 20–21, 23, 28–29, 36, 53, 81, 133, 95, 133–134, 154, 160, 170, 172, 174, 176, 192, 194, 136, 138, 142, 152, 154, 160, 162, 164, 170, 172, 174, 196, 198, 270, 284, 288, 322, 518, 556, 564, 574, 176, 182, 186, 188, 190, 192, 200, 218, 248, 254, 620–621, 624–626 264, 270, 272, 274, 278, 280, 282, 284, 286, 288, Rachis brittleness 18–20, 22, 29, 57–58, 290, 292, 298, 300, 302, 304, 306, 308, 310, 322, 95, 621, 625 326, 328, 332, 334, 336, 484, 490, 492, 494, 502, Rachis fragment 23, 35, 134, 154, 160, 170, 172, 174, 506, 510, 518, 526, 536, 556, 564, 608, 621– 176, 192, 194, 196, 198, 284, 288, 322, 518, 556, 622, 624–625 564, 574, 620, 625 Seed dispersal 17, 20, 28–29, 625 Rachis internode 28, 30, 32, 34, 44, 625 Seedcoat 36, 39, 44, 300, 302, 304, 619, 621– Rachis node 27–30, 32, 34, 44, 625 622, 625–626 Rachis segment 20, 30, 59–60, 270, 624–625 Semn 68 Raw milk 39, 43, 50–51, 54–55, 63–67, 69–71, 76, 90, Separation 22, 24, 42–46, 48–49, 51, 57, 59–60, 62, 126, 620–621, 623, 625 65–67, 76–77, 83, 86, 111- 112, 290, 373, 619–627 Rayeb 66 Shaneenah 67 Rennet 49–50, 65, 69–72, 75–76, 87, 89, 94, 98, 395, Shankleesh 87–88 620, 623, 625–626 Shaping 16, 28, 42–43, 46, 48–50, 56–58, 62–63, 71, Rennet cheese 50, 65, 70–72, 76, 87, 89, 94, 98, 85, 88–91, 103, 114, 121–123, 127, 134, 170, 203, 395, 620, 623, 625 214, 222, 224, 226, 228, 232, 236, 240, 244, 246, Rennin 65, 69–70, 98, 620, 625 324, 326, 332, 341–342, 344, 346, 348, 356, 360, Rhachis 20, 625 362, 364, 366, 368, 376, 390, 392, 395–396, 398, Roasting 22, 50–51, 56–57, 62, 76, 78–83, 85–86, 400, 402, 404, 406, 408, 410, 414, 416, 418, 420, 95–96, 118, 133–134, 136, 138, 140, 142, 144, 146, 422, 424, 428, 430, 434, 436, 438, 440, 444, 446, 148, 150, 152, 154, 156, 158, 160, 162, 164, 167–168, 448, 466, 468, 473, 478, 490, 504, 506, 508, 510, 194, 242, 368, 608, 621–623, 625–626 516, 518, 520, 522, 524, 526, 528, 532, 534, 536, Rôb 66 538, 542, 544, 546, 548, 550, 552, 554, 556, 558, Rotary quern 46, 336 560, 562, 564, 566, 568, 570, 572, 574, 576, 578, Rughan 68 580, 582, 584, 586, 588, 590, 592, 594, 596, 598, Rün 68 600, 602, 604, 607–608, 623 Rusk bread 63, 238, 252, 254, 258, 264, Sheep 15–16, 25–26, 39, 69, 72, 87–88, 125, 142, 286, 266, 478, 625 395–396, 400, 404, 410, 412, 414, 416, 418, 420, 422, 426, 430, 432, 438, 440, 444, 476, Saddle quern 46, 62 502, 548, 607 Salīga 83 Siahmazgi 70–71 Salt 47, 49–50, 56–57, 64, 66, 71, 82, 84–85, 88–89, Sieve 48, 63, 90, 96, 111–112, 203, 246, 274, 102, 113, 120, 127, 136, 138, 144, 152, 154, 156, 160, 373, 473, 486 164, 168, 204, 206, 208, 210, 212, 214, 216, 218, Sieving 31, 42, 46, 48, 50, 84, 112, 133, 203, 244, 220, 222, 224, 228, 230, 232, 234, 236, 238, 240, 246, 250, 252, 256, 270, 276, 330, 336, 341, 242, 244, 246, 248, 250, 252, 254, 256, 258, 260, 373, 484, 486

634 Indices Skimmed milk 39, 65, 67, 70, 76, 87, 395, 473, Tarhonya 89 620, 623, 625 Tarkhineh 89 Skimming 39, 48, 65–67, 70, 76, 87, 395, 473, Taste 39, 49–50, 53, 55, 63, 68, 70, 77–78, 80, 88, 91, 620, 623, 625 101–102, 167, 203, 338, 373, 400, 406, 462, 464, Smoking 50, 69, 625 466, 473, 494, 504, 506, 516, 526, 536 Soaking 50, 51, 76, 81, 90, 133, 142, 152, 154, 164, Tchicha 56–57, 83 304, 334, 404, 578, 623 Testa 36, 619, 625–626 Solid milk product 626 Thögh 67 Solidifying 64, 66, 68–69, 98, 395, 430, 620 Threshing 20, 22–23, 27–29, 31, 34–36, 41–42, Sour milk 43, 55, 65–66, 70, 76, 87, 89, 94, 44–45, 47, 57, 59–61, 81, 94–95, 97, 109, 118, 133, 395, 578, 626 167, 619–626 Sourdough 50, 54–56, 66, 101, 113, 203, 242, 258, Threshing product 59, 626 260, 619, 621 Threshing remains 23, 59, 625–626 Spice 56, 84, 89, 91, 101, 103, 468, 518, 552, 626 Threshing unit 20, 22, 34, 42, 45, 59, 95, 167, Spike 14, 20–23, 27–32, 36–37, 41–42, 57–61, 78–80, 622–624, 626 94–95, 97, 109, 118, 168, 270, 368, 608, 622, 626 Toasting 22, 626 Spikelet 18–20, 22, 27–30, 32, 35, 58–59, 61–62, 78, Tool 16, 23, 43, 58, 78, 84–85, 167, 436, 620 83, 90, 95, 97, 134, 170, 172, 174, 178, 194, 196, 274, Tooth 32, 41, 96 282, 284, 286, 288, 290, 332, 338, 621–626 Trachana[s] 89 Splitting 38 Trahana 75 Sprout 53, 76, 95 Trakahana[s] 89 Sprouting 53–54, 56–57, 76–77, 94–95, 129– Transhumance 26 130, 608, 626 Tsamba 82 Starch 38, 53–55, 62, 76–78, 80, 88, 264, 619, Tukhp 64, 87 621, 624, 626 Starchy endosperm 36, 38, 44, 46, 53, 55, 62, 136, Unleavened 85, 203, 341, 619, 623 138, 146, 148, 156, 160, 504, 508, 574, Unpolished 39, 46, 140, 142, 144, 146, 148, 160, 162, 620, 624, 626 170, 172, 174, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188, 190, 192, Steam 51, 84, 86, 124 194, 196, 198, 200, 270, 272, 274, 278, 284, 286, Steaming 50–51, 96–97, 124, 373, 388, 623, 626 288, 290, 306, 314, 320, 322, 326, 330, 336, 338, Stirring 50, 77, 96, 373, 620 388, 482, 510, 512, 514, 516, 518, 520, 522, 524, Stone 24, 41–42, 46, 50–51, 62, 96, 108, 110, 115, 526, 528, 530, 536, 538, 542, 544, 546, 548, 550, 119–120, 122, 140, 170, 172, 174, 176, 178, 180, 182, 552, 556, 558, 560, 562, 564, 566, 568, 572, 576, 184, 186, 188, 190, 192, 194, 196, 198, 200, 270, 578, 580, 584, 586, 588, 590, 592, 594, 604 274, 282, 284, 286, 288, 290, 292, 298, 304, 306, Uprooting 22–23, 29, 48, 58–59, 167, 288 308, 310, 314, 316, 322, 328, 338, 602, 607, 622 Storage life 26, 42, 88 Vaporization 48–49, 55, 626 Strained fermented milk 70, 626 Vegetable 24–25, 89, 91, 102–103, 262, 264, Straw 42, 167–168, 170, 174, 180, 186, 194, 494, 609, 626 290, 334, 626 Vitamin 38–39, 72 Sugar 13, 39, 43, 46, 53, 55, 64, 66–67, 69, 72, 73, 76–77, 83, 89, 95, 102, 262, 264, 451, 619, 621, 623 Washing 46–48, 61, 72, 76, 330, 336 Wetting 44, 57, 69, 607 Tabun 51–52, 216, 626 Whey 65, 67, 69–70, 72–73, 76, 84, 89, 94, 98, 114, Takammart 70–71 451–452, 454, 456, 458, 460, 462, 464, 466, 468, Tannur 51–52, 115, 122, 218, 220, 222, 224, 226, 626 470, 619–620, 623–624, 626 Tarhana 49–50, 63, 75–76, 84, 89–91, 94, 96, 98, White cheese 71 102–103, 127, 269, 310, 395, 473–605, 609, 619, White qara qurut 89, 460 621, 623, 626 Whitening 45, 624, 627 Tarhana dooineh 91, 550, 558 Whole flour 41, 627 Tarhana herb 91 Winnowing 31, 42, 45, 48, 111, 133, 270, 276 Tarhana shalmineh 91, 530, 536, 538, 552, 562, 564

Subject index 635635 Xinochondros 89 Yoghurt 39, 46, 54–55, 63, 65- 66, 69–70, 72, 76, 87, 90, 94, 127, 395, 440, 444, 473–474, 476, 480, Yak 25–26 488, 492, 494, 496, 498, 500, 512, 514, 546, 568, Yeast 52–57, 77, 89–91, 97, 113, 203–204, 206, 210, 574, 623, 626, 627 216, 218, 222, 224, 226, 228, 232, 234, 236, 238, Yoghurt cheese 70, 627 240, 242, 244, 246, 248, 250, 252, 254, 256, 258, Yogurt 101 260, 262, 264, 266, 474, 619, 621, 626 Yield 18, 24, 75, 77–80, 88, 96–97, 167, 546, 625, 627 Zabady 66 Zibd 68 Zirdrughan 68

Taxonomic index

Aegilops 18–19, 152, 160, 284, 294 Caralluma mouretii 69 Agrostemma githago 41, 270, 308 Carthamus tinctorius 68 Allium 25, 91, 278, 486, 488, 494, 496, 498 Carum carvi 308, 338, 528, 534, 562 Allium cepa 91, 486, 488, 494, 496, 498 Caryophyllaceae 310 Allium sativum 486, 494 Centaurea 140, 284 Ammi 286 Centaurea cyanus 140 Anchusa 288 Cephalaria syriaca 286, 288, 292, 306, 554 Anethum graveolens 91, 286, 484, 492, 494 Cerastium 286 Apiaceae 91, 154, 270, 272, 282, 284, 288, 290, 306, Chaerophyllum macrospermum 25 308, 322, 484, 492, 552 Chenopodiaceae 284 Arachis hypogaea 81, 138 Chenopodium 292 Artemisia dracunculus 91 Cicer arietinum 81, 102, 136, 164, 300, 494, 502 Artemisia herba-alba 68 Cichorium intybus 282, 284, 286, 288, 292 Asteraceae 174, 176, 286, 306, 336 Cinnamomum 494 Avena 41, 77, 144, 170, 172, 174, 176, 178, 180, 182, Citrus medica 264 184, 188, 190, 192, 194, 198, 200, 270, 272, 274, Claviceps 274 278, 280, 282, 286, 290, 294, 326, 328, 332, 510, Consolida 286 526, 532, 566, 580 Convolvulus 154, 160, 172, 174, 274, 286, 288, 290, Avena fatua 144, 170, 172, 174, 176, 180, 194, 198, 292, 306, 308, 332, 334, 336 270, 274, 326 Convolvulus arvensis 154, 160, 174, 274, 286, 288, 306, 334, 336 Beta vulgaris 41–42, 176 Coriandrum sativum 91, 170, 172, 286, 288 Bos grunniens 25 Cornus mas 91, 498, 500 Bos taurus 25 Crocus sativus 162 Brassica rapa 91, 518, 522, 524, 528, 530, 536, 538, Cuminum cyminum 288 544, 552, 562, 564, 584, 586, 588, 592, 594 Curcuma longa 68, 91, 162, 494, 518, 520, 530, 534, Brassicaceae 192, 278, 288, 290, 292 554, 558, 596, 598, 600, 602 Bromus 288, 306 Bubalus bubalis 25 Daucus carota 264, 556 Bupleurum lancifolium 286 Echinophora 91 Camelus dromedarius 25 Echinophora tenuifolia ssp. sibthorpiana 91 Camelus ferus 26 Echium 188, 286, 308 Cannabis sativa 81, 148, 160, 164, 288 Elettaria cardamomum 264 Capra aegagrus 25 Elytrigia repens 140, 174, 178, 188, 194, 270, 274, Capsella bursa-pastoris 292, 310 278, 282, 290, 306, 308, 330, 520 Capsicum annuum 91, 102–103, 484, 486, 490, Equus ferus 26 492, 494, 496, 518, 520, 530, 532, 558, 562 Eruca vesicaria 494

636 Indices Fabaceae 152, 172, 188, 190, 192, 270, 272, 274, 286, Lolium temulentum 42, 184, 188, 192, 270, 304, 308, 322, 492 286, 312, 326 Fallopia convolvulus 288 Lupinus 284 Foeniculum vulgare 526, 528, 530, 532, 534, 536, 554, 556, 558, 562, 570 Malus sylvestris 103, 218, 470 Malva 178, 198, 290, 328 Galium 134, 152, 170, 172, 174, 176, 182, 188, 190, Malva nicaeensis/parviflora 198, 328 192, 196, 272, 274, 278, 280, 282, 284, 286, 290, Matricaria chamomilla 68 306, 308, 322, 332, 336, 338, 510 Medicago 290, 310 Glaucium 200 Melampyrum arvense 270, 274 Gypsophila 272, 274, 292 Melilotus indicus 328 Mentha 91, 426, 488, 494, 496, 498, 518, Haplophyllum 284 526, 530, 556 Helianthus annuus 81 Mentha × piperita 91 Hordeum 14, 18–19, 27–28, 30–31, 35–37, 47, 61, 77, 81, 83, 102, 130, 134, 136, 138, 148, 150, 152, 154, Nasturtium officinale 25 160, 170, 172, 174, 176, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188, Neslia paniculata 286, 288, 308 190, 192, 194, 196, 198, 200, 208, 228, 244, 246, Nigella sativa 248, 286, 506 250, 252, 254, 256, 272, 280, 284, 286, 288,290, 292, 294, 296, 298, 306, 308, 314, 320, 322, 332, Ocimum 484, 494 334, 336, 374, 516, 518, 520, 526, 532, 536, 550, Ocimum basilicum 494 556, 566, 578, 594, 619 Origanum 432, 520, 556, 558 Hordeum vulgare 14, 18–19, 27–28, 30–31, 35, 37, Oryza sativa 62, 83, 332 47, 61, 130, 134, 152, 154, 160, 170, 172, 174, 176, Ovis aries 25 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188, 190, 192, 194, 196, 198, 244, 272, 284, 288, 290, 292, 306, Panicum miliaceum 160, 288 308, 334, 594 Pennisetum 42, 109 Hordeum vulgare ssp. distichon 18–19, 27–28, 35, Pennisetum glaucum 42, 109 37, 47, 61, 130, 134, 174, 244 Persicaria 134, 282, 286, 290, 292, 308, 322 Hordeum vulgare ssp. spontaneum 14, Petroselinum crispum 91, 172, 494 18–19, 30–31 Phalaris paradoxa 172, 174, 178, 194, 196 Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare 18–19, 134, 152, 154, Phaseolus vulgaris 102, 286 160, 170, 172, 174, 176, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188, Piper nigrum 494 190, 192, 194, 196, 198, 272, 284, 288, 290, 292, Pistacia 14, 81, 162, 164, 516, 608, 609 306, 308, 334, 594 Pistacia atlantica 14 Humulus lupulus 78 Pistacia terebinthus 14, 162, 164, 516, 608, 609 Poa 284, 286, 288 Lagenaria siceraria 67 Poaceae 196, 286, 290, 314, 322, 330, 338, 518, 554, Lallemantia 288, 292 560, 574, 619 Lamiaceae 288, 292, 484, 490, 492, 504, Polygonum aviculare 510 520, 552, 562 Prunus armeniaca 162, 608 Lathyrus 142, 170, 308 Prunus dulcis 14, 254, 516 Lathyrus sativus 308 Lathyrus/vicia 170 Quercus cerris 14 Lens culinaris 102, 170, 172, 174, 182, 188, 282, 284, Quercus ithaburensis 14 286, 298, 302, 322, 326, 334, 556, 608 Quercus robur 14 Linum usitatissimum 284 Lithospermum arvense 190 Ranunculus arvensis 152, 270, 276, 278, 308, 574 Lolium 42, 172, 184, 188, 192, 270, 280, Rumex 140, 282, 286, 338, 562 286, 312, 326 Rumex acetosella 286 Lolium multiflorum 172, 280 Ruta chalepensis 68

Taxonomic index 637637 Salvia sclarea 284 Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum 19, 42, 47, 62, Sanguisorba 288 81–82, 84, 86, 140, 142, 144, 146, 148, 150, 152, 154, Scandix pecten-veneris 282, 336 156, 160, 162, 164, 170, 172, 174, 176, 178, 180, 194, Secale 77, 140, 144, 148, 152, 154, 160, 188, 270, 204, 238, 248, 266, 269, 280, 288, 290, 312, 328, 286, 306, 308 330, 332, 334, 336, 338, 484, 486, 488, 496, 498, Secale cereale 140, 144, 148, 152, 154, 160, 188, 270, 514, 518, 522, 526, 528, 530, 532, 536, 538, 546, 286, 306, 308 548, 550, 552, 554, 556, 558, 566, 574, 576, 578, Sesamum indicum 174, 218, 254, 288 582, 590, 604, 608 Setaria 134, 290 Triticum aestivum ssp. compactum 19 Silene 292, 310, 518 Triticum aestivum ssp. mache 19 Silybum marianum 170, 172, 174 Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta 19, 61–62, 83, Solanaceae 102, 484, 492 158, 168, 269 Solanum 91, 102–103, 264, 358, 486, 488, 490, 494, Triticum aestivum ssp. sphaerococcum 19 496, 498, 528, 530, 556 Triticum aestivum ssp. vavilovii 19 Solanum lycopersicum 91, 102–103, 358, 486, 488, Triticum monococcum ssp. 490, 494, 496, 498, 528, 530, 556 aegilopoides 19, 29, 32–33 Solanum tuberosum 102, 264 Triticum monococcum ssp. monococcum 19, 38, Sorghum bicolor 42, 170 47, 61–62, 83, 102–103, 269- 270, 272, 274, Sorghum halepense 172, 286, 290 276, 278, 280 Triticum timopheevii 19 Thymus 88, 91, 494, 574 Triticum timopheevii ssp. armeniacum 19 Tribolium confusum 82 Triticum timopheevii ssp. timopheevii 19 Trigonella foenum-graecum 68, 172, 492 Triticum turgidum 19, 27, 29, 34–35, 37, 45, 47, Triticum 18–19, 27, 29, 32–35, 37–38, 42, 45, 47, 61–62, 81, 83–84, 102, 127, 170, 172, 178, 182, 184, 61–62, 77, 81–84, 86, 102–103, 127, 140, 142, 144, 186, 188, 190, 192, 194, 196, 198, 200, 242, 258, 146, 148, 150, 152, 154, 156, 158, 160, 162, 164, 168, 260, 269, 282, 284, 286, 288, 290, 292, 294, 296, 170, 172, 174, 176, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188, 190, 298, 300, 302, 304, 306, 308, 310, 312, 314, 316, 192, 194, 196, 198, 200, 204, 206, 210, 212, 214, 318, 320, 322, 324, 326, 328, 332, 336, 341, 346, 216, 218, 220, 222, 224, 226, 230, 232, 234, 236, 350, 356, 358, 360, 362, 364, 366, 368, 370, 378, 238, 240, 242, 248, 258, 260, 262, 264, 266, 380, 382, 384, 386, 388, 390, 392, 490, 502, 269–270, 272, 274, 276, 278, 280, 282, 284, 286, 540, 568, 608 288, 290, 292, 294, 296, 298, 300, 302, 304, 306, Triticum turgidum ssp. carthlicum 19 308, 310, 312, 314, 316, 318, 320, 322, 324, 326, Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccoides 19, 29 328, 330, 332, 334, 336, 338, 341, 342, 344, 346, Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccon 19, 27, 34–35, 348, 350, 352, 354, 356, 358, 360, 362, 364, 366, 61–62, 83, 102, 269, 282, 284, 286, 288, 290, 292 368, 370, 376, 378, 380, 382, 384, 386, 388, 390, Triticum turgidum ssp. durum 19, 37, 45, 47, 392, 474, 476, 478, 480, 482, 484, 486, 488, 490, 61–62, 81, 84, 127, 170, 172, 178, 182, 184, 186, 188, 492, 494, 496, 498, 500, 502, 504, 506, 508, 510, 190, 192, 194, 196, 198, 200, 242, 258, 260, 269, 512, 514, 516, 518, 520, 522, 524, 526, 528, 530, 532, 284, 294, 296, 298, 300, 302, 304, 306, 308, 310, 534, 536, 538, 540, 542, 544, 546, 548, 550, 552, 312, 314, 316, 318, 320, 322, 324, 326, 328, 332, 554, 556, 558, 560, 562, 564, 566, 568, 570, 572, 336, 341, 346, 350, 356, 358, 360, 362, 364, 366, 574, 576, 578, 580, 582, 584, 586, 588, 590, 592, 368, 370, 378, 380, 382, 384, 386, 388, 390, 392, 594, 596, 598, 600, 602, 604, 607–608, 619 490, 502, 540, 568, 608 Triticum aestivum 19, 42, 47, 61–62, 81–84, 86, Triticum turgidum ssp. palaeocolchicum 19 140, 142, 144, 146, 148, 150, 152, 154, 156, 158, 160, Triticum turgidum ssp. polonicum 19 162, 164, 168, 170, 172, 174, 176, 178, 180, 194, 204, Triticum turgidum ssp. turanicum 19 238, 248, 266, 269, 280, 288, 290, 312, 328, 330, Triticum turgidum ssp. turgidum 19 332, 334, 336, 338, 484, 486, 488, 496, 498, 514, Triticum zhukovskyi 19 518,522, 526, 528, 530, 532, 536, 538, 546, 548, 550, 552, 554, 556, 558, 566, 574, 576, 578, 582, Urtica 494 590, 604, 608

638 Indices Vaccaria hispanica 176, 186, 192, 280, 304, 510, 526, 536 Vanilla planifolia 264 Vicia ervilia 102 Vigna radiata 288, 608 Vitis vinifera 91, 254, 516, 564, 566

Zea mays 102, 230, 240, 608 Zingiber officinale 494

Taxonomic index 639639