A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah

Baartman District Municipality (Draft)

October 2019

Project Title: A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah Baartman District Municipality (Draft for Public Review)

Program prepared by : CEN Integrated Environmental Management Unit 36 River Road Walmer, Port Elizabeth. 6070 South Africa Phone (041) 581-2983 • Fax 086 504 2549 E-mail: [email protected]

For: Sarah Baartman District Municipality

Table of Contents

Table of Contents ...... 3 List of Figures ...... 4 List of Tables ...... 8 List of Acronyms ...... 9 A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah Baartman District Municipality - Overview...... 11 Scope of the CMPr ...... 12 Spatial Aspects of the Coastal Zone ...... 13 Defining the Coastal Zone of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality used in the CMPr ...... 15 Structure of the CMPr ...... 16 Summary Description of the Biophysical and Socio-Economic Environment of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality Coastal Zone ...... 19 Key Pressures / Risks to the Coastal Zone ...... 34 Principles and Values, and a Vision for the Sarah Baartman District Municipality Coastal Zone ...... 40 Priority Areas, Objectives and Recommendations for Coastal Zone Management ...... 44 Identifying ‘priority areas for management’ ...... 44 Objectives per priority area ...... 49 Management Recommendations and Implementation Strategies ...... 50 Appendix 1: The Public Participation Process ...... 51 Approach to Public Participation ...... 51 Public Workshops and stakeholder meetings ...... 52 Stakeholder engagement throughout the process ...... 52 Review of the Draft Coastal Management Program ...... 53 Appendix 2: Description and Assessment of the Coastal Zone with Management Recommendations – Methodology and Approach .... 54 Identifying ‘priority areas for implementation’ ...... 54 Recommendations and Implementation Strategies ...... 57 Appendix 3: Koukamma Local Municipality ...... 58 Overview of the coastal zone ...... 58 Segment 1A: Bloukrans River mouth to the Groot River mouth (Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area) ...... 60 Segment 1B: East of Groot River mouth to south-east of Tsitsikamma River mouth ...... 79 Management Recommendations for the Koukamma LM Coastal Zone ...... 92 Appendix 4: Kouga Local Municipality ...... 117 Overview of the coastal zone ...... 117 Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management ...... 117 Coastal Pollution ...... 130 Coastal Development ...... 130 Segment 2A: East of the Tsitsikamma River mouth to the western border of the Cape St Francis Settlement ...... 133 Segment 2B: The western border of Cape St Francis Settlement to Romazini Valley ...... 146 Segment 2C: Romazini Valley to the south-western edge of Paradise Beach ...... 155 Segment 2D: Western edge of Paradise Beach to north of Marina Martinique ...... 171 Segment 2E: North of Marina Martinique to Noorsekloof Road ...... 183 Segment 2F: Noorsekloof Road to south-western edge of Kabeljous estuary mouth ...... 197 Segment 2G: South-western edge of Kabeljous estuary mouth to western edge of Gamtoos River mouth ...... 208 Segment 2H: Western edge of Gamtoos River mouth to Van Stadens River mouth ...... 215 Management Recommendations for the Kouga Local Municipality ...... 224 Appendix 5: Sundays River Valley Local Municipality ...... 263 Overview of the coastal zone ...... 263 Segment 3: Sundays River mouth to the western border of Canon Rocks ...... 265 Management Recommendations for the Sundays River Valley Local Municipality Coastal Zone ...... 284 Appendix 6: Ndlambe Local Municipality ...... 304 Overview of the coastal zone ...... 304 Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management ...... 304 Coastal Pollution ...... 315 Coastal Development ...... 317 Segment 4A: Western border of Canon Rocks to Bushmans River mouth ...... 321 Segment 4B: Bushmans River mouth to the eastern edge of the Kariega River mouth ...... 337 Segment 4C: Eastern edge of the Kariega River mouth to eastern edge of Kasouga settlement ...... 351 Segment 4D: Eastern edge of the Kasouga settlement to the western edge of Port Alfred settlement ...... 360 Segment 4E: Western edge of Port Alfred settlement to the eastern edge of Port Alfred (Hallier Street) ...... 367

3 Segment 4F: Eastern edge of Port Alfred (Hallier Street) to the western edge of the Kleinemonde West estuary ...... 386 Segment 4G: Seafield (Kleinemonde West and East) ...... 395 Segment 4H: East of Seafield to Great Fish River mouth ...... 408 Management Recommendations for the Ndlambe Local Municipality ...... 417 Appendix 7: References ...... 459

List of Figures

Figure 1: Spatial aspects that comprise the ‘coastal zone’ of South Africa (Celliers et al. , 2009)...... 17 Figure 2: The four local coastal municipalities in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality...... 18 Figure 3: Overview of the substrate type in the coastal zone in the Koukamma and Kouga Local Municipalities...... 20 Figure 4: Overview of the substrate type in the coastal zone in the Sundays River Valley and Ndlambe Local Municipalities...... 21 Figure 5: Headland bypass dunefields in the Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay area...... 22 Figure 6: Protected Areas (gazetted under the Protected Areas Act) within 1 km of the high water mark of the sea, and the marine environment along the Koukamma and Kouga Local Municipality coastline...... 23 Figure 7: Protected Areas (gazetted under the Protected Areas Act) within 1 km of the high water mark of the sea, and the marine environment along the Sundays River Valley and Ndlambe Local Municipality coastline...... 24 Figure 8: The distribution of stromatolites along the Sarah Baartman District Municipality and Nelson Mandela Bay Municipal coastline (Perissinotto et. al ., 2014)...... 25 Figure 9: Important Bird Areas along the Sarah Baartman District Municipality’s coastline (BirdLIfe South Africa)...... 26 Figure 10: View of the Storms Estuary mouth in the Garden Route National Park...... 27 Figure 11: View of the Seekoei Estuary mouth in the Kouga Local Municipality. The causeway inhibits tidal action, causing premature mouth closure. The health category of the estuary is on a trajectory to ‘E’ (Wooldridge et. al. , 2018)...... 27 Figure 12: View of the Kleinemonde West and East Estuary mouths in the Ndlambe LM...... 27 Figure 13: Strategic Surface Water Source Areas in the coastal area of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality...... 29 Figure 14: Locality plan of the Koukamma Local Municipality coastal zone, showing the 2 segments (1A and 1B) and the extent of the study area in this CMPr...... 59 Figure 15: Google Earth image of Segment 1A (outlined in red)...... 60 Figure 16: Important aquatic features in Segment 1...... 61 Figure 17: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1...... 61 Figure 18: Ecological process areas in Segment 1...... 61 Figure 19: An overview of benthic and coastal habitats and their thre ...... 61 Figure 20: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 1A (western extent)...... 64 Figure 21: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 1A (eastern extent)...... 65 Figure 22: Aquifer Classification – the western part of Segment 1A is a major aquifer (DWS, 2012)...... 66 Figure 23: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan), and Forests (DEFF National Forest Inventory) in Segment 1A (west)...... 67 Figure 24: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan), and Forests (DEFF National Forest Inventory) in Segment 1A (east)...... 68 Figure 25: Benthic and Coastal Habitat Types (inner zone) (NBA, 2011)...... 69 Figure 26: Benthic and Coastal Habitat Types (outer zone – Segment 1A and 1B) (NBA, 2011)...... 70 Figure 27: Benthic and coastal habitat threat status – Segment 1A and 1B (NBA, 2011)...... 71 Figure 28: Restricted Zone, and Coastal Control Zones (TCCZ1 to 3) in the Tsitsikamma National Park MPA (Regulations for the Management of the Tsitsikamma National Park Marine Protected Area, DEFF 2016)...... 72 Figure 29: Veldfire Risk Areas (DEFF, 2010)...... 73 Figure 30: Pollution risk areas in Segment 1A based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution...... 75 Figure 31: Land Cover map for Segment 1A (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 78 Figure 32: Google Earth image of Segment 1B (outlined in red)...... 79 Figure 33: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 1B...... 82 Figure 34: Aquifer Classification – most of Segment 1B is a minor aquifer, becoming a major aquifer in the Huisklip Nature Reserve (DWS, 2012)...... 83 Figure 35: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan), and Forests (DEFF National Forest Inventory) in Segment 1B...... 84 Figure 36: Veldfire Risk Areas (DEFF, 2010)...... 85 Figure 37: Pollution risk areas in Segment 1B based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution...... 87 Figure 38: Land Cover map for Segment 1B (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 90 Figure 39: Google Earth image showing coastal development and access issues at Eersterivier...... 91

4 Figure 40: Estuaries in the Kouga LM coastal zone...... 118 Figure 41: Aquatic features in the Kouga LM coastal zone...... 118 Figure 42: The Kouga LM coastal zone is part of a ‘major aquifer’ (DWS Aquifer Classification, 2012)...... 119 Figure 43: Notable coastal dunefields in the Kouga LM (Illenberger, 2009)...... 121 Figure 44: Threatened ecosystems in the catchment of the Kouga LM coastal zone (National List of Threatened Ecosystems, 2011). 122 Figure 45: Vegetation types in the Kouga LM coastal zone (VEGMAP, 2018)...... 122 Figure 46: DEFF Forest areas, CREW threatened/protected plants, stromatolites and Important Bird Areas in the Kouga LM coastal zone...... 124 Figure 47: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas in the Kouga LM coastal zone (Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan)...... 125 Figure 48: Protected Areas in the Kouga LM coastal zone (NBA, 2018)...... 126 Figure 49: Benthic and coastal habitat types along the Kouga LM coastal zone (coastal and inshore zones)...... 127 Figure 50: Benthic and coastal habitat types along the Kouga LM coastal zone (inshore and offshore zones)...... 128 Figure 51: Benthic and coastal habitat types threat status (NBA, 2011)...... 129 Figure 52: Locality plan of the Kouga Local Municipality showing the 8 segments (2A to 2H) and the extent of the study area covered in this CMPr...... 132 Figure 53: Google Earth image of Segment 2A (outlined in red)...... 133 Figure 54: Overview of the mobile headland bypass dunefields between Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay...... 136 Figure 55: Overview of some of the existing informal footpaths (A to N) to the beach in the village of Oyster Bay. Sand management measures have already been put in place near ‘A’ and between ‘L’ and ‘M’...... 138 Figure 56: Pollution risk areas in Segment 2A based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution...... 140 Figure 57: Land Cover map for Segment 2A (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 143 Figure 58: Aerial images of Oyster Bay in 2013 and 2018 showing changes in dune and estuary dynamics in the area that was flood damaged by the Slang Estuary in 2011/2012, and after dune rehabilitation measures used...... 144 Figure 59: Aerial images of Oyster Bay in 2013 and 2018 showing dune advancement in a NE direction...... 145 Figure 60: Google Earth image of Segment 2B (outlined in red)...... 146 Figure 61: Pollution risk areas in Segments 2B to 2E based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution...... 150 Figure 62: Land Cover map for Segment 2B (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 153 Figure 63: Some identified coastal development issues in Segment 2B...... 154 Figure 64: Google Earth image of Segment 2C (outlined in red)...... 155 Figure 65: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2c...... 159 Figure 66: Land Cover map for Segment 2C (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 163 Figure 67: Extract from the Kouga SDF (2015) showing the recommended development setback line on the Kromme River (pink dashed line)...... 164 Figure 68: Coastal development issues between Romazini Valley and Harbour Road...... 165 Figure 69: Coastal development issues between Nevil Road and the Golf Course...... 166 Figure 70: Coastal development issues between the Golf Course and the canals...... 167 Figure 71: Coastal development issues in the vicinity of the Kromme estuary mouth...... 168 Figure 72: Google Earth image of Segment 2D (outlined in red)...... 171 Figure 73: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2D...... 173 Figure 74: Development south of the Seekoei Estuary within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and the estuarine functional zone (blue)...... 175 Figure 75: Development within and north-east of the Seekoei Estuary within dunes (yellow – Illenberger, 2009) and the estuarine functional zone (blue) ...... 176 Figure 76: Land Cover map for Segment 2D (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes...... 180 Figure 77: Footpaths over dunes to the beach identified in a Google Earth image (2019) in Segment 2D...... 182 Figure 78: Google Earth image of Segment 2E (outlined in red)...... 183 Figure 79: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2E...... 185 Figure 80: Some examples of areas in Segment 2E where pollution from sewage and solid waste are problematic...... 187 Figure 81: Land Cover map for Segment 2E (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes...... 189 Figure 82: Parking and Access to beaches in Segment 2E...... 190 Figure 83: Development within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and pedestrian access path markers between the southern extent of the Segment and Woltemade Street. The parking area near Pellsrus that needs to be upgraded, and the launch site with safety risks is shown...... 192 Figure 84: Coastal development issues at the beach near Pellsrus...... 193 Figure 85: Development within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and pedestrian access path markers between Drommedaris Street and Myrtle Road...... 195 Figure 86: Development within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and pedestrian access path markers between Petunia Avenue and Noorsekloof Road...... 196 Figure 87: Google Earth image of Segment 2F (outlined in red)...... 197

5 Figure 88: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2F...... 199 Figure 89: Pollution risk areas in Segments 2F to 2H based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution...... 201 Figure 90: Land Cover map for Segment 2F (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 204 Figure 91: Public recreational areas, Parking and Access to beaches in Segment 2F...... 205 Figure 92: Coastal development issues near the Kabeljous Estuary Mouth...... 206 Figure 93: Development within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and markers showing areas where informal access over dunes and/or access from private residences occurs...... 207 Figure 94: Google Earth image of Segment 2G (outlined in red)...... 208 Figure 95: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2G...... 211 Figure 96: An aerial image (2018) of the Papiesfontein wetlands on the eastern side of the Kabeljous Estuary mouth...... 212 Figure 97: Land Cover map for Segment 2G (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 214 Figure 98: Google Earth image of Segment 2H (outlined in red)...... 215 Figure 99: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2H...... 218 Figure 100: Gamtoos Estuary Zonation Plan, showing the proposed sanctuary areas, the conservation area inclusive of the 100 m riparian buffer zone, wake zones (including a preliminary skiing zone) and priority rehabilitation sites (Gamtoos Draft Estuarine Management Plan – Enviro-Fish Africa (Pty) Ltd, 2008)...... 219 Figure 101: Land Cover map for Segment 2H (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 222 Figure 102: Resorts, structures and infrastructure in the Gamtoos Estuary (Gamtoos Draft Estuarine Management Plan – Enviro-Fish Africa (Pty) Ltd, 2008)...... 223 Figure 103: Locality plan of the Sundays River Valley Local Municipality coastal zone, showing the extent of the study area in this CMPr...... 264 Figure 104: Google Earth image of Segment 3 (outlined in red)...... 265 Figure 105: Important aquatic features in Segment 1...... 266 Figure 106: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1...... 266 Figure 107: Ecological process areas in Segment 1...... 266 Figure 108: An overview of benthic and coastal habitats and their thre ...... 266 Figure 109: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 3...... 269 Figure 110: Aquifer Classification (DWS, 2012)...... 270 Figure 111: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan) and dunefields (Illenberger, 2009), and forests (DEFF National Forest Inventory)...... 271 Figure 112: Protected Areas in Segment 3...... 272 Figure 113: Zones in the AENP MPA as per the Regulations for the management of the MPA (published in terms of the Protected Areas Act on 23 May 2019) (SICZ: Sundays inshore Controlled Zone, SERZ: Sunday’s River Estuary Restricted Zone, SECZ: Sunday’s River Estuary Controlled Zone, SIRZ: Sundays inshore Restricted Zone, StCORZ: St. Croix Island Offshore Restricted Zone, SOCZ: Sundays Offshore Controlled Zone, CPICZ: Cape Padrone inshore Controlled Zone, CRICZ: Cannon Rocks inshore Controlled Zone, CROCZ: Cannon Rocks Offshore Controlled Zone, BIORZ: Bird Island Offshore Restricted Zone)...... 273 Figure 114: Benthic and Coastal Habitat Types (NBA, 2011)...... 274 Figure 115: Threat status of benthic and coastal habitat types (NBA, 2011)...... 275 Figure 116: Pollution risk areas in Segment 3 based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution...... 279 Figure 117: Monitoring stations in the AENP MPA operated by SAEON and SAIAB...... 280 Figure 118: Land Cover map for Segment 3 (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 282 Figure 119: Various zones identified in the AENP Management Plan that have relevance to development planning in areas outside the Park (AENP Management Plan, 2015-2025)...... 283 Figure 120: Estuaries in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (note the Old Womans River is indicated for reference purposes and is not within the Ndlambe LM)...... 305 Figure 121: Aquatic features in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone...... 306 Figure 122: Aquifer Classification of the Ndlambe LM (DWS, 2012)...... 307 Figure 123: Vegetation types in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (VEGMAP, 2018)...... 309 Figure 124: DEFF Forest areas and Important Bird Areas in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone...... 310 Figure 125: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (Sundays River Valley LM Biodiversity Sector Plan)...... 311 Figure 126: Protected Areas in the western section of the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (NBA, 2018)...... 312 Figure 127: Protected Areas in the eastern section of the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (NBA, 2018)...... 313 Figure 128: Benthic and Coastal Habitat Types (NBA, 2011)...... 314 Figure 129: Threat status of benthic and coastal habitat types (NBA, 2011)...... 315 Figure 130: Locality plan of the Ndlambe Local Municipality showing the 8 segments (4A to 4H) and the extent of the study area covered in this CMPr...... 320 Figure 131: Google Earth image of Segment 4A (outlined in red)...... 321 Figure 132: Important aquatic features in Segment 1...... 322 Figure 133: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1...... 322 Figure 134: Ecological process areas in Segment 1...... 322

6 Figure 135: An overview of benthic and coastal habitats and their thre ...... 322 Figure 136: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 4A...... 324 Figure 137: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), and dunefields (Illenberger, 2009)...... 325 Figure 138: Pollution risk areas in Segment 4A and 4B based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution...... 327 Figure 139: Land Cover map for Segment 4A (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 330 Figure 140: Desired spatial form of Canon Rocks (Ndlambe SDF, 2012)...... 331 Figure 141: Desired spatial form of Bokens (Ndlambe SDF, 2012)...... 332 Figure 142: Coastal development issues in Segment 4A...... 333 Figure 143: Sections of Canon Rocks and Boknes villages that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change...... 336 Figure 144: Google Earth image of Segment 4B (outlined in red)...... 337 Figure 145: Important aquatic features in Segment 1...... 338 Figure 146: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1...... 338 Figure 147: Ecological process areas in Segment 1...... 338 Figure 148: An overview of benthic and coastal habitats and their thre ...... 338 Figure 149: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 4B...... 340 Figure 150: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), and dunefields (Illenberger, 2009)...... 341 Figure 151: Protected Areas in Segment 4B (NBA, 2018)...... 342 Figure 152: Land Cover map for Segment 4B (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 347 Figure 153: Desired spatial form of Bushmans and Kenton-on-Sea (Ndlambe SDF, 2012)...... 348 Figure 154: Coastal development issues in Segment 4B...... 349 Figure 155: Sections of Bushmans and Kenton-on-Sea villages that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change...... 350 Figure 156: Google Earth image of Segment 4C (outlined in red)...... 351 Figure 157: Important aquatic features in Segment 1...... 352 Figure 158: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1...... 352 Figure 159: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 4C...... 354 Figure 160: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4C...... 355 Figure 161: Pollution risk areas in Segment 4C and D based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution ...... 357 Figure 162: Land Cover map for Segment 4C (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 359 Figure 163: Google Earth image of Segment 4D (outlined in red)...... 360 Figure 164: Important aquatic features in Segment 1...... 361 Figure 165: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1...... 361 Figure 166: Ecological process areas in Segment 1...... 361 Figure 167: An overview of benthic and coastal habitats and their thre ...... 361 Figure 168: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4D...... 363 Figure 169: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4D...... 364 Figure 170: Land Cover map for Segment 4D (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 366 Figure 171: Google Earth image of Segment 4E (outlined in red)...... 367 Figure 172: Important aquatic features in Segment 1...... 368 Figure 173: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1...... 368 Figure 174: Ecological process areas in Segment 1...... 368 Figure 175: An overview of benthic and coastal habitats and their thre ...... 368 Figure 176: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4E...... 369 Figure 177: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4E...... 370 Figure 178: Pollution risk areas in Segment 4E and 4F based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution...... 373 Figure 179: Land Cover map for Segment 4E (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 376 Figure 180: Desired spatial form of Port Alfred (Ndlambe SDF, 2012)...... 377 Figure 181: Coastal development issues in Segment 4D in the area between Freshwater Road and Shelley Beach parking...... 379 Figure 182: Coastal development issues in Segment 4D in the area between Kelly’s Beach and West Beach Pier...... 380 Figure 183: Coastal development issues in Segment 4D in the Kowie estuary and area to the east...... 381 Figure 184: Boreholes, electrical and water infrastructure in the dunefields at East Beach...... 382 Figure 185: Sections of Port Alfred (Kowie Estuary and CBD) that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change...... 383

7 Figure 186: Sections of Port Alfred (west of the Kowie Estuary) that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change...... 384 Figure 187: Google Earth image of Segment 4F (outlined in red)...... 386 Figure 188: Important aquatic features in Segment 1...... 387 Figure 189: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1...... 387 Figure 190: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4F...... 389 Figure 191: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4F...... 390 Figure 192: Land Cover map for Segment 4F (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 393 Figure 193: Coastal Development issues in Segment 4F...... 394 Figure 194: Google Earth image of Segment 4G (outlined in red)...... 395 Figure 195: Important aquatic features in Segment 1...... 396 Figure 196: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1...... 396 Figure 197: Ecological process areas in Segment 1...... 396 Figure 198: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4G...... 398 Figure 199: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4G...... 399 Figure 200: Pollution risk areas in Segment 4G and 4H based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution...... 401 Figure 201: Land Cover map for Segment 4G (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 403 Figure 202: Desired spatial form of Seafield (Ndlambe SDF, 2012)...... 404 Figure 203: Coastal development issues in Segment 4G...... 405 Figure 204: Sections of Seafield that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change...... 406 Figure 205: Google Earth image of Segment 4H (outlined in red)...... 408 Figure 206: Important aquatic features in Segment 1...... 409 Figure 207: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1...... 409 Figure 208: Ecological process areas in Segment 1...... 409 Figure 209: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4H...... 411 Figure 210: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4H...... 412 Figure 211: Land Cover map for Segment 4H (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes)...... 415 Figure 212: Coastal development issues in Segment 4H...... 416

List of Tables

Table 1: Pressures/risks and impacts in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality coastal environment (applies to the catchment area, and not just the immediate coastal zone)...... 36 Table 2: Principles and Values for coastal management in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality, with reference to those in the Eastern Cape Provincial and National CMPr ...... 42 Table 3: Comparison of priority areas identified in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality (SBDM) CMPr with those of the approved Provincial CMPr ...... 46 Table 4: Project Steering Committee members ...... 51 Table 5: Timeframes for implementing recommended actions ...... 57 Table 6: Management Recommendations for the Koukamma LM coastal zone ...... 92 Table 7: Management Recommendations for the Kouga LM Coastal Zone ...... 224 Table 8: Management Recommendations for the Sundays River Valley LM coastal zone ...... 284 Table 9: Management Recommendations for the Ndlambe LM Coastal Zone ...... 417

8

List of Acronyms

AENP Addo Elephant National Park AIP Alien Invasive Plant BGIS Biodiversity Geographic Information System CBA Critical Biodiversity Area CDC Coega Development Corporation CMPr Coastal Management Program CREW Custodians of Rare and Endangered Wildflowers CWDP Coastal Waters Discharge Permit DEDEAT Department of Economic Development, Environmental Affairs and Tourism DEFF Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries DM District Municipality DWS Department of Water and Sanitation EAP Environmental Assessment Practitioner ECBCP Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan ECO Environmental Control Officer ECPTA Eastern Cape Parks and Tourism Agency ECHRA Eastern Cape Heritage Resources Agency EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EMF Environmental Management Framework EPIP Environmental Protection and Infrastructure Programmes FOSTER Friends of St Francis Nature Areas GDP-R Gross Domestic Product by Region GRNP Garden Route National Park HDI Human Development Index IBA Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas ICMA Integrated Coastal Management Act IDP Integrated Development Plan IDZ Industrial Development Zone Km kilometer

9 LED Local Economic Development LM Local Municipality MEC Member of Executive Council MPA Marine Protected Area MSL mean sea level NBA National Biodiversity Assessment NEMA National Environmental Management Act NFEPA National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Area NGO Non Government Organisation NMU Nelson Mandela University OSMP Open Space Management Plan PA Protected Area PSC Project Steering Committee REI River-Estuary Interface RO Reverse Osmosis SAEON South African Environmental Observation Network SAHRIS South African Heritage Resources Information System SANBI South African National Biodiversity Institute SANCCOB Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds SANParks South African National Parks SAWIC South African Waste Information Centre SBDM Sarah Baartman District Municipality SDF Spatial Development Framework SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment SRV Sundays River Valley SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats SWSA Strategic Water Source Areas TNPA Transnet National Ports Authority WESSA Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa WUA Water Use Authorisation

10 A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah Baartman District Municipality - Overview

In line with the requirements of Section 48 to 50 of the National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal Management Act 24 of 2008 (ICMA), the Sarah Baartman District Municipality (SBDM) has developed a Coastal Management Programme (CMPr) to guide integrated management of the coastal zone within the District Municipality’s jurisdiction. Our coast is a national asset where many people live, work and interact. Pressures from increasing development in the coastal zone and associated habitat modification, harvesting of natural resources, point source and diffuse pollution to the coastal zone, amongst others, impact on the functioning of coastal ecosystems and processes, and diminish the provision of natural goods and services. Poor management of the coastal environment makes communities that live and work in proximity to the coast more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and sea-level rise.

The ICMA was developed to facilitate holistic and integrated management of the coast that allows for conservation of the coastal environment as well as equitable access to, and sustainable use of, coastal resources. CMPrs are effective tools to give effect to the principles of the Act. Section 48 of the Act specifies the need for municipalities to prepare CMPrs to facilitate management of the coastal zone, and to review these every 5 years.

The need for a CMPr is defined in NEM: ICMA:

‘To establish a system of integrated coastal and estuarine management in the Republic including norms, standards and policies, in order to promote the conservation of the coastal environment, and maintain the natural attributes of coastal landscapes and seascapes, and to ensure that development and the use of natural resources within the coastal zone is socially and economically justifiable and ecologically sustainable’.

A CMPr is a policy directive and includes strategies and plans that enable organs of state to plan for coastal management and development and address problems and user-conflicts arising from the variety of activities and uses of the coast. A CMPr is also an important tool to integrate various spheres of government, private sector and community activities in the coastal zone. The ICMA emphasises the importance of shared responsibility for coastal zone management. For effective implementation of the ICMA, development and use of natural resources in the coastal zone must be done with consideration of the public and economy, and ecological sustainability.

11 Scope of the CMPr

The ICMA indicates that CMPrs must be developed at National, Provincial and Municipal levels. Across all levels, the primary objective is to provide strategies that facilitate a co-ordinated and integrated approach to coastal management and include strategic (broad themed and long-term) and operational (specific to an areas biophysical and socio-economic features) programmes. Municipal CMPrs, by their nature at the lowest tier, are designed to focus on operational aspects and provide more site-specific goals that have immediate to short-term effects on the environment and people’s livelihoods.

The National CMPr for South Africa and a Provincial CMPr for the Eastern Cape were gazetted in 2014. The CMPr for the SBDM has been developed to be in line with these programmes, and other guideline documents (e.g. the National Guide to Developing Coastal Management Programs (2012)). The CMPr has been structured to meet the following key requirements of Section 49(1) of the ICMA:

 The CMPr must be a coherent municipal policy directive for coastal zone management in the district municipality’s area of jurisdiction

 The CMPr must be consistent with relevant legislation and available programs and policies

In accordance with Section 49(2) of the ICMA, the CMPr includes (as a must):

 A Vision for the management of the coastal zone within the jurisdiction of the municipality, including the sustainable use of coastal resources

 Coastal management objectives for the coastal zone within the jurisdiction of the municipality

 Priorities and strategies :

o to achieve the coastal management objectives of the municipality;

o to assist in the achievement of the national and provincial coastal management objectives as may be applicable in the municipality;

o to address the high percentage of vacant plots and the low occupancy levels of residential dwellings;

o to equitably designate zones as contemplated in Section 56(l)(a)(i) for the purposes of mixed cost housing and taking into account the needs of previously disadvantaged individuals

o to address coastal erosion and accretion; and

o to deal with access issues

 Performance indicators to measure progress with the achievement of those objectives

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Spatial Aspects of the Coastal Zone

The ICMA provides a definition and legal status of the various spatial aspects that make up the coastal zone of South Africa (see Figure 1). These are important to understanding the context coastal of management issues identified in the SBDM coastal zone, and management responsibilities by organs of state and other parties.

 Coastal zone: The area comprising coastal public property, the coastal protection zone, coastal access land and coastal protected areas, the seashore, coastal waters and the exclusive economic zone (200 nm offshore) and includes any aspect of the environment on, in, under and above such area.  Coastal waters: Marine waters that form part of the internal waters or territorial waters (12 nm offshore) of the Republic and any estuary.  Admiralty reserve: means any strip of state-owned land adjoining the inland side of the high water mark of the sea, and includes land designated, on official plans, deed of grant or title deed, or other document that demonstrates title or land use rights as “government reserve”, “beach reserve”, “coastal forest reserve” or other similar reserve owned by the State.  Coastal public property includes several components such as coastal waters and land below coastal waters, islands, the seashore, and other state land (e.g. the Admiralty Reserve). Ownership of coastal public property vests in the citizens of South Africa, however the State is the trustee on behalf of all citizens. The intention of this zone is to prevent exclusive use of the coast by facilitating access to, and sustainable use of productive coastal resources for the benefit of all South Africans (Celliers et al ., 2009).  High water mark: the highest line reached by coastal waters, but does not include a line reached as a result of abnormal floods or storm events (1:10 year storm) or estuaries that are closed to the sea. This line approximately coincides with the highest normal spring tide and is officially surveyed and proclaimed as such. The position of the high water mark is not static over extended periods as a result of dynamic coastal processes (e.g. erosion and accretion) (Palmer et al ., 2011). The determination of the position of the high water mark is important as its alignment has bearing on the extent of other coastal areas as defined in the ICMA. The high water mark is also referenced in the listed activities under the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations (2014 as amended) and certain activities in this area would require an environmental impact assessment prior to commencement.  Low water mark: The lowest line to which coastal waters recede during spring tides.  Seashore: The area between the low- and high water mark of the sea.

13  Coastal protection zone technically includes land falling within 100 m of the high water mark of the sea in urban areas and within 1 km in rural areas, unless otherwise determined by the Member of Executive Council (MEC). It has been established to: o Protect ecological integrity, natural character, and the economic, social and aesthetic value of coastal public property. o Avoid increasing the effect of severity of natural hazards. o Protect people, property and economic activities from the risks and threats which may arise from dynamic coastal processes (e.g. wave and wind erosion, coastal storm surges, flooding and sea-level rise). o Maintain the natural functioning of the littoral active zone. o Maintain productivity of the coastal zone. o Allow authorities to perform rescue and clean-up operations (Celliers et al ., 2009).  Littoral active zone: any land forming part of, or adjacent to, the seashore that is o unstable and dynamic as a result of natural processes; and o characterised by dunes, beaches, sand bars and other landforms composed of unconsolidated sand, pebbles or other such material which is either unvegetated or only partially vegetated.  Estuary: A body of surface water that is: o that is part of a water course that is permanently or periodically open to the sea, o in which a rise and fall of the water level as a result of the tides is measurable at spring tides when the water course is open to the sea, or o in respect of which the salinity is measurably higher as a result of the influence of the sea part of a watercourse that is permanently or periodically open to the sea in which a rise and fall of the water level as a result of the tides is measurable at spring tides when the water course is open to the sea or in respect of which the salinity is measurably higher as a result of the influence of the sea. The upper limit is measured as a line 100 m above the upper extent of the River-Estuary Interface (REI)  Coastal access land : Strips of land designed to secure public access to the coastal public property, and which are subject to public access servitudes in favour of the local municipality within whose area of jurisdiction it is situated and in terms of which members of the public may use that land to gain access to coastal public property.  Coastal management lines : the ICMA defines coastal management lines as ‘a line determined by the MEC in accordance with Section 25 in order to demarcate an area within which development will be prohibited or controlled in order to achieve the objectives of this Act or coastal management objectives’. The establishment of these lines will assist in controlling development along ecologically sensitive or vulnerable areas, or any area that poses a hazard or risk to humans – i.e. they are there to protect the natural environment and coastal properties from damage caused by sea-level rise and storm surges. The establishment of these lines is a provincial responsibility, however the MEC can only declare it after consultation with municipalities and interested and affected parties.

14 Coastal management lines have not yet been developed for the Eastern Cape, or for any of the local municipalities in the SBDM. Note: Coastal management lines should not be confused with ‘setback lines’ as defined in the EIA Regulations and listed activities. While these two lines may co-incide in the coastal zone once setback lines have been developed and adopted by the MEC, legally they are two separate lines referred to in different Acts. Ideally a coastal management line should only be determined and applied based on scientific understanding and local knowledge, and must take into consideration natural processes, landscape values, public use and accessibility. It must be noted that once the coastal management lines have been regulated, these will not replace any other line in the coastal zone, but will be applied only as indicators of the risk area.

Defining the Coastal Zone of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality used in the CMPr

The coastline of the SBDM is ~320 km long, and includes 4 coastal LMs – Koukamma, Kouga, Sundays River Valley and Ndlambe LMs from west to east (see Figure 2). For the purposes of this CMPr, the 1 km buffer of the high water mark of the sea (using the landmass boundary data compiled by the DWS in 2011 as a proxy for the high water mark) is used as the landward boundary of immediate study area for the coastal zone. This extent is indicative only, and where features that would have influence on the coastal zone occur beyond the boundary (e.g. inflow from the catchment of rivers, dune process areas), they are included and described. Further, a catchment management approach has been adopted in this CMPr, where a catchment area has been designated for each LM considering topography, land cover and physical boundaries (e.g. roads). The intention is to incorporate activities within the catchment that have bearing on what happens at the coast (for e.g. poor waste management in urban areas, obstructions in watercourses, groundwater abstraction etc.) and to consider these in integrated coastal management planning. The designated catchment area is shown in maps in Appendices that deal with each LM (i.e. Appendix 3 to 6). The seaward extent of the study area is 500 m seawards of the high water mark of the sea, however where important attributes occur beyond this distance (e.g. coastal islands), they are included in the program.

The SBDM coastal zone is an area of exceptional physical, biological and social/cultural diversity. This is important to reflect in sufficient detail to highlight the value of the coastal zone, where a broad overview of the biophysical and socio-economic characteristics of the coastal zone would be an under-representation. It is also critical to understand the relevance of this diversity and the varying physical processes in relation to coastal management decisions and priorities. Risks and priorities on sandy beaches would be different to rocky or mixed shores for example. Land cover and development pressures in the 4 LMs are also vastly different along the coastline. The coastal zone of the Koukamma and Sundays River Valley LMs are mostly included in a Protected Area (PA) and/or are agricultural in nature; while Kouga and Ndlambe include more coastal development nodes and urban areas. Risks and impacts of the different development types are different, and management

15 recommendations will differ accordingly. Therefore, a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach cannot be applied across the 4 LMs. To facilitate the development of an implementation-based program, the coastal zone in the 4 LMs has therefore been divided into segments/management units, where the environment is described with supporting maps, and risks and opportunities are identified for each. These are described and illustrated in Appendix 3 to 6.

Structure of the CMPr

This Overview Chapter serves as an introduction to the CMPr, and explains the purpose and contents of the document in line with the requirements of the ICMA. Definitions of the coastal zone are provided for the reader to understand terminology used in the document, and to set the context for implementation responsibilities. The extent of the SBDM coastal zone referred to in this document is described, and the concept of designating ‘management segments’ and following a ‘catchment management approach’ explained. A summary description of the biophysical and socio-economic environment of the SBDM coastal zone is provided, and key risks and impacts are highlighted. Note that these are discussed in detail in the Appendices under the relevant segment of each LM. Principles and values elicited in stakeholder workshops necessary for setting a Vision for the coastal zone and CMPr are described and compared to those in the Provincial and National CMPr. A Vision and Mission Statement is provided, and management objectives listed. Priority Areas for management are identified and placed in context with the Provincial CMPr.

Appendix 1 describes the public participation process followed in developing the CMPr.

Appendix 2 explains the methodology and approach that was used to develop the CMPr.

Appendix 3 to 6 are detailed sections that deal with the coastal zone and catchment area of each of the Local Municipalities. A table of recommendations for the different priority areas is given for each LM.

Appendix 7 is a reference list.

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Figure 1: Spatial aspects that comprise the ‘coastal zone’ of South Africa (Celliers et al. , 2009).

17

Figure 2: The four local coastal municipalities in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality.

18 Summary Description of the Biophysical and Socio-Economic Environment of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality Coastal Zone

The SBDM has a diverse coastline, comprised of different regions each with its own physiographic attributes; forming different coastal habitats. Physical features and natural processes on land and in the sea largely determine the nature and functioning of coastal ecosystems and habitats, and their species composition. The interplay of geology, substrate type, landform, climate, tides, currents etc. and the impact that humans have had on the natural environment need to be considered for holistic and integrated coastal zone management.

The coastline is flanked by the Indian Ocean. The warm Agulhas Current moves in a southerly direction along the East Coast, shifting further away from the coast west of Cape Padrone where the continental shelf widens and the current meanders limiting the direct influence of the current on the coast compared to the region north-east of the Cape where the continental shelf is narrow (Lubke and de Moor, 1998).

Coastal habitat types include rocky headlands with promontories, rocky shores with wave cut platforms, sandy beaches (coarse and fine- grained), and pebble / shingle beaches. In the area between Storms River and Cape St Francis, substrate types of coastal habitats are predominantly rocky coast, with an increase in the amount of mixed shores and sandy shores in an easterly direction between Oyster Bay and Cape St Francis. Rocky cliffs are more common along the southern stretch of coastline. Beaches are limited in extent, and where they do occur, these are mostly pebble of shingle beaches. The St Francis Bay coastline between the town of St Francis and the Van Stadens Estuary near Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality is predominantly sandy beach, with some mixed shores around Jeffreys Bay. The Sundays River Valley Municipality coastline comprises sandy beaches, while Ndlambe LM coastline is a combination of sandy beaches and mixed shores with localised sections of rocky coast (Lubke and de Moor, 1998). See Figure 3 and Figure 4.

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Figure 3: Overview of the substrate type in the coastal zone in the Koukamma and Kouga Local Municipalities.

20

Figure 4: Overview of the substrate type in the coastal zone in the Sundays River Valley and Ndlambe Local Municipalities.

21

A series of half-heart bays occur along the southern section of the SBDM coastline to Woody Cape, with rocky headlands that protrude into the sea. Sand accumulates on the northern and eastern section of these bays, forming extensive dunefields such as those found in the Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay areas (although these systems have been significantly impacted by human influence that has disrupted and altered natural sand movement patterns). The deposition of sand from the marine environment along the northern shores of Algoa Bay led to the formation of the extensive Alexandria Dunefield in the Sundays River Valley LM. North-east of Cape Padrone, the coastline becomes more straight with a narrower continental shelf. Wide dunefields are common. Prominent dune rock (aeolinite) headlands occur at Woody Cape, Kwaaihoek, Kenton-on-Sea and Three Sisters in the north-eastern section of the Sundays River Valley LM area, and Ndlambe LM (Lubke and de Moor, 1998).

Figure 5: Headland bypass dunefields in the Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay area.

The diversity of habitats and physico-chemical conditions results in a high diversity of marine species , making the area of significant conservation importance and simultaneously providing economic opportunities (e.g. fisheries and tourism). The Tsitsikamma and Addo Elephant National Park (AENP) Marine Protected Areas (MPA) protect large areas of the coastal / marine waters adjacent to the Koukamma and Sundays River Valley (SRV) LM (i.e. 67% of the Koukamma LM coastline is within the Tsitsikamma MPA, and 100% of the SRV LM coastline is within the AENP MPA).

22 The Tsitsikamma MPA includes a variety of mammals (dolphins, whales and seals), birds (gulls, terns, gannets and penguins), fishes (reef an migratory species) and invertebrate reef fauna (sponges, ascidians an crustaceans); providing an important feeding ground and/or nursery area. Spawning grounds for commercially exploited chokka squid and all life stages of 17 fish species which are commercially and/or recreationally exploited have been recorded in the Park (Sauer, 1995; Wood et al ., 2000 in Garden Route National Park (GRNP) Management Plan, 2012)). The AENP MPA was gazetted in October 2018 and protects a wide range of ecosystems, including sandy beaches, rocky shores, reefs, the Sundays Estuary and islands. Protection of the Sundays Estuary and reefs in the MPA are important for the recovery of valuable fisheries resources such as abalone and kob. The MPA increases the ‘Big Five’ in the AENP to the ‘Big Seven’ through the protection of great white sharks and whales (brydes, minke, humpback and right) (https://www.marineprotectedareas.org.za/addo-elephant-national-park-mpa). Bird Island forms part of the AENP MPA and is comprised of four islands that support the largest Cape gannet breeding colony in the world (~60 000 pairs). It is also important to several marine bird species (e.g. African penguins and Roseate terns) and serves a breeding location (Vromans et al , 2012).

Figure 6: Protected Areas (gazetted under the Protected Areas Act) within 1 km of the high water mark of the sea, and the marine environment along the Koukamma and Kouga Local Municipality coastline.

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Figure 7: Protected Areas (gazetted under the Protected Areas Act) within 1 km of the high water mark of the sea, and the marine environment along the Sundays River Valley and Ndlambe Local Municipality coastline.

Stromatolites or ‘layered rocks’ are primordial reefs, formed by cyanobacteria as they layer calcium carbonate. These typically occur in intertidal pools, at the interface between freshwater seepage points and the marine penetration and date back in the fossil record at least 2.7-3.5 billion years. Modern stromatolites are rare on a global scale, because the ocean’s chemistry has changed and is no longer rich in calcium carbonate, as well as competition between animals and algae and the bacteria that form the stromatolites. Less than 12 modern living stromatolites occur in the world, 1 of which is in South Africa in the area between Cape St Francis and Oyster Bay on the SBDM coastline. The stromatolites found along the SBDM coastline are therefore unique systems, sustained by calcium-carbonate rich groundwater inflow into the pools which recreates a similar environment to what have occurred 1.5 billion years ago. Studying these systems provides insight into the evolution of life. Modern stromatolites are under threat by climate change and human impacts, notably changing water quality and increased groundwater abstraction. The importance of these systems on a global scale warrants their protection in South Africa (Perissinotto et. al ., 2014; Rishworth, 2016).

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Figure 8: The distribution of stromatolites along the Sarah Baartman District Municipality and Nelson Mandela Bay Municipal coastline (Perissinotto et. al ., 2014).

Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs), as defined by BirdLife International, constitute a global network of over 13 500 sites, of which 112 sites are found in South Africa. IBAs are sites of global significance for bird conservation, identified nationally through multi-stakeholder processes using globally standardised, quantitative and scientifically agreed criteria. Essentially, these are the most important sites for conserving (https://www.birdlife.org.za/what-we- do/important-bird-and-biodiversity-areas/). Important Bird Areas (IBAs) as listed by BirdLife South Africa include the Tsitsikamma-Plettenberg Bay IBA in Koukamma LM, the Maitland-Gamtoos Coast IBA in the Kouga LM (extending into the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality), and the Woody Cape Section: AENP IBA in the Sundays River Valley LM and extending into the Ndlambe LM.

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Figure 9: Important Bird Areas along the Sarah Baartman District Municipality’s coastline (BirdLIfe South Africa).

Thirty estuaries occur along the SBDM coastline, 4 of which are classified as ‘unknown’ estuaries. Half of the estuaries have an ecological health condition of A or B, while the other half are rated as C or D. All estuaries in the Koukamma LM are in an excellent to good condition, while all but the Tsitsikamma Estuary in the Kouga LM are in a fair to poor condition. This is largely attributed to these estuaries being partly protected in the Tsitsikamma MPA and/or Garden Route National Park, and the Huisklip Nature Reserve. Majority of estuaries in the Ndlambe LM have an ecological health condition of C or D, with the Kasouga, Riet, and Kleinemonde East and West estuaries rated as B (Van Niekerk and Turpie, 2012). Note that the latest data that is being prepared as part of the 2018/2019 NBA was not available at the time of this report, and the ecological health categories are likely to change. In the 2011 assessment, 67% of estuaries in the (then Cacadu DM) had a threat status of ‘critically endangered’, and 33% were ‘least threatened’.

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Figure 10: View of the Storms Estuary mouth in the Garden Route National Park.

Figure 11: View of the Seekoei Estuary mouth in the Kouga Local Municipality. The causeway inhibits tidal action, causing premature mouth closure. The health category of the estuary is on a trajectory to ‘E’ (Wooldridge et. al. , 2018).

Figure 12: View of the Kleinemonde West and East Estuary mouths in the Ndlambe LM.

27 The interaction between rivers, wetlands, groundwater and coastal/marine waters must be considered in coastal zone management. Estuaries and some coastal/marine waters rely on freshwater pulses via river and/or groundwater inflow for their functioning, diversity and health. Freshwater inflow may also carry risky pollutants from land-based sources into the coastal / marine environment. Some species live out their lifecycle between the marine and freshwater environment, and connectivity is key.

Strategic Water Source Areas (SWSAs) are the country’s most important water sources, comprising surface and groundwater supply areas. SWSAs include areas that (a) supply a disproportionate (i.e. relatively large) quantity of mean annual surface water runoff in relation to their size and so are considered nationally important; or (b) have high groundwater recharge and where the groundwater forms a nationally important resource; or (c) areas that meet both criteria (a) and (b). Surface water areas have high runoff that can support nationally important economic centres; and groundwater areas have high recharge rates and support high levels of groundwater use, often being the sole supply to towns, and supporting nationally important economic centres. Recently, 22 priority surface water and 37 groundwater source areas have been delineated in the country that capture ~50% mean annual runoff from ~10% of the land. SWSAs in the SBDM include the Tsitsikamma SWSA in the Koukamma and Kouga LMs and the Alexandria SWSA in the SRVM LM.

The western part of the Koukamma LM coastal zone to the Sanddrif area is classified as a major aquifer . These are high yielding systems of good water quality. Most of eastern part of the Koukamma LM coastal zone is classified as a minor aquifer, becoming a major aquifer in the Huisklip Nature Reserve. Minor aquifers are moderately-yielding aquifer systems of variable water quality. The entire Kouga LM coastal zone is classified as a major aquifer. The aquifer in the Sundays River Valley LM coastal zone is classified as poor to minor. In the Ndlambe LM, the coastal zone between Canon Rocks and Kenton-on-Sea is part of a ‘poor aquifer’, and the remainder is a ‘minor aquifer’ (DWS, 2012).

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Figure 13: Strategic Surface Water Source Areas in the coastal area of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality.

Various biodiversity plans and maps are available at a national, provincial, and/or regional scale across the SBDM coastal area. These classify vegetation types, provide critical biodiversity area (CBA) maps that identify critical biodiversity areas and ecological support areas, and provide an ecosystem threat status rating. A CBA map is a spatial plan for ecological sustainability indicating where biodiversity priority areas are located within the landscape, including terrestrial and aquatic elements. Priority areas are configured to be spatially efficient, so that targets can be met in the smallest possible area, and to avoid conflict with other land and resource uses where possible. South Africa’s first List of Threatened Ecosystems was published in terms of the Biodiversity Act in 2011 (G34809, Government Notice 1002, 9 December 2011). The list of threatened ecosystems in terms of the Act will need to be updated based on the current NBA ecosystem threat status revisions. Sites identified as threatened ecosystems on this list can be a trigger for environmental authorisation in terms of the EIA Regulations under NEMA. Plans that cover the entire District include the National Vegetation Map (2018), the list of threatened ecosystems (2011) published under the Biodiversity Act, the National Forest Inventory, and the East Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan (2007) (note this is currently being updated, but the final version was not available at the time of writing this CMPr). The Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan covers the Koukamma LM and extends to the Seekoei Estuary in the Kouga LM. The Sundays River Valley Municipality Biodiversity Sector Plan covers the SRV LM and the Ndlambe LM. Refer to Appendices 3 to 6 for detailed

29 biodiversity information for each LM on a Segment basis to determine the location of biodiversity priority areas in the landscape, and whether threatened ecosystems occur.

Forest occurs across the DM coastal zone, with relatively large areas in the Koukamma LM and the eastern side of the SRVM LM. Forest is protected under the National Forest Act and may not be removed without consent from the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries (DEFF).

The SBDM coastal zone is rich in archaeological, heritage and historical sites of importance . While these have not been well documented (other than in specialist studies done as part of development applications and on the South African Heritage Resources Information System (SAHRIS) website)), the value of the coastal zone from this perspective to both the community and from a tourism perspective has been highlighted by stakeholders and specialists. A few of the documented sites are listed below. This is a significant under-representation of the archaeological and heritage value of the SBDM coastal zone, and compiling a comprehensive inventory of sites should be a priority in the District to enable protection of these resources and enhance tourism.

Koukamma LM: The Tsitsikamma area has significant natural heritage value, and associated socio-cultural value especially related to fishing and harvesting of coastal resources by local communities for generations (until the GRNP was declared a ‘no- take’ zone in 2000). The GRNP includes various cultural heritage sites, ranging from Khoisan cultural heritage sites such as caves, shell middens and rock art to the more recent historical sites such as the ruins of small fishing settlements, remnants of the past forestry and mining industries, railway lines, shipwrecks and grave sites (GRNP Management Plan, 2012). Klasies Caves is a National Heritage Site. These are a series of caves located to the east of the Klasies River mouth . The three main caves and two shelters at the base of a high cliff have evidence of middle stone age-associated human habitation from approximately 125 000 years ago.

Kouga LM: The coastal zone between Klasies River in the west and Krom River in the east has been highlighted as one of the richest and most significant archaeological cultural landscapes in South Africa. The headland bypass dunefields between Oyster Bay and the Kromme River mouth are underlain by ferricretes, calcretes and fossilized dune sands which are situated on top of Table Mountain Sandstones. Due to the continuous movement of the dunes, many archaeological and paleontological sites are exposed while simultaneously others are covered (Binneman and Reichert, 2017). Relatively large piles of marine shells (referred to as ‘strandloper middens’) dating back 600 years are found in the Kouga LM coastal zone, mostly within 300 m of the high water mark of the sea but can occur up to 5 km inland. Middens are found mainly opposite rocky coasts, but also occur along sandy beaches if there was a large enough source of white mussel. Archaeological research shows that places like the Kabeljous Estuary were popular areas for hunter-gatherer and pastoralists to live because of a diversity of food resources in close proximity. Studies done in the

30 area between New Papiesfontein farm and the Kabeljous River revealed 37 archaeological sites, including two KhoiSan skeletons.

Sundays River Valley LM: Hundreds of shell middens are found along the coast in the AENP. Chief Chungwa Grave Site occurs in the Woody Cape Section of the Park (AENP Management Plan). Historic sites identified on SAHRIS website in the catchment area (Provincial Heritage sites):

 Farmerfield Methodist Church: established by Rev. William Shaw to provide for 3 separate displaced communities speaking Xhosa (Fingo and Gqunukwebe), Dutch (emancipated slaves), and Tswana (refugees of Mfecane). Built in 1844 and designed by the Rev. Thornley Smith in the neo Gothic style. When the Farmerfield Estate was disbanded due to the demarcation of the Group Areas Act in 1961, the property was subdivided and portions sold. A servitude on that portion of the Estate allows access to the church property which are still being used for worship by the local farm labourers and their families

 Dutch Reformed Church

Ndlambe LM: The area is well known for its rich cultural and historical heritage, however few heritage sites are documented on available databases (i.e. SAHRIS website). The Environmental Management Framework (EMF) done for the coastal zone between Cannon Rocks and the Great Kei River includes an assessment and ranking of areas of heritage value. The coastal zone in the Ndlambe LM is scored as being of ‘least heritage value’ in the EMF (SRK Consulting, 2008), but this is due to the lack of documented sites. The Ndlambe Spatial Development Framework (SDF) (2012) highlights that the area has significant heritage resources that are either unknown or have not been enhanced.

Landcover in the Koukamma LM is predominantly natural areas, with plantations and agriculture especially in the eastern sector of the LM outside the GRNP. The catchment area is mostly plantation and agriculture, interspersed with natural areas and small residential/urban nodes. In the Kouga LM, the coastal zone on the western side of Cape St Francis is largely natural areas. Land cover from Cape St Francis to the Kromme Estuary is mostly built up residential areas (i.e. the villages of Cape St Francis and St Francis Bay), interspersed with natural areas. The catchment includes some cultivation (especially around the Kromme estuary) and a golf course at St Francis. The coastal zone between the Kromme and Kabeljous estuaries is built up: residential, with some natural areas. Large areas of cultivated land occur in the catchment. The coastal zone (and most of the catchment) from the Kabeljous Estuary to the Van Stadens Estuary is natural area. Some cultivated areas occur in the catchment. A small residential node occurs on the eastern side of the Gamtoos Estuary. The coastal zone of the Sundays River Valley LM is natural area, with the full extent being part of the AENP. The catchment is a combination of cultivated area / grazing lands and natural areas. The Ndlambe LM coastal zone is largely natural area outside of coastal nodes/villages/towns which are a combination of built-up residential and commercial areas. These include Boknes, Cannon Rocks, Bushmans River Mouth, Kenton-on-Sea, Kasouga, Port

31 Alfred, and Seafield. The catchment area is mostly natural areas and agriculture, except for the catchment of Bushmans River Mouth, Kenton-on-Sea and Port Alfred where the urban area extends beyond the coastal zone.

The Socio-Economic Environment: The socio-economic profile below is extracted from the SBDM Integrated Development Plan (IDP) (2017 – 2022), the Sarah Baartman District Municipality. Socio Economic Review and Outlook (2017), and the Provincial Profile: Eastern Cape. Community Survey, 2016 (StatsSA, 2018):  The SBDM population size has increased by 6.5% between 2011 and 2016 (in comparison to the Eastern Cape at 1.5%). Within the SBDM, the Kouga LM experienced the greatest increase in population (2.9% annual average growth rate), followed by the SRV LM (2.7% annual average growth rate).  The projected annual average population growth rate in the SBDM between 2016 and 2021 is 1.4% which is higher than that for the Province or Country.  Population numbers by local municipality in the Eastern Cape are amongst the lowest for the 4 LMs in the SBDM, with the Koukamma LM having the lowest population numbers in the DM.  Most people in the SBDM are between the age of 15 and 34 years (34.8%), followed by the 0 – 14 years age category (30.1%). Sarah Baartman DM and Nelson Mandela Bay had over 9% of persons aged 65 years and older, the greatest percentage in the Province  Eighty-five percent of households in the SBDM have access to safe drinking water, the third highest percentage in the Province.  Fifty-four percent of households in the SBDM have toilets in their houses, which is the second highest percentage in the Province (after Nelson Mandela Bay). Forty-one percent have toilets in their yard, and 5% outside their yard. Eight percent of these are either the bucket system or ‘other’ form of facility, while 3% have no facility whatsoever.  Eighty-four percent of people in the SBDM have their refuse removed by the local authority / a private company / a community member; while 2.1% (2845) of people dump their rubbish.  In the Province, Buffalo City (8.1%), Nelson Mandela Bay (7.5%) and Sarah Baartman (7.1%) reported the highest number of households that experienced crime in the 12 months preceding the 2016 Community Survey. In the SBDM, Kouga LM had the highest number of crime reports, and Koukamma LM the lowest (Statistics South Africa, 2018).  Gross Domestic Product by Region (GDP-R) represents the value of all goods and services produced within a region, over a period of one year, plus taxes and minus subsidies. The GDP of the SBDM was R34.2 billion in 2016 (an increase of 64% from 2011), and contributed 10.14% to the Eastern Cape GGP in 2016 (ranking fourth relative to other regional economies in the Province).  Within the SBDM, the Kouga LM had the highest average annual economic growth, averaging 4.39% between 2006 and 2016, followed by the Sundays River Valley LM at 4.25%.

32  In 2016, Sarah Baartman employed 170 000 people which is 11.66% of the total employment in Eastern Cape Province (1.46 million), 1.08% of total employment in South Africa (15.7 million). Employment within Sarah Baartman increased annually at an average rate of 1.74% from 2006 to 2016. Most people in the DM are employed in the trade sector, followed by the community services sector. Between 2006 and 2016, the SBDM experienced an average annual increase of 1.98% in the number of unemployed people, which is worse than that of the Eastern Cape Province which had an average annual increase in unemployment of 1.65%. Within the SBDM, the Sundays River Valley LM had the lowest unemployment rate of 9.7% in 2016.  The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite relative index used to compare human development across population groups or regions. In 2016 the SBDM had an HDI of 0.627 compared to the Eastern Cape with a HDI of 0.596 and 0.653 of National Total as a whole. Within the SBDM, the Kouga LM has the highest HDI, with an index value of 0.654.  Population density measures the concentration of people in a region. The population density of the SBDM in 2016 was 8.48 persons per km 2, which is less than that of the Eastern Cape (41.5 persons per km 2). The DM had the highest average annual growth in its population density of 1.65% per square kilometre per annum. Within the DM, the Kouga LM had the highest population density at 42 persons per km 2, followed by Ndlambe LM at 36.31 (Eastern Cape Socio Economic Consultative Council, 2017).  Population concentrations are in Makana, Kouga, Ndlambe and the Beyers Naudé, with more than 50% of residents in the District residing in these LMs. The remaining Municipalities all have less than 60 000 inhabitants per municipality. This can be explained by the variation in land types, agricultural practices and associated income generating opportunities that are characteristic of the DMs inland and coastal areas  Coastal areas in the SBDM are characterized by higher population densities primarily due to the prevalence of intensive agricultural practices which are encouraged by the higher coastal rainfall and associated fertile soils and the increased tourism potential of seaside-towns. These areas portray an urban bias which serve to attract residents from the lesser populated ‘rural’ areas in the search of economic opportunities and improved access to services.  The acquisition and provision of water resources in the Sarah Baartman District is a challenge. The District depends predominantly on ground water for human consumption and agricultural activity. Along the coastal areas, in Ndlambe and Kouga LMs in particular, there is a seasonal demand that doubles the normal demand over the holiday seasons. This has resulted in water shortages in the tourist towns of Port Alfred, Kenton-on- Sea (Ndlambe LM) and in Jeffreys Bay and Cape St Francis (Kouga LM). The District has embarked on a Rainwater Harvesting project where it is envisaged that all low income households within the District will be equipped with rainwater tanks and gutters so as to harvest rainwater in order to substitute municipal supply. This will hopefully alleviate increasing demand on municipal supply.  The SBDM is the third largest economy in the Eastern Cape, the largest economy outside the mostly “urban economies” of the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality and Buffalo City Municipality. The predominant sectors in terms the District’s economy are agriculture and tourism, contributing approximately R690 million and R680

33 million respectively to the Gross Geographic Product (GGP) of the District. Agriculture dominates the economy, contributing 28% of all value added and amounting to 41% of formal employment. The establishment of game farms and the expansion of the AENP has replaced stock farming to an extent, where game reserves are now a major industry within the district contributing to tourism with economic spin-offs in terms of retail, accommodation, hospitality etc. Commercial forestry is established around Tsitsikamma and Grahamstown. A small fishing industry operates from St Francis, centred on rock lobster. Tourism attractions in coastal municipalities include the GRNP, the AENP and the coastal resorts of Jeffrey's Bay and Port Alfred. Wind generation initiatives are also expanding in the District. Other economic activities include honeybush tea harvesting, flower farms, beekeeping, and aquaculture (SBDM IDP, 2017 – 2022).

Key Pressures / Risks to the Coastal Zone

Key risks and pressures on coastal and marine waters are from land-based pollution, an increase in the number of desalination plants (and brine discharge), solid waste, harmful algal blooms, sea-based aquaculture, seismic surveys and increased shipping activities (pollution, noise and vibrations), climate change (ocean acidification and change in microalgal species composition), over-fishing, and reduced freshwater inflow into coastal waters (which may impact on the food web and productivity, nutrient cycling, nursery function, cues for fish that move between estuaries and marine waters etc.).

Risks to the landward section of the coastal zone are:  Modification of natural systems to accommodate coastal development and infrastructure, especially in coastal towns that are popular tourist destinations (e.g. in St Francis Bay, Cape St Francis, and Jeffreys Bay in Kouga LM, and in Boknes, Cannon Rocks, Kenton-on-Sea, Bushmans River Mouth, Port Alfred and Seafield in Ndlambe LM); and/or where population size is increasing with a growing need for housing and services.  Modification of natural systems for agricultural expansion and or plantations (i.e. most of the Koukamma LM that is outside the GRNP is owned by private farmers where grazing land extends to the edge of the coastal plateau) and/or plantations.  Ongoing coastal erosion and loss of coastal properties and damage to infrastructure placed in dynamic coastal areas and in close proximity to the high water mark of the sea – this is a particular risk in the St Francis Bay area and parts of Jeffreys Bay in the Kouga LM, and Boknes/Cannon Rocks and parts of Port Alfred in the Ndlambe LM. Significant effort and monies have been spent on trying to protect landward structures and to nourish the beach in St Francis Bay. The bridge across the Sand River that is a main thoroughfare to St Francis is also subject to flooding. High seas and storm surges have damaged tourist accommodation and infrastructure at the Storms River rest camp in the GRNP.  Sand inundation of public amenities, residences, roads and infrastructure – this risk extends across most urban areas where development is within sand process corridors / dunes, and within proximity to the high water mark of

34 the sea. It is a significant management issue for local municipalities where ongoing maintenance and sand removal is needed – e.g. Port Alfred, Bushmans River mouth, Kenton-on-Sea, Boknes, Seafield in Ndlambe LM; Jeffreys Bay, Paradise Beach/Aston Bay in Kouga LM  Coastal flooding: flooding of the Seekoei Estuary creates access problems in Paradise Beach/Aston Bay in Kouga LM, large areas of Port Alfred are within low-lying areas that are part of the greater Kowie River floodplain and estuarine functional zone and are frequently subject to flooding. . Key risks to estuaries include modification of the estuarine functional zone by urban and agricultural activities; changes to estuarine hydrodynamics especially reduced freshwater inflow and obstructions in the catchment, unsustainable use of natural resources (e.g. overfishing, exceeding bag limits, targeting threatened species, and bait collection), and land- based sources of pollution. Climate change, and associated change in rainfall patterns, temperatures and wind conditions, and an increase in storm events, exacerbates these risks; impacting on the condition and functioning of natural ecosystems and placing humans and infrastructure/development under increasing threat. Understanding hydrodynamics and sediment dynamics under current (and future) climate conditions in individual estuarine systems is an important factor for making robust decisions on estuarine management. Estuary Management Plans have been developed for the Seekoei and Gamtoos Estuaries (Draft) only.

Pressures and risks to the coastal environment are identified on a Segment basis for each LM in Appendices 3 to 6. The table below summarises the key pressures and risks in the SBDM coastal zone as identified by stakeholders in public workshops, a review of available literature, and observations. The relative severity of the risk is indicated (by means of red: high risk, orange: medium risk, green: low risk).

35 Table 1: Pressures/risks and impacts in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality coastal environment (applies to the catchment area, and not just the immediate coastal zone). Red = high, Orange = medium, Green = Low

Risk/Pressure Impact Koukamma Kouga Sundays River Ndlambe LM LM Valley LM LM Inappropriate development in ecolog ical process Beach erosion   areas/dynamic areas, with sand management issues Degraded coastal ecosystem, with loss of functionality and coastal erosion Sand inundation of public facilities and property Expenditure on maintenance Reduced resilience to clima te change Inappropriate development in proximity to the high Flooding of properties     water mark, the estuarine functional zone, and Damage to properties and infrastructure by storm surges wetlands Expenditure on maintenance Loss of important aquatic habitat and species Reduced provision of ecosystem services to the surrounding community Impact on recreational use, aesthetics, and tourism potential Reduced resilience to climate change Inappropriate development in terrestrial biodiversity Loss of important na tural habitat     priority areas, important coastal habitats, and areas Loss of diversity of archaeological/cultural importance (e.g. critical Loss of important archaeological and cultural areas biodiversity areas, forests, threatened ecosystems, Less resilient ecosystem natural areas which host threatened species, Impact on aesthetic quality of the area, and tourism important archaeological sites etc.) potential Poor management of water in the catchment area of Hydrodynamics and sediment processes of estuary     estuaries (e.g. over-abstraction, physical altered, which changes the functioning and condition of manipulation of riparian areas, obstruction by roads the estuary. and infrastructure, pollution, alien invasive Change in estuarine species composition. vegetation) Impact on recreational use, and tourism potential. Impact on connectivity between the freshwater environment (surface and groundwater), and coastal waters – impact on species, processes and habitats that require freshwater input (e.g. stromatolites, diatom accumulations, certain fish species etc.). Reduced freshwater flow into coastal waters may impact on the

36 Risk/Pressure Impact Koukamma Kouga Sundays River Ndlambe LM LM Valley LM LM food web and productivity, nutrient cycling, nursery function, cues for fish that move between estuaries and marine waters etc. Land -based sources of pollution and from ships at Reduced water quality in estuaries and the marine     sea – runoff via overland flow, stormwater outlets, environment leachate into groundwater, solid waste. For example Impact on natural biota from sewer systems (bacteria and other pathogens, Increase in harmful algal blooms high nutrient levels), agriculture (pesticides, inorganic Impact on recreational use, tourism potential, and fertilisers), brine discharge from increasing economic activities related to harvesting of marine species desalination plants, and solid waste from dumping, (e.g. fisheries) poorly managed/lack of waste sites, littering etc. Impact on human health Unsustainable use of natural resources (e.g. over - Impact on coastal ecosystems and species     fishing, exceeding bag limits, harvesting threatened Reduced potential for sustainable harvesting, with impacts species, bait collection, seaweed harvesting). on livelihoods and economy Recreational, small-scale, and commercial harvesting; and poaching. Uncontrolled and unregulated activities in the coastal Coastal erosion     zone, especially process areas / dynamic areas. For Bank destabilization example, vehicle use, pedestrian foot traffic over Loss of coastal habitat, and deteriorated coastal dunes, events, illegal developments, unplanned/ad ecosystems hoc attempts to stabilise eroded areas, irresponsible Impact on water quality recreational activities (e.g. boats speeding in no wake zones, illegal launch sites and jetties) etc. Lack of services / poor maintenance of services Pollution of coastal environments     Impacts on coastal development and tourism potential Impact on community health and well-being The current drought in the Eastern Cape places more strain on the provision of water, especially in peak season in coastal resort towns where population numbers often double. Increasing need for economic activities in marine If unregulated, placed in incorrect area, or poorly     waters maintained/managed, this potential positive aspect can lead to ecosystem degradation or reduced eco-tourism potential of an areas. For example, sea-based aquaculture

37 Risk/Pressure Impact Koukamma Kouga Sundays River Ndlambe LM LM Valley LM LM has possible impacts of pollution, diseases, inter -breeding etc. Shark-cage diving may conflict with existing tourism branding of an area if there are safety risks (e.g. surf culture in Jeffreys Bay). Seismic surveys for gas exploration impact on marine mammals, and other species Increased boating/shipping activity increases the changes of oil spills High levels of poverty and unemployment Less resilient community     Socio-economic impacts, with knock-on effect on coastal ecosystems Reduced safety, and impact on community well-being as well as tourism potential Poor awareness on the value of coas tal ecosystems, Ineffective coastal management and administration     and integrated coastal management Reduced potential for a collective and integrated approach to coastal management Cumulatively adds to degradation of coastal ecosystems, with lack of accountability Lack of coastal access, and access for disabled Not all members of the community have equal access to     persons the coastal zone, with reduced potential to enjoy and sustainably utilise coastal resources. Impacts on livelihoods, cultural and spiritual values and enjoyment. Tourism impact. Lack of resources/manpower/funds in state Poor enforcement of available laws     departments responsible for coastal management, Ineffective monitoring and unclear/overlapping roles and responsibilities Impacts on administration and participation in the land use planning process, relevant to modification of coastal environments Inability to implement a CMPr and other policy/guideline documents Lack of coordination among the local government Ineffective coastal management and administration     departments; and the three spheres of government. Results in a fragmented approach to coastal

38 Risk/Pressure Impact Koukamma Kouga Sundays River Ndlambe LM LM Valley LM LM management Legislation is not always applicable / effective for Ineffective policing/compliance monitoring, and follow -     management, compliance etc. at a local level. Need through for appropriate municipal by-laws Climate change Increase in frequency and severity of extreme weather     events, storms, floods etc. Prolonged droughts Ocean acidification and change in microalgal species composition Less resilient community Damage / loss of properties, infrastructure, and sometimes lives Expensive interventions required for protection of coastal properties

39 Principles and Values, and a Vision for the Sarah Baartman District Municipality Coastal Zone

Setting a vision for coastal zone management is necessary to articulate the desired state of the coast; to help guide the development of priority areas and management objectives for its implementation; and provide a common frame of reference to unite a diverse range of stakeholders. It is important that all recommendations are aimed at achieving the stated vision, principles and objectives. Stakeholder workshops were used to elicit a set of ‘principles’ and ‘values’ to inform a vision for the coastal zone. Nine principles were identified for the SBDM coastal zone:

Approach coastal zone management holistically, using a ‘catchment’ approach that considers the inter-relationships of people and ecosystems

Conserve natural, archaeological, cultural and heritage resources

Prevent pollution and maintain a clean, healthy environment

Promote sustainable and responsible economic development and natural resource utilisation

Create an informed and resilient community and place, where people have consideration for one another and their environment

Preserve and respect ‘sense of place’ where the unique character and its intrinsic value is appreciated

Promote collective responsibility for coastal zone management by the public and government,

Ensure equitable access to the coastal zone and freedom of movement for the whole community

Prioritise safe use of the coastal zone for all people

Table 2 compares the principles and values with those of the Provincial and National CMPrs.

The Provincial CMPr for the Eastern Cape (2014) has a comprehensive vision that was presented at each workshop. It is important that the District’s vision does not conflict with that of the Province. The general consensus at workshops was that the Provincial vision was all encompassing and captured the community’s desired state of the coast for the next 5 to 10 years. The vision for the SBDM is largely based on the Provincial vision, but has been structured in 3 parts: Vision, Values and Mission Statement.

40

Vision

We, the people of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality, would like to live and work in, and enjoy a healthy and safe coastal environment in a cohesive and resilient community, where natural and archaeological resources are sustainably managed for the benefit of all people.

Values We recognise the intrinsic value, and appreciate the scenic beauty, and the natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and richness of our unique coastline. We respect all people in our community, and consider one another’s well-being in our actions and decisions. We recognise that we are all accountable for managing our coastal zone, and need to work together for a safe, healthy and clean environment.

Mission Statement: We aim to take collective ownership of the coast, fostering a spirit of custodianship and shared responsibility as our coast is a unique shared asset; which has social, cultural, ecological and economic value. We aspire to manage the coast in an integrated manner that takes both the spiritual and biological value into account. We strive to utilise the natural resources of our diverse coastline in a sustainable and equitable manner, which maximises the benefits for all people of the District and ensures the long term maintenance of biodiversity and ecological integrity of coastal habitats. We strive to promote sustainable development and alleviate poverty in an equitable manner that considers the requirements of all stakeholders, and takes cognisance of the conservation and biological importance of our coastline as well as national and provincial interests. We seek to guide the management of the SBDM coast in a way that eliminates the threats of unsustainable utilisation of the coastal resources and development, while optimising the opportunities that can be derived from the coastal zone

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Table 2: Principles and Values for coastal management in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality, with reference to those in the Eastern Cape Provincial and National CMPr National CMPr Principl es Eastern Cape CMPr Principles Sarah Baartman District Municipality CMPr Principles and Values National Asset: The coast must be Retaining the coast as a national Conserve natural, archaeological, cultural retained as a national asset, with asset and heritage resources public rights to access and benefit Ensure equitable access to the coastal zone from the many opportunities provided and freedom of movement for the whole by coastal resources community Prioritise safe use of the coastal zone for all people Economic Development: Coastal Optimising coastal economic Promote sustainable and responsible economic development opportunities development economic development and natural resource must be optimised to meet society’s utilisation needs and to promote the wellbeing of coastal communities Social Equity: Coastal management Ensuring social equity and access Ensure equitable access to the coastal zone efforts must ensure that all people, to resources and freedom of movement for the whole including future generations, enjoy the community rights of human dignity, equality and Prioritise safe use of the coastal zone for all freedom people Ecological integrity: The diversity, Maintaining the ecological integrity Conserve natural, archaeological, cultural health and productivity of coastal of the coast and heritage resources ecosystems must be maintained and, Prevent pollution and maintain a clean, where appropriate, rehabilitated healthy environment Preserve and respect ‘sense of place’ where the unique character and its intrinsic value is appreciated Holism: The coast must be treated as Managing the coast as a holistic Approach coastal zone management a distinctive and indivisible system, and indivisible system holistically, using a ‘catchment’ approach recognising the interrelationships that considers the inter-relationships of between coastal users and people and ecosystems ecosystems and between the land, sea and air Assimilative Capacity: Acknowledging Adopting a risk -aversive and Conserve natural, archaeological, cultural that coastal ecosystems have finite precautionary approach in terms of and heritage resources assimilative capacity to accommodate coastal management Prevent pollution and maintain a clean, development and exploitation in a healthy environment sustainable Promote sustainable and responsible manner, both in terms of living and economic development and natural resource non-living resources utilisation Risk aversion and precaution: Coastal Preserve and respect ‘sense of place’ where management efforts must adopt a risk the unique character and its intrinsic value is averse and precautionary approach appreciated

42 under conditions of uncertainty Accountability and Responsibility: Advocating accountability and Promote collective responsibility for coastal Coastal management is a shared responsibility of all people for zone management by the public and responsibility. All people must be held coastal management government responsible for the consequences of their actions, including financial responsibility for negative impacts Duty of Care: All people and Advocating duty of care in respect Create an informed and resilient community organisations must act with due care to the coastal environment by all and place, where people have consideration to avoid negative impacts on the people and organisations for one another and their environment coastal environment and coastal Promote collective responsibility for coastal resources zone management by the public and government Integration and participation: A Promoting an integrated coastal Create an infor med and resilient community dedicated, co-ordinated and management approach supported and place, where people have consideration integrated coastal management by public participation for one another and their environment approach must be developed and Promote collective responsibility for coastal conducted in a participatory, inclusive zone management by the public and and transparent manner government Co -operative Governance: Insisting on co -operative Promote collective responsibility for coastal Partnerships between the governance between all spheres of zone management by the public and government, the private sector and society for successful integrated government civil society must be built in order to coastal management ensure co-responsibility for coastal management and to empower stakeholders to participate effectively Differentiated Approach: Recognising Not listed as a separate principle Not listed as a separate principle, but that the implementation of integrated principle applied in the design and contents coastal management is contextual. of the CMPr where varying approaches and While a generic (standardised) management recommendations are management suggested for different areas of the coastal framework is important, mechanisms zone. The coastal zone is diverse, ranging of implementation cannot be rigid (fit- from sandy beaches to rocky shores, with for-all”) some areas being urban in nature and others agricultural, and others protected areas. Therefore the types and severity of risks vary widely across the Sarah Baartman DM coastal zone, and a standardised approach to coastal zone management is not possible. Adaptive management approach: Not listed as a separate principle Not listed as a separate principle, however Incrementally adjusting practices the principle is carried forward in the content based on learning through common of the CMPr and management sense, experience, experimenting, recommendations in particular. and monitoring (“learning-by-doing”)

43 Priority Areas, Objectives and Recommendations for Coastal Zone Management

Identifying ‘priority areas for management’

To determine what the priority areas for management should be from the community’s perspective, a ‘SWOT’ analysis of the coastal zone was done by participants at public workshops. Group exercises were used to highlight threats and opportunities to the coastal zone, and recommendations for management were provided. The information was combined into a list of ‘priority areas for implementation’ to be included in the CMPr:

Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management : sustainable harvesting of natural resources, preservation of natural, cultural and built environments, rehabilitation and restoration, management of protected and other natural areas, managing ecological processes, adopting a catchment management approach

Pollution control and prevention for a clean, healthy and safe environment : air, water, solid waste, sewage, light, noise

Safety and security

Promote responsible recreational use and livelihoods of the coastal zone, by improved and equitable access, amenities and management of open space areas

Promote sustainable and low impact economic development opportunities

Risk averse development planning: risk averse approach to coastal zone development, facilities management and maintenance, municipal services, open space management, stakeholder participation in development plans, management of impacts, maintain sense of place, be informed and prepared for future, appropriate development

Resilience to the impacts of climate change

Improve policing and compliance monitoring and enforcement of legislation

Co-ordinated and integrated management of the coastal zone, by all spheres of government, the private and public sectors

Education and awareness and skills development

Funding and capacity building needed for coastal zone management

For ease of description and assessment, the above priorities have been grouped under 3 broad priority area themes; referred to under each Segment for each Local Municipality in Appendices 3 to 6. These are as follows:

44

Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management: refers to the protection of the coastal zone as our ‘national asset’ and sustainable harvesting of coastal resources. The ‘national asset’ includes the natural environment, landscapes, ecological processes, and important cultural/archaeological/historical features

Coastal pollution: includes pollution from a variety of land uses in the catchment of the coastal zone, and risks these create to the natural and socio-economic environment. Pollution covers effluent, solid waste, noise and light pollution.

Coastal development: refers to existing and planned development in the coastal zone. Recreational and tourism activities and coastal access are addressed here.

Note that the concepts of integrated and risk averse development, co-ordinated and integrated coastal zone management, education and awareness, compliance and enforcement, and building resilience to climate change impacts fits under each of the 3 broad priority areas. These are discussed where applicable under each Segment in the various local municipalities.

To determine if these priority areas ‘fit’ into those identified in the approved Provincial CMPr, a comparison was done of priority areas identified in this review process with those of the provincial document (refer to Table 3).

45 Table 3: Comparison of priority areas identified in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality (SBDM) CMPr with those of the approved Provincial CMPr

Priority Area: Provincial CMPr Relevant priority identified in the SBDM CMPr Relevant broad category priority area in SBDM CMPr Co -operative Governance Risk averse development planning Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity Features: Co-ordinated and integrated management of the coastal zone and resource management, coastal pollution • Participation of all stakeholders, coastal governance & Education, awareness and skills development and coastal development. co ‐responsibility; Funding and capacity building. • Integrated, co ‐ordinated decision making, planning and management; • Continued learning and practical implementation of programmes and processes; and • Compliance with International conventions, protocols and agreements Coastal Planning and Development Sustainable harvesting of natural resources Coastal development and natural, Features: Preservation of natural, cultural and built environments archaeological and cultural diversity and • Emphasis on local economic development opportunities and Responsible recreational use and livelihoods of the coastal resource management approval procedures; zone • Identification and exploitation of sustainable livelihood Sustainable and low impact economic development opportunities; and opportunities • Holistic planning and development processes with emphasis on Coastal access sustainable and equitable spatial development trends in the coastal zone Climate Change and Dynamic Coastal Processes Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management Natural and archaeological/heritage Features Risk averse development planning resource management, Coastal • Responding to dynamic coastal process through increased Resilience to the impacts of climate change Development resilience of natural and social systems; and • Phased retreat of infrastructure in high risk areas Land and Marine -Based Sources of Pollution Pollution control and prevention for a clean, healthy and safe Coast al Pollution Features: environment: air, water, solid waste, sewage, light, noise • Reducing and responding to land and marine based sources of Education and Awareness pollution in the coastal zone; and Funding and Capacity Building • Adherence to the waste management hierarchy of reduce, reuse, recycle

46 Priority Area: Provincial CMPr Relevant priority identified in the SBDM CMPr Relevant broad category priority area in SBDM CMPr Estuaries Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management Natural and archaeological/heritage Features: Pollution control and prevention for a clean, healthy and safe resource management, Coastal Pollution, • Establishing and implementing a strategy to improve the environment: air, water, solid waste, sewage, light, noise Coastal Development management and protection of estuarine resources; and Risk averse development planning • Securing sufficient financial resources to fund and implement Resilience to the impacts of climate change identified actions, research projects, initiatives, and advisory Education and Awareness forums Funding and Capacity Building The Facilitation of Coastal Access Preservation of natural, cu ltural and built environments Natural and archaeological/heritage Features: Promote responsible recreational use and livelihoods of resource management, Coastal • Promoting and managing access to coastal public property; the coastal zone Development • Promoting and facilitating equitable access to coastal resources Risk averse development planning and coastal public property; Coastal access • Recognising the importance of access preservation; and • Promoting custodianship and stewardship of the coastal zone. Awareness, Education, Trai ning, Capacity Building and Information Natural and archaeologic al/heritage resource management Natural and archaeological/heritage Features: Co-ordinated and integrated management of the coastal zone resource management, Coastal Pollution, • Facilitation of knowledge production and exchange; Education and awareness and skills development Coastal Development • Promotion of knowledge sharing of coastal issues; and Funding and capacity building • Instilling a sense of ownership of the coastal zone amongst all stakeholders Compliance, Monitoring and Enforcement Safety and Security Natural and archaeological/heritage Features: Improve policing and compliance monitoring and enforcement resource management, Coastal Pollution, • Facilitation of compliance with applicable coastal legislation; and of legislation Coastal Development • Promotion of the environmental management inspectorate and Co-ordinated and integrated management of the coastal zone facilitation of environmental management inspectors Funding and capacity building needed for coastal zone management Natural Resource Management Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management Natural and archaeological/heritage Features: Pollution control and prevention for a clean, healthy and safe resource management, Coastal Pollution, • The maintenance of ecosystem integrity and health; environment Coastal Development • To assess and effectively manage coastal protected areas , Promote sustainable and low impact economic development including marine protected areas; and opportunities • To identify and rehabilitate damaged and degraded coastal Risk averse development planning ecosystems and habitats

47 Priority Area: Provincial CMPr Relevant priority identified in the SBDM CMPr Relevant broad category priority area in SBDM CMPr Resilience to the impacts of climate change Education and awareness and skills development

48 Objectives per priority area

Broad coastal management objectives necessary to meet the vision have been set for each priority area. Management recommendations and implementation strategies are designed with these in mind:

Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management

 Adopt a catchment management approach in coastal zone management

 Apply a risk-averse approach in development planning, where high risk areas are avoided, and where important biodiversity areas, unique habitats, ecological processes and other natural areas are protected

 Manage the coastal environment and its catchment area to be resilient to the impacts of climate change

 Allow ecological processes to function, and avoid disturbance to dynamic coastal areas

 Protect archaeological, cultural and heritage resources

 Facilitate equitable and sustainable utilisation of natural resources

 Promote collective responsibility and co-operative governance in managing the coastal zone, through education and awareness programmes, capacity building, and skills development

 Facilitate information sharing and transparency to allow for participatory management of the coastal zone and informed decision-making

Coastal Pollution

 Maintain good coastal water quality that is safe for recreational exposure and resource use, and that is needed by natural organisms to persist

Coastal Development

 Plan for sustainable coastal development that protects natural habitats and archaeological/cultural/heritage features and the ecological processes that support these, and enhances the livelihoods and well-being of the local community

 Prioritise low impact development that is suitable to the area, and retains ‘sense of place’

 The coast must be developed in a manner that allows for safe access and enjoyment by all people

 Coastal development must be designed to build resilience to the impacts of climate change and sea-level rise

49 Management Recommendations and Implementation Strategies

Management recommendations are provided for each Local Municipality at the end of Appendices 3 to 6, under the 3 broach priority area categories. These include timeframes for implementation, as well as the responsible entity and supporting parties. Performance indicators are listed to monitor implementation of the recommendations.

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